Gardens and parks of the Middle Ages. Gardens and parks of the Middle Ages Secular gardens of the Middle Ages
The fundamental principle and model of all gardens, according to Christian ideas, is paradise, a garden planted by God, sinless, holy, abundant with everything that a person needs, with all types of trees, plants, and inhabited by animals living peacefully with each other. This original paradise is surrounded by a fence beyond which God banished Adam and Eve after their fall. Therefore, the main “significant” feature of the Garden of Eden is its enclosure; the garden is most often referred to as “hortus conclusus” (“fenced garden”). The next indispensable and most characteristic feature of paradise in the ideas of all times was the presence in it of everything that can bring joy not only to the eye, but also to hearing, smell, taste, touch - all human senses. Flowers fill paradise with color and fragrance. Fruits not only serve as a decoration equal to flowers, but also delight the palate. Birds not only fill the garden with singing, but also decorate it with their colorful appearance, etc.
The Middle Ages saw art as a second “revelation” that revealed wisdom, harmony, and rhythm in the world. This concept of the beauty of the world order is expressed in a number of written works of the Middle Ages - in Erigena, in the “Sex Days” of Basil the Great and John Exarch of Bulgaria and many others. etc.
Everything in the world had, to one degree or another, a multi-valued symbolic or allegorical meaning, but the garden is a microcosm, just as many books were a microcosm. Therefore, in the Middle Ages, a garden was often likened to a book, and books (especially collections) were often called “gardens”: “Vertograds”, “Limonis”, or “Limonaria”, “Prisoned Gardens”, etc. The garden should be read like a book, extracting from it benefit and instruction. The books were also called "Bees" - a name again associated with the garden, for the bee collects its honey in the garden.
As a rule, monastery courtyards, enclosed in a rectangle of monastic buildings, were adjacent to the south side of the church. The monastery courtyard, usually square, was divided by narrow paths in a cross shape (which had symbolic meaning) into four square pieces. In the center, at the intersection of the paths, a well, a fountain, and a small reservoir were built for aquatic plants and watering the garden, washing or drinking water. The fountain was also a symbol - a symbol of purity of faith, inexhaustible grace, etc. A small pond was often built where fish were bred for fasting days. This small garden in the courtyard of the monastery there was usually small trees- fruit or decorative and flowers.
However, commercial orchards, apothecary gardens and kitchen gardens were usually established outside the monastery walls. Small Orchard inside the monastery courtyard was a symbol of heaven. It often included a monastery cemetery. The pharmaceutical garden was located near the monastery hospital or almshouse. Plants that could serve as dyes for coloring initials and manuscript miniatures were also grown in the apothecary garden. AND healing properties herbs were determined mainly by the symbolic meaning of a particular plant.
Evidence of how much attention was paid to gardens and flowers in the Middle Ages is the rescript of 1812, by which Charlemagne ordered the flowers to be planted in his gardens. The rescript contained a list of about sixty names of flowers and ornamental plants. This list was copied and then distributed to monasteries throughout Europe. Gardens were cultivated even by mendicant orders. The Franciscans, for example, until 1237, according to their charter, did not have the right to own land, with the exception of a plot at the monastery, which could not be used except for a garden. Other monastic orders They were specially engaged in gardening and horticulture and were famous for it. Every detail in the monastery gardens had a symbolic meaning to remind the monks of the foundations of divine economy and Christian virtues.
Gardens in castles had a special character. They were usually under the special supervision of the mistress of the castle and served as a small oasis of calm among the noisy and dense crowd of inhabitants of the castle that filled its courtyards. They were also grown here medicinal herbs, and poisonous, herbs for decoration and had symbolic meaning. Special attention was given fragrant herbs. Their aroma corresponded to the idea of paradise, delighting all human senses, but another reason for their cultivation was that castles and cities, due to low sanitary conditions, were full of bad odors. In medieval monastery gardens they planted decorative flowers and bushes, especially roses taken by the crusaders from the Middle East. Sometimes trees grew here - lindens, oaks. Near the defensive fortifications of the castle, “meadows of flowers” were set up for tournaments and social fun. “Rose Garden” and “Meadow of Flowers” are one of the motifs of medieval painting of the 15th-16th centuries; The Madonna and Child were most often depicted against the backdrop of a garden.
The Middle Ages saw in art the second Revelation, revealing rhythm and harmony in the wisdom with which the world is structured. Everything in the world had, to one degree or another, a multi-valued symbolic or allegorical meaning. If the world is the second Revelation, then the garden is a microcosm, just as many books were microcosms. Therefore, in the Middle Ages, a garden was often likened to a book, and books (especially collections) were often called “gardens”: “Vertograds”, “Limonis” or “Lemon Gardens”, “Confined Gardens” (hortus conclusus), etc. The garden should be read like a book, drawing benefit and instruction from it.
The garden in the West was part of a house, a monastery. It was born from the ancient atrium - a “roofless room”, a courtyard for living in it.
At first, the Orthodox church garden did not differ in any special delights. Ascetic desert (or, in northern latitudes, thicket) over the sensual “paradise of sweetness” invariably dominated, being itself a formless and non-empirical paradise.
The ancient philosophical garden ideally made a person godlike, even godlike, thereby fulfilling the promise of Epicurus (“you will live like gods among people”). Now the likeness to God, prophetically proclaimed by Christ and the apostles, has become the goal of church liturgy, architecturally concentrated in the temple, where natural symbols, even if extremely important for religious inspiration, still played a secondary role. The unconditional interaction of nature and architecture in ancient times was replaced in the Middle Ages by the unlimited dominance of architecture. And above all, church architecture. Even biblical landscapes began to attract pilgrims only after temples were built in them. Therefore, every heavenly or, more precisely, potentially heavenly locus necessarily fit not only into the fence, but also into solid walls, or at least adjacent to them on the side. Let the gardens of hermits arise in the bosom wildlife, like cultivated oases or, in northern latitudes, like gardens-in-the-forest, still a classic medieval garden invariably developed as an organic part of the monastery complex. Pointing to internal virtues, he himself, in a literal and figurative, symbolic sense, was inside the church.
In Western European medieval monasteries, the monastery courtyard became the monastery's premises for pious reflection and prayer. As a rule, monastery courtyards, enclosed in a rectangle of monastic buildings, were adjacent to the south side of the church. The monastery courtyard, usually square, was divided by narrow paths crosswise into four square parts (reminiscent of the four rivers of heaven and the Cross of Christ.). In the center, at the intersection of the paths, a well, a fountain, and a small pond were built for water plants and watering the garden, washing or drinking water. Often there was also a small pond where fish were bred for fasting days. This small garden in the courtyard of the monastery usually had low trees - fruit or ornamental trees and flowers. However, orchards, apothecary gardens and kitchen gardens were usually established outside the monastery walls. The orchard often included a monastery cemetery. The pharmaceutical garden was located near the monastery hospital or almshouse.
Plants that could provide dyes for illuminating manuscripts were also grown in the apothecary's garden. How much attention was paid to gardens and flowers in the Middle Ages is evidenced by the rescript of 812, by which Charlemagne ordered the flowers that must be planted in his gardens. About 60 titles were included in this rescript various colors and ornamental plants. This list of Charlemagne was copied and then distributed to monasteries throughout Europe. Even mendicant orders cultivated gardens. The Franciscans, for example, until 1237, according to their charter, did not have the right to own land, with the exception of a plot at the monastery, which could not be used except for a garden. Other orders were specially engaged in gardening and horticulture and were famous for it.
The purely decorative monastery garden was a “vertograd”, dating back to the ancient “cavum aedium”. "Vertograd" is the only one of medieval gardens compositionally it was connected with the surrounding monastery buildings. Inscribed in the quadrangle of the monastery galleries, it was surrounded by paths (the paths crossed it crosswise - along the axes or along the diagonals). In the center there was a well, a fountain (symbols " eternal life"), tree or decorative bush. Sometimes "vertograd" was called "paradise", "heavenly courtyard". Carthusian monasteries and Cameduli monasteries were “separate”, and communication between monks was limited to a minimum. Hence the special structure of the monasteries of these orders. The buildings formed a regular quadrangle. In the middle there was a large “helicopter city” with a cemetery. On one side were the church, the monastery proper (the main building), the prior's house and outbuildings. The three remaining sides of the large "vertograd" were occupied by "hermitages" - each with a special flower garden, which was looked after by a monk living in the "monastery". Along with decorative “vertograds”, there were utilitarian gardens, vegetable gardens and herbal gardens at the monasteries. They were located outside the monastery buildings, but were surrounded common wall. Their layout is as follows: they were divided into squares and rectangles. Over time, a Renaissance decorative park appears on this basis.
In medieval symbolism, hortus conclusus (Old Russian “enclosed garden”) has two meanings: 1. Mother of God (purity); 2. Paradise, symbolizing eternal spring, eternal happiness, abundance, contentment, the sinless state of humanity. This latter allows us to separate the image of paradise from the image of the Mother of God. Every detail in the monastery gardens had a symbolic meaning to remind the monks of the basics of divine economy, Christian virtues, etc. "An ornate ceramic vase with a fiery bulbous lily (L"bulbiperum) and "royal lilies" (irises) indicates the "body" of God's Son, the male child whom God created from "red clay." Another vessel, glass, transparent, with aquilegia (personification of the Holy Spirit), with carnations (personification pure love), symbolizes the very purity of the Virgin Mary. Patios ancient English colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, most of which (colleges) were “learned monasteries” in origin. Paradise as a creation is opposed to nature, primordial form and chaos.
At the end of the 4th century. the brilliant era of antiquity with its sciences, art, architecture ended its existence, giving way to new era- feudalism. The period of time spanning a thousand years between the fall of Rome (late 4th century) and the Renaissance in Italy (14th century) is called the Middle Ages, or the Middle Ages. This was the time of the formation of European states, permanent internecine wars and uprisings, the time of the establishment of Christianity.
In the history of architecture, the Middle Ages are divided into three periods: early medieval (IV-IX centuries), Romanesque (X-XII centuries), Gothic (late XII-XIV centuries). Change architectural styles does not significantly affect park construction, since during this period the art of gardening, which is the most vulnerable of all types of art and more than others requires a peaceful environment for its existence, suspends its development. It exists in the form of small gardens at monasteries and castles, that is, in areas relatively protected from destruction.
Monastery gardens. Herbal medicinal and ornamental plants. The layout was simple, geometric, with a pool and fountain in the center. Often two crosswise intersecting paths divided the garden into four parts; in the center of this intersection, in memory of the martyrdom of Christ, a cross was erected or a rose bush was planted. The main features of the monastery type of gardens were their privacy, contemplation, silence, and utility. Some monastery gardens were decorated with trellis arbors and low walls to separate one area from another. Among the monastery gardens, the St. Gallen Garden in Switzerland was especially famous.
Feudal type gardens Castle gardens were built inside their territory. They were small and introverted. Flowers were grown here, there was a source - a well, sometimes a miniature pool and fountain, and almost always a bench in the form of a ledge covered with turf - a technique that became widespread in parks. In the gardens, covered alleys of grapes, rose gardens were arranged, apple trees were grown, as well as flowers planted in flowerbeds according to special designs. Of these gardens, the most famous are the Kremlin garden of Frederick II (1215-1258) in Nuremberg and the royal garden of Charles V (1519-1556) with a plantation of cherries, laurel trees and flower beds of lilies and roses. The gardens of Emperor Charlemagne (768-814) were very famous; they were divided into utilitarian and<потешные>. <Потешные>the gardens were decorated with lawns, flowers, low trees, birds and a menagerie.
Such decorative elements, like flower beds, trellises, pergolas, etc. At the castles of large feudal lords, more extensive gardens are created - prato, not only for utilitarian purposes, but also for recreation.
The labyrinth garden is a technique that was formed in monastery gardens and took a strong place in subsequent park construction. Initially, the labyrinth was a pattern, the design of which fit into a circle or hexagon and led in complex ways to the center. IN early middle ages this drawing was laid out on the floor of the temple, and later transferred to the garden, where the paths were separated by the walls of a trimmed hedge. Subsequently, labyrinth gardens became widespread in regular and even landscape parks. In Russia there was such a labyrinth Summer Garden(not preserved), the regular part of Pavlovsk Park (restored) and Sokolniki Park, where its roads looked like intertwined ellipses inscribed in the spruce massif (lost).
The late Middle Ages are characterized by the opening of the first universities (Bologna, Paris, Oxford, Prague). Horticulture and botany have reached high level development, the first appeared botanical gardens. In 1525, the first botanical garden was established in Pisa. Following him, approximately the same gardens appeared in Milan, Venice, Padua, Bologna, Rome, Florence, Paris, Leiden, Wurzburg, Leipzig, Hesse, Regensburg. Along with botanical gardens, private gardens were also established.
With the discovery of America in 1493 and with the development of trade relations with India, gardens began to be filled with exotic plants. Fruit growing and the cultivation of medicinal plants became widespread; oranges, laurels, figs, apple trees, cherries, etc. were cultivated in the gardens, and ponds, cascades, pools, fountains, gazebos, and pavilions were also built. Utilitarian gardens gradually turned into decorative ones.
Part IV
Daisy
Delicate daisies were the favorite flowers of the Virgin Mary and appeared from the reflections of stars in drops of dew. In the northern sagas daisy was dedicated to the goddess of spring and love and was considered the “bride of the sun.” Well, in the times of troubadours, knights and beautiful ladies, the game of “frank daisy” appeared - fortune telling “loves - does not love.”
In general, luxury in the Middle Ages ornamental gardens did not have. Troubled times forced construction high walls and towers and reduce the interior spaces of the castle. Fortresses were built on inaccessible peaks or surrounded by wide ditches, so only tiny gardens could be built in castles, which were loved by everyone and were interpreted as “oases of calm.” Meadows were arranged around the castles for tournaments and social entertainment.
At first, castle gardens were more utilitarian - they provided for the needs of table and treatment. Apothecary Gardens supplemented with fruit trees and shrubs, as well as vegetable plots. “Sweet-smelling” plants were grown: roses, lilies, primroses, violets, cornflowers, which were used in rituals, decorations and foods. Perfumes and spices were made from flowers. Violets were added to salads. Primrose, violet, rose petals and hawthorn mixed with honey and sugar made up a favorite delicacy. Girls and women wore flowers in their hair and wreaths on their heads. In France, wreaths made from flowers were called “chapeyron-de-fleurs”, and those made from roses were called “chapel”. People who knitted wreaths began to be called “chapeliers,” just as hat makers are called today. Obviously, from these wreaths came French word"shapo" - hat.
First mention of flower garden Roses and violets date back to approximately 1000. From now on orchard already often contained decorative areas. The favorite tree was linden, which was often planted next to the well.
At the beginning of the second millennium, they formed centralized states In Europe, cities grew, crusades spread, a worldly spirit began to permeate the culture, and the level of education of the population increased. An interest in man and earthly life awakened. Now it was already possible to show beauty human body and express love for earthly things. Monasteries are losing their role as cultural centers to cities.
An important part of mature culture Middle Ages there was a knightly culture. The concept of “knight” has become synonymous with nobility and nobility. A “code of knightly honor” and “rules of courtliness” emerged. The reflection of knightly culture was the poetry of troubadours, trouvères and minnesingers, “chivalrous novels”, as well as the “pleasure garden” of knightly society. These gardens served as prayerful or philosophical retreats. Mandatory activities included reading, playing music, singing and dancing.
The structure of such a garden was described by the Dominican monk Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), a famous naturalist Middle Ages. He wrote that for a “pleasure garden” “there is always a place in any territory that is unsuitable for growing crops. "Pleasure gardens serve primarily to satisfy the two senses of sight and smell, and they require little maintenance, since nothing is so pleasing to the eye as a wonderful layer of grass of medium height." These gardens were built on leveled areas, cleared of old roots (to destroy old seeds in the ground, Albert the Great suggested pouring boiling water over the entire area). The garden included a rectangle of flowerbeds for aromatic plants. The center of the garden was a wonderful clearing where one could sit, relax and restore peace of mind. Between the clearing and the flower beds, beautifully flowering plants grew on a hill.
He formulated and practical recommendations: “Trees and vineyards should be planted on sunny side glades; their foliage will protect the clearing and provide refreshing shade.” They are not suitable for this because they do not provide much shade and require fertilizer, which can damage the clearing. The “Garden of Pleasures” should be open to the north and east winds, as these winds bring health and purity. But it is closed to winds of opposite directions (south and west) because the stormy nature of these winds and impurity have a weakening effect. The north wind can interfere with the ripening of fruits, but is very beneficial for human health. The "Garden of Pleasure" provides pleasure - not fruit." At the same time, an anti-feudal and anti-church culture, in opposition to the knightly one, was spreading in the cities. Works of urban satirical epic appeared. This is the famous “Romance of the Rose” in two parts, the first of which was written by Guillaume de Lorris in 1220-1230. The author describes the “garden - earthly paradise”:
“... I saw that garden in a dream;
I saw blooming May in a dream,
When everyone is so happy about spring,
When everyone and everything is delighted:
And all the little birds, wearing fluff,
With the foliage of a new oak grove,
And all the gardens, bushes and herbs."
He is led into this garden by Lady Idleness herself, wearing a delightful wreath and a garland of roses. Along the path among the fresh aromatic herbs he goes out into a clearing where Mr. Myrtle (the owner of the garden) is frolicking with friends; and seven maidens, adorned with wreaths and garlands of roses, dance with them. Lorris sees many trees from warm and distant countries (originally from "Alexandria": date palm, figs, almonds, pomegranates, cypresses, pine trees, olives and laurels. Some trees are connected by branches together and form arches. The air is intoxicating with the spicy aroma of ginger, cardamom, cloves and cinnamon. The picture is enlivened by the presence of animals - roe deer, deer, rabbits, squirrels and birds, and water jets gushing from a clean transparent source sprinkle flowers and grass with wet dust sparkling in the sun. However, on garden wall the author sees a gallery of paintings and sculptural portraits: Hatred, Betrayal, Greed, Avarice, Envy, Sadness and Old Age.
Miniature from "The Romance of the Rose" pleasure garden
This talented work has been translated into many languages and republished several times. The original gardens of the castles have not survived, but the bright miniatures illustrating “The Romance of the Rose” brought to us the atmosphere medieval knightly “garden of pleasures”, smoothing out the satirical and edifying sharpness of literature.
Gardens mature Middle Ages purchased decorativeness(About the appearance of the first ornamental gardens you can read in the article Gardens Ancient Egypt and Crete). The development of crafts affected the art of decorating fountains, benches, gazebos, and mosaic paving. The entrances to the garden were decorated with ornamental wooden gates with shingle roofs. Parts of the garden were also separated by light fences with gates. Pergolas and trellises dating back to ancient Rome were common.
Important!
Another achievement of the Middle Ages was the emergence of botanical gardens who were of Islamic origin.
The Arabs translated and preserved the scientific heritage of antiquity, expanded their knowledge in the field of botany and horticulture, and collected descriptions of many plants. Harun al-Rashid and his successors brought plants and their seeds from Asia and Africa. The great botanist Ibn al-Baytar of Malaga classified approximately 14,000 plants. Participants crusades brought information about different countries and plants, developing interest in natural sciences.
Important!
Arabic method of sowing seeds different plants the lawn was also adopted by Europeans, and a similar lawn got the name Moorish.
Lawns are not only Moorish, but also decorative, parterre, ordinary, meadow. This is written about in the article Classification of Lawns on our website.
Botanical Garden
In 1250 there was already a Botanical Garden, part of a medical school established by Arab doctors in Spain. Education ceased to be a monopoly of monasteries, and gardening became the business of merchants and scholars interested in botany. The creation of universities also stimulated the collection botanical collections. At the beginning of the 14th century botanical gardens appeared in Salerno, Padua, Pisa, Bologna, Venice, Prague. This passion for collecting rare and foreign plants has survived to this day.
Important!
IN XII-XIII centuries began to appear public outdoor gardens of a representative nature for the recreation of citizens.
At first they were organized in the cities of Italy and France. They occupied relatively large areas and were used for city fairs. The space was formed by meadow-type lawns and shady alleys with decorative garden elements. Lawns are classified into decorative, meadow, ground floor. You can read about this in the article Classification of Lawns. In later Middle Ages, when the cities achieved economic prosperity and relative peace, they were surrounded by peripheral green belts with meadows and groves. These meadows were named in Latin: "pratum commune", from where the names "Prado" in Madrid and "Pratter" in Vienna came.
One day, Charlemagne's son Prince Pepin asked his teacher: “What is rain?” And the learned Anglo-Saxon Alcuin is one of the revered “encyclopedists” Middle Ages, answered: “The conception of the earth, ending in the birth of fruits.” Perhaps this is where we can end the story about the Middle Ages - the “bad weather” in which the socio-cultural community of Europe was conceived and born. End.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, for many centuries, the dominant role in European society began to be played by the church instead of secular culture. Monasteries became centers of education: there were libraries, hospitals, schools; At the monasteries, small gardens were laid out for household needs.
The Roman tradition of public parks for citizens was forgotten. The monks who worked in the garden were primarily guided not by aesthetic considerations, but by practical benefits. Spicy herbs, vegetables and fruits were grown in the monastery gardens - in fact, these were vegetable gardens that supplied the monastery with food. Usually vegetable gardens were located outside the monastery fence. There were also apothecary gardens - medicinal plants were grown there, they were set up near a hospital or almshouse at the monastery. In many cases, given the low level of development of medicine in those years, the healing properties of the plant were determined by the symbolic meaning attributed to it, and not by medical practice. Plants that produced bright dyes (some of them were even poisonous) were also cultivated there: before the invention of printing, books were written by hand by learned monks, and natural dyes were needed to design footers, illustrations, and capital letters in manuscripts.
But at the same time, the fundamental principle of the very idea of a garden has never been forgotten - this is Eden, the Garden of Eden, created by God, beautiful, full of plants, birds and animals, replete with everything that man needed. After the Fall, Adam and Eve were expelled from the Garden of Eden. Therefore, any attempt by man to build a garden on earth was interpreted as a kind of “return to Eden,” an attempt by man to realize paradise on earth. Thus, the orchard was interpreted as a symbol of heaven and was supposed to remind the monastic brethren of Christian virtues.
Narrow paths crosswise divided the garden into four parts - this detail, of course, had a symbolic meaning. At the crossroads in the center there was a well, a pond, perhaps a fountain, for drinking water and watering plants. The source of water had the meaning of a symbol of purity Christian faith. Ornamental plants grew there and fruit trees, and, of course, flowers. If there was room in the garden for a pond, fish were bred there for fasting. Brought to Europe during the Crusades exotic plants, especially roses, have gained great popularity. The Madonna was often identified with the rose, and the lily was also a symbol of the Mother of God. Each plant in the garden had a symbolic meaning.
All monastic orders, even mendicants like the Franciscans, who for a long time The charter prohibited the ownership of land, except for a small vegetable garden; orchards were cultivated. Many monasteries became famous and are still remembered precisely for their gardens and vegetable gardens.
Kings and nobility in the Middle Ages also paid considerable attention to gardening: Charlemagne’s decree concerning the flowers that needed to be planted in his gardens has been preserved; the list included about six dozen names. The lords arranged gardens at their castles; caring for the garden was one of the main responsibilities of the mistress of the castle. Behind the fence, next to the defensive walls, “meadows of flowers” were arranged for knightly tournaments and entertainment for the nobility.
In those years, castle gardens were arranged according to the same principles as monastery gardens. Great importance had the cultivation of herbs: it was, firstly, one of the few ways to diversify the medieval cuisine, which was rather meager even in rich houses, and secondly, spicy aromatic plants emitted a pleasant smell. Paradise Gardens, recreated by man on earth, provided food for all five senses. Trees - apple trees, plums, apricots, cherries nourished the taste. Flowers delighted the eye, spices delighted the sense of smell, and birds that lived in the gardens enchanted the ears with their singing. We can proudly admit that the glorious medieval tradition gardening continues today at every Russian dacha plot.