Reforms of the domestic policy of Alexander 3. The domestic policy of Alexander III

The foreign policy of Alexander 3 often falls out of the children's memory, since it seems that nothing much happened during his reign. After all, he went down in the history of Russia as the Peacemaker - which means there were no wars - you don’t have to figure it out!

In fact, you can’t think like that: there are no topics in history in which you don’t need to learn anything. We bring to your attention a lesson summary for grade 8, in which this topic should be discussed in class.

Speaking of the internal politics of this king.

Contents briefly

The reign of Alexander III was one of the most peaceful in the entire history of the Russian Empire, for which people nicknamed him “the peacemaker.” But it was also a time of curtailing the reforms carried out by Alexander II. The emperor explained this by saying that the reforms gave a lot of freedom to people, which is why his father Alexander II died - his carriage was blown up by terrorists from Narodnaya Volya.

The foreign policy of Alexander 3 was restrained, peaceful and balanced. It was possible to establish friendship with the leading powers - England and France. The emperor was the guarantor of stability in Europe and the Asian possessions. Several large-scale wars were stopped, including with Japan. Military-political blocs were created: the “Triple Alliance” and the Franco-Russian Alliance, and the “Union of Three Emperors” was updated. The Trans-Siberian Railway was laid.

Main events

Key events with dates to keep in mind before the exam.

• 1881 - annexation of Ashgabat, creation of the Transcaspian region
• 1881, June 6 (new style 18) - creation of the updated “Union of the Three Emperors” (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia)
• 1885 - rapprochement with England
• 1887 - conclusion of a treaty with Germany
• 1882 - registration of the “Triple Alliance” with Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, the first military-political bloc
• 1890 - “Trade War” with Germany
• 1891 - start of construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway
• 1895 - establishment of borders between Russia and England in Central Asia
• 1894 - 1895 — Sino-Japanese War

Plan

Briefly point by point, foreign policy can be described as follows:

• Characteristics of foreign policy;

• Main events;

• Main differences;

• Conclusions.

Foreign Policy Objectives

1. Avoidance of war on the Balkan Peninsula;
2. Ensuring peace in Europe after the Patriotic and Russian-Turkish wars;
3. Delimitation of spheres of influence in Europe and Central Asia;
4. Russian-German relations;
5. Asian Question;
6. Establishment of friendly relations with France;
7. Search for allies in Europe.

Characteristics of foreign policy

Alexander the Third differed from his predecessors in his straightforwardness, impartiality and honesty. The latter was manifested in the rejection of “secret diplomacy” when secret divisions territories and the conclusion of secret treaties. He knew exactly where the country's sphere of interests was and sought its recognition from other rulers.

The basis of all victories in the world was that our Emperor did not follow the lead of many European monarchs and diplomats who tried to provoke new war, but took a very stubborn and restrained policy. This was the key to maintaining calm for the monarchies of that time. Since the Empire managed to calm down the insolent Turks for a short time, granting freedom to the Balkans, in particular Bulgaria, then we can be entrusted with Europe.

Main events

If we talk about the Balkan issue, here we have given complete freedom of action - there are problems with other countries - solve them yourself! But we have lost influence in the Balkans.

If we talk about the European issue, they also showed restraint here: they accepted and made friends with France, although just recently we almost received the “key” to Paris! The next step was to conclude an agreement beneficial for the country, under which we would guarantee our security. This was done in 1887 with Germany - it was a “reinsurance treaty”. But Kaiser Wilhelm did not even think of living in peace with Russia, but secretly signed peace with Austria-Hungary, although this later backfired on them, but they did not know about it yet. And in 1890, a “customs war” began - the German authorities decided to raise duties on Russian goods. Friendship with Germany came to an end.

But we managed to formalize the first military-political bloc in history - the Franco-Russian alliance (the future Entente). Here we saved France from a war on two fronts - with Austria-Hungary and Germany. And Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy created the “Triple Alliance”, hostile to Russia and France.

Then Emperor Alexander turned his gaze to Central Asia - Ashgabat was included in the Empire, forming the Trans-Caspian region. The Queen of England was concerned about this fact, because it threatened the interests of the crown. The All-Russian Emperor was able to resolve the issue peacefully by moving towards rapprochement with England in 1885 and convening a commission that determined the border of the states in 1895.

By that time, in the Far East, which was not yet very developed and far from St. Petersburg, Japan had shown its claims. This seriously alarmed the monarch and his entourage, because Japan could easily attack Russia, as happened with China (Japanese-Chinese War of 1894-1895). It was decided to begin building the Trans-Siberian Railway in 1891. Soon, this step justified itself, giving a powerful impetus to the development of Siberia and the Far East. Japanese troops captured Port Arthur, Manchuria and the Liaondong Peninsula, but Russia, Germany and France are forced to abandon all conquests.

Main differences in foreign policy

We will present this point in the form of a small table:

conclusions

The reign of Alexander III can be safely called “stable” and “calm”. The monarch's conservatism and tenacity contributed to gaining the authority of a reliable ally and a fair arbiter in international disputes.

The people accurately nicknamed Alexander III the “peacemaker tsar,” capable of solving problems through diplomatic means. And we need to say “thank you” to him for the Trans-Siberian Railway, because the remote outskirts of the Empire will now be able to develop and attract more and more people!

Domestic policy Alexandra III, who ruled in 1881-1894, was reactionary in contrast to the previous emperor, Alexander II. The government of Alexander III sought to suppress the revolutionary movement in Russia and secure the foundations political system. To achieve this, it pursued appropriate legislative policies within the country. But, in addition, the Russian leadership supported segments of the population loyal to the authorities - primarily the nobility. Various events were also carried out in this direction and laws were adopted. Also, Alexander III and his entourage pursued a reactionary religious policy, supporting Orthodoxy in everything. You will learn more about all this in this lesson.

Rice. 2. N.P. Ignatiev - Russian Minister of Internal Affairs in 1881-1882. ()

Rice. 3. D.A. Tolstoy - Minister of Internal Affairs and chief of gendarmes of Russia in 1882-1889. ()

Through the efforts of D.A. Tolstoy in 1884 a new University Charter was introduced. According to its provisions, universities were deprived of the right of autonomy, i.e., independence. After this, rectors and teachers were appointed by the Russian government, thereby taking control of the educational process. Very high tuition fees were introduced. In order to combat the student revolutionary movement, any student associations were prohibited. Dissatisfied people were instantly expelled from the university.

Alexander’s internal policy is even clearerIIIreflected in the law “On cooks’ children”, which was issued in 1887. Its author was the new Minister of Public Education I.D. Delyanov (Fig. 4). The essence of the law was to make the process of admission of lower-class children to secondary educational institutions - gymnasiums - as difficult as possible. In addition, the curriculum in the gymnasiums changed - the emphasis was now on church education and ancient languages. The level of parochial schools also increased, although the level of education there was very low.

Rice. 4. I.D. Delyanov - Minister of Public Education of Russia in 1882-1897. ()

The general idea of ​​education laws was to limit the number educated people in Russia who could potentially become revolutionaries dangerous to the authorities.

The struggle against the revolutionary movement was reflected in other spheres of life in the Russian Empire of that period. Thus, in 1882, a Conference of Four Ministers was created, headed by the Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod, K.P. Pobedonostsev (Fig. 5). The government agency had the right, at his discretion, to close any printed publications that he actively used. Many Russian printed organs were closed, such as “Golos” by A.A. Kraevsky (Fig. 6), “Notes of the Fatherland” by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (Fig. 7) and others.

Rice. 5. K.P. Pobedonostsev - chief ideologist counter-reforms of Alexander III, head of the Conference of Four Ministers ()

Rice. 7. Russian literary magazine “Domestic Notes” M.E. Saltykova-Shchedrin ()

Another event under AlexanderIII, aimed at strengthening censorship, was the purge of libraries in 1884. More than a hundred titles of books that were considered dangerous were seized from them.

However, it is worth noting that the main burden of the fight against the revolutionary movement fell on the shoulders of the police departments. Already in 1881, the “Regulations on measures to maintain order and state peace” were published. According to this document, various government agencies received greater rights in order to fight the revolutionary movement and people dangerous to the tsarist regime. For example, governors general could declare entire areas of the country to be in a state of emergency. Local authorities were given exclusive rights - closing educational institutions, suspending the publication of newspapers, expelling undesirable persons without a court decision, etc. Cases involving revolutionaries were transferred from the jurisdiction of civil courts to military courts. In the 1880s A state body such as the Security Department, which was in charge of political investigation and engaged in the fight against revolutionaries, is gaining momentum. The Shlisselburg prison had a special department for political prisoners (Fig. 8).

Rice. 8. Shlisselburg Fortress ()

All of the above facts give reason to assume that under AlexanderIIIRussia was acquiring the features of a police state.

At the same time, the emperor considered it necessary to support those groups of the population that had proven themselves to be loyal to the authorities. First of all, this applies to the nobility, which suffered greatly during the time of Alexander II. To support the noble class by AlexanderIIIwas undertaken whole line legislative measures.

Thus, in 1885, the State Noble Land Bank was opened, which issued special loans to nobles for the maintenance and management of landowners' farms (Fig. 9). It is also worth noting the law “On Zemstvo Precinct Chiefs” of 1889. Only a nobleman, who received great powers locally, could become a zemstvo chief. Zemstvo chiefs also controlled peasant communities. They could decide to punish peasants (even corporal) without a court decision.

Rice. 9. State Noble Land Bank in Voronezh ()

In the same spirit, the provisions on city, provincial, district zemstvo institutions were maintained.Their goal was to promote the growth of the influence of the nobility in local governments. The property qualification for representatives of the urban class was increased. For the nobles, on the contrary, it decreased. This increased the advantage of the nobles in various bodies of self-government.

A number of other measures were also taken. For example, vowels from the peasant class were now required to be pre-approved by the governor. Members of councils and city mayors became government officials. All these measures made local governments controlled by the state.

Alexander’s policy should also be considered reactionary.III in religious matters. Largely thanks to K.P. Pobedonostsev significantly strengthened the position of the Orthodox Church to the detriment of others. Thus, during the reign of Alexander III, persecution of Buddhists - Buryats and Kalmyks - began; Catholics - Poles; Jews who professed Judaism. This was done through various restrictions: a ban on the purchase of private property, bans on receiving education and holding public office, etc. At the same time, if a representative of another religious community converted to Orthodoxy, all such restrictions were removed from him. However, the state closely monitored converts and severely punished them if they deviated from the principles of Orthodoxy.

In general, it should be noted that such a policy was carried out with the aim of Russifying the outskirts of the Russian Empire. It was believed that in this way the state would maintain its unity.

In general, the reign of Alexander III is a time when the Russian government decisively abandoned the reforms begun by Alexander II. This was done for the sole purpose of preserving autocracy.

Bibliography

1. Bokhanov A.N. Emperor Alexander III. - M., 2001.
2. Lazukova N.N., Zhuravleva O.N. Russian history. 8th grade. - M.: “Ventana-Graf”, 2013.
3. Lyashenko L.M. Russian history. 8th grade. - M.: “Drofa”, 2012.
4. Troitsky N. Counter-reforms of 1889-1892. Preparation, Content of counter-reforms, Consequences // Russia in the 19th century: Course of lectures. - M.: Higher. school, 1997.
5. Chernukha V.G. Alexander III // Alexander the Third. Diaries. Memories. Letters. - St. Petersburg, 2001.

1. Akeksander 3.ru ().
2. Az.lib.ru ().
3. Studopedia.ru ().

Homework

1. Name the main methods of the government of Alexander III's fight against the revolution. What laws were passed in this direction and what did they lead to?
2. How did the state under Alexander III support segments of the population loyal to the authorities? What measures were taken for this and what laws were adopted in this direction?
3. What was the religious policy aimed at under Alexander III?

Politics Alexandra 3

Domestic policy

Spread of conservative tendencies

The beginning of the reign of Alexander III occurred during the period of struggle between two parties: liberal (wanting the reforms begun by Alexander II) and monarchical. Alexander III abolished the idea of ​​Russian constitutionality and set a course for strengthening autocracy. On April 29, 1881, the emperor signed a document drawn up by K. P. Pobedonostsev, known in historiography as Manifesto on the inviolability of autocracy, which heralded a departure from the previous liberal course.

Increased administrative pressure

On August 14, 1881, the government adopted a special law “Regulations on measures to protect public order and public peace." To combat unrest and terror, states of emergency were introduced, punitive measures were used, and in 1882 the secret police appeared. Those rudiments of peasant and city self-government, the introduction of which was pursued by the zemstvo and city reform of the 1860s, were eliminated. In 1889, to strengthen supervision over peasants, the positions of zemstvo chiefs with broad rights were introduced. They were appointed from local noble landowners. Clerks and small traders, as well as other low-income strata of the city, lost their right to vote. Changed judicial reform. In the new regulations on zemstvos of 1890, class and noble representation was strengthened.

In general, during the reign of Alexander III there was a sharp decrease in protests and a decline in terrorist activity.

National and confessional politics

According to the historian S.S. Oldenburg, during the reign of Emperor Alexander III in government spheres there were “ critical attitude towards what was called “progress” and the desire to give Russia “more internal unity by establishing the primacy of the Russian elements of the country.” The policy of Russification was actively pursued and Orthodox religiosity intensified in society.

Alleviating the situation of the masses

The beginning of the 1880s was marked by a number of important positive events designed to eliminate the shortcomings of the previous reign and alleviate the situation of the masses. Reducing redemption payments, legitimizing the mandatory redemption of peasant plots, and the establishment of a peasant land bank to issue loans to peasants for the purchase of land (1881-1884) were aimed at smoothing out the unfavorable aspects of the 1861 reform for peasants. The abolition of the poll tax (May 18, 1886), the introduction of inheritance and interest taxes, and the increase in trade taxation (1882-1884) revealed a desire to begin a radical restructuring of the tax system in the sense of relief for the poorest classes; restrictions on factory work for minors (1882) and night work for teenagers and women (1885) were aimed at protecting labor; the establishment of commissions for the drafting of criminal and civil codes (1881-1882) responded to an undoubted urgent need; The commission of State Secretary Kakhanov, established in 1881, began a detailed study of the needs of local government, with the goal of improving the regional administration in relation to the beginnings of peasant and zemstvo reform.

Strengthening military power

During his reign, 114 new warships were launched, including 17 battleships and 10 armored cruisers; The Russian fleet took 3rd place in the world after England and France among the world's fleets. Alexander III knew the importance of army reserves, so infantry battalions were created and reserve regiments were formed. A cavalry division was created, capable of fighting both on horseback and on foot. A new three-line rifle was adopted for service, and a smokeless type of gunpowder was invented. Military uniform replaced with a more convenient one. The procedure for appointment to command positions in the army was changed: only by seniority.

Economic development of the country

Great strides have been made in the development of industry. Thus, the real technical revolution began in metallurgy. The production of iron, steel, oil, and coal in the period from the mid-1880s to the end of the 1890s increased at a record pace in the entire history of pre-revolutionary industry. Significant changes occurred in the field of taxation. The poll tax, which gave the state 60 million annually, was abolished, and a housing tax was introduced; increased expansion and increase in indirect taxation began. Thanks to these and other measures, the state of public finances has been significantly improved.

Foreign policy

During the reign of Emperor Alexander III, quite significant changes took place in Russian foreign policy. First of all, Russia abandoned the practice of secret agreements with foreign powers, which were in the nature of transactions/division of overseas territories, which were practiced under Alexander II, and which would again take place under Nicholas II. Almost no new territories were annexed. Foreign policy was characterized by exceptional openness, peacefulness and common sense, and corresponded to the national interests of the country. Alexander III protected his country from wars, and also helped to extinguish hostility between other countries, for which he received the nickname “Peacemaker”. In general, these changes in foreign policy contributed to the strengthening of Russia's international position and prestige.

The period of the reign of Alexander 3 was marked by a series of reactionary transformations (counter-reforms) aimed at revising the existing system.

The reactionary concept of counter-reforms consisted of traditional dogmas: the divine origin of autocracy, complete centralization of power, condemnation of city and zemstvo self-government.

Agrarian policy. Characterized by increased administrative arbitrariness. 1891-1892 - the village suffered from famine, officials diligently concealed its scale and thereby aggravated the situation. All efforts of the state were aimed at preserving patriarchy. One of the central issues was the question of the peasant community. It was based on communal ownership of land. 1893 - the government adopted a law limiting the rights of the community to redistribute land and assigning plots to peasants. A law was also adopted that prohibited mortgaging allotment lands, limiting the mortgaging and sale of peasant lands, which perpetuated the peasants' lack of land. The state also restrained the resettlement of peasants to areas of new development in order to maintain the interests of the landowners and maintain the principle of patriarchy.

Administrative reforms. 1889 - law on zemstvo district commanders. In 40 provinces, more than 2,000 districts were created with officials who controlled the activities of zemstvos. Chiefs were usually appointed from among the nobles. 1890 - “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions.” Elements of class were strengthened in it. A privileged position for the nobles, the property qualification for them was reduced, the peasant curia was practically deprived of independence, since all candidates were approved by the governor. The government also decided to limit the influence of city owners in local government. 1892 - Tsarism created a new city status. All transformations came down to restrictions: the number of voters decreased, and the practice of administration interference in self-government affairs was officially consolidated.

The period of Alexander 3's reign was also characterized by a strengthening of the police regime. 1881 - Law “Regulations on measures to protect state order and universal peace.” It was adopted as an emergency measure for a period of 3 years, but was subsequently renewed every time until 1917. The main method in the fight for calm was vigilant police surveillance. In the same year, a provision was introduced that limited publicity in legal proceedings in political cases, and from 1887 the Minister of Justice had the right to close the doors of sessions of any court. 1882 - “Temporary Rules” on the press, which strengthened repressive measures against the press. Many progressive publications were closed.

• 1884 - new university charter. The autonomy of universities was virtually destroyed, academic councils and faculties were greatly reduced in their rights. The university court was destroyed and tuition fees were increased.
• 1887 - a circular was issued, called the circular “on cook’s children,” which limited the entry of unprivileged children into gymnasiums. At the same time, the influence of the church on elementary schools increased.

Economic policy. The rapid economic development of the 70s gave way to a sharp slowdown in growth rates in the 80s. Reasons: Russo-Turkish War 1877-1878, depressed state of the peasantry, irrational taxation, low purchasing power ordinary people, unfavorable state of the world market, especially lower grain prices.

In the 80s and early 90s, the government was focused on accelerating economic development. 1881 - a law was passed to reduce the size of redemption payments and add up arrears on these payments for previous years. Since 1886, all former state peasants were transferred to ransom. 1884 - 1887 - process of abolition of the poll tax. This created an opportunity for the development of other forms of taxation: excise taxes on alcohol, tobacco, sugar, and oil were introduced and increased. City real estate, trade, crafts, etc. are subject to new taxes. Trade duties are increasing.

In the face of a decline in revolutionary activity, the government is reducing the size of the army.

1885 - The Noble Bank was established to provide loans secured by family estates. 1882 - Peasant Bank established. The loan term was shorter and, accordingly, the interest rate was higher. In addition, only wealthy peasants could receive a loan. Thus, a noble orientation can be traced in the economic sphere.

1. What system of central authorities was introduced under Alexander I?

The emperor headed the entire system of power. Since 1801 Permanent Council, of 12 owl members. organ under the emperor. In 1810, instead of it, the State Council, a legislative advisory body under the emperor, was created. He developed draft laws, cat. the king asserted. The members of the Council were appointed by the Emperor. he was the chairman of the Council. The Senate became the highest judicial body of the state. In 1802, ministries were created instead of collegiums. They were more efficient in management matters. They enhance personal responsibility. The Cabinet of Ministers is the highest administrative institution. In 1812, the Committee of Ministers was created. It included ministers, the chairman of departments of the State Council and the Secretary of State.

2. What are the significance and consequences of the Patriotic War of 1812 and the foreign campaigns of the Russian army?

Firstly, Russia's authority increased after the victory over Napoleon. Secondly, victory in Patriotic War had a huge impact on life within the country: on all aspects of political, social and cultural life, contributed to the growth of national self-awareness, and gave a powerful impetus to the development of progressive thought in Russia. The Decembrists considered themselves children of the Patriotic War.

After the victory over France, the Holy Alliance was created in Europe. The goal was to preserve the established border system, strengthen the former feudal dynasties, and suppress revolutionary and national liberation movements.

3. Characterize the reign of Nicholas 1. (the apogee of autocracy)

Nicholas 1 was frightened by the uprising of 1825, which began his reign, so all the years of his reign were years of reaction to what happened. The reign of Nicholas 1 is sometimes called the “iron winter.” The government fought the opposition. Nicholas 1 sought to create support for himself in the bureaucracy and wanted to limit noble privileges.

• 4. What is the essence of zemstvo and city self-government established according to the reform of the 1860-70s of the 19th century.
• 1864 - zemstvo reform. Zemstvo institutions consisted of administrative bodies - district and provincial assemblies and executive bodies - district and zemstvo councils. Members of zemstvo assemblies - vowels - were elected at three electoral congresses: landowners, city voters and elected peasants. In the first two curiae, elections were direct based on property qualifications. In the third curia, elections were multi-level and included not only peasants, but also those who did not meet the property qualifications of the first two curia.

The activities of zemstvos extended to economic and social issues of local importance. The zemstvo's political functions were deprived. The material basis of zemstvos was collections from the population and commercial and industrial institutions.

The zemstvo reform was supplemented by the “City Regulations” of 1870. Self-government bodies similar to zemstvos were established in cities. Estate-bureaucratic governing bodies were replaced by new ones based on the principle of property qualifications.

5. Give a description of security.

Conservation or conservatism. This direction became official in the 1840s and was called the theory official nationality(autocracy, Orthodoxy, nationality). The adherents of this movement were united by the conviction that further Europeanization of the Russian people was destructive for Russia. It was necessary to preserve the most important national foundations among the Russian people - the Orthodox faith, original political and economic systems, and to prevent revolution.

Populists - Bakunin, Lavrov, Tkachev. At the heart of their revolutionary quest was the conviction that the entire intelligentsia was guilty before the people and must pay their debt. The populist intelligentsia felt a separation from the people and sought to reduce it by going to the people.

• 1. Years of the reign. A I and N I. (1801-25), (1825-55)
• 2. “Decree on free cultivators” February 20. 1803
• 3. The years of the reign of Alexander II and Alexander III. (1855-1881), (1881-1894)
• 4. Years of the Crimean (Eastern) War - (1853-1856)
• 5. The State Bank in Russia was established in 1860, replacing the unprofitable Borrowing and Commercial. banks.
• 6. When was the poll tax abolished in Russia? 1887

Personalities

• 1. Mikhail Mikh. Speransky - the closest adviser to Alexander I; author of the Liber plan. transformations; the initiator of the creation of the State Council and its secretary; author of the first project to introduce a constitutional monarchy into Russia. Creator of the Code of Laws R-th Empire, and vault current laws. A I was approached, but then exiled and accused of treason. He managed to rise again and earned the title of count.
• 2. The system of silver monometallism was introduced in Russia by Min. Finance Evg. Frantsevich Kankrin (37-43 - financial reform).
• 3 The gold ruble was introduced in Russia by the Minister of Finance Ser. Legal Witte in 1897 (1892-03)
• 4. Westerners: Belinsky, Herzen, Granovsky; Anenkov, Chaadaev, Chicherin, Ogarev

Slavophiles: br. Kireevsky, br. Aksakovs, Khomyakov, Yazykov, Samarin. 40s XIX century

• 5. The first Russian Marxists: Plekhanov, Ignatov, Axelrod, Zasulich.
• 6. Mikhail Loris-Melikov - count, military general, chairman. Supreme Administrative Commission, in 1880-1881 - Minister of the Interior. He pursued a policy of brutal suppression of revolutionary uprisings, bringing the liberal public to the side of the authorities.

Terms

• 1. Security is the official ideology of the autocracy: - autocracy is the most rational form in Russia; - Orthodoxy - units. form of spiritual life; -nationality - the people and the king are one, all of us. the country is united. Uvarov S.S. (min. enlightenment) 40s - Pobedonostsev, Leontyev, Danilevsky.
• 2. Liberalism - bourgeois ideological and social -political movement, uniting supporters of the parliamentary system, bourgeois freedoms of capitalist entrepreneurship. - for the bourgeois democracy - polit. freedom 1) against revolution as a means of resolving the contradictions of society 2) social progress is carried out through continuous reform of society 3) for the search for compromises in society, for agreements. interests various classes and social groups
• 3. Individual terror Tactics of the Narodnaya Volya, then the Socialist Revolutionaries, which involved the murder of representatives of the highest tsarist administration and the tsar himself in order to destabilize society and cause a popular revolution.
• 4. Raznochintsy - at the end of the 18th century - 19th centuries interclass category of the population, people from different classes, a legally unregistered category of the population, engaged mainly in mental work. They were the bearers of the bourgeois democrats. and Rev.-Dem. ideologies. Representatives of Russian society who received an education and broke away from their former social system. environment (philistinism, merchants, clergy, peasantry, petty bureaucrats, impoverished nobility) In the 40-50s they had a significant impact. impact on development public life. This was the beginning of the formation of the Russian intelligentsia.

Chernyshevsky N. P.; Dobrolyubov N. A., Pisarev D. M., Belinsky.

• 5. Allotment land ownership - lands that peasants received after the abolition of serfdom in 1861; allotment lands could be inherited, but could not be sold.
• 6. Bureaucracy - literally the dominance of the office: A system of management carried out with the help of a special apparatus, separated from the people and standing above them, endowed with specific functions and privileges. + A layer of people,

associated with this system. Not controlled by the community, lives at its expense, corruption - Grew up in the 19th century. at H1.

• 7. Radicalism is an ideological movement that involves radical, decisive measures.
• 8. Monometallism - den. c-ma, in which one metal acts as a universal equivalent and the basis of monetary circulation.