African problems. Liberation of African countries and development problems

After. World War II in the colonies in the territory. Asia and. Africa has created the conditions for many nations to gain state independence. Many factors contributed to this, including capitulation. Japan's position is weakening. Great Britain,. France,. The Netherlands and changes in their colonial policy. The strengthening of the national bourgeoisie and the emergence of other social strata and groups of people capable of independently governing their countries played a role in the regions, as well as the emergence of patriotic parties and organizations here, which, under the slogans of national unity, proclaimed a course towards achieving independence. The Cold War between the two countries had a great influence on the liberation of colonial countries. USSR and. The USA, which made it possible to maneuver between great powers and contributed to the decline of colonialism and colonialism.

Colonialism is a controversial phenomenon: on the one hand, it destroyed the traditional structure of life. East, imposed an unusual European standard of economic and social relations on the ground, which led to energetic resistance to the colonialists, and on the other hand, colonial capital pushed the socio-economic development of these countries and pulled them into market relations of the European type. However, in the 20th century, colonialism had basically exhausted itself historically and in conditions when, during the fight against Hitler’s Nazism, humanity was embraced by the idea of ​​national freedom and independence, it became an anachronism and was doomed.

Historically natural process Decolonization can be divided into the following stages:

o 1945 - mid-50s - liberation of peoples. Asia;

o mid-50s - mid-60s - liberation of peoples. Northern and. Tropical. Africa;

o the beginning of the 70s - 1990 - the final decline of colonialism, liberation. South. Africa

Great Britain solved its colonial problems mainly peacefully: in 1947-1950 its largest colonies became independent. India,. Pakistan,. Burma,. Ceylon. France and The Netherlands tried to stop the decolonization process with the help of war: the war continued from 1946-1954. France in. Indochina, in 1954-1962 - c. Algeria; in 1945-1950 - war. Netherlands in. Indonesia.

World community and. The UN supported the decolonization process. On December 14, 1960, the UN adopted the declaration “On the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples,” which placed this process under international control and accelerated. In 1960, 17 countries. Africa gained independence. It was the last colony in the world. Namibia, which became independent from. South Africa in 1990 PAR at 1990 r.

Having freed themselves from colonial dependence and gained political independence, the young states did not become economically independent. Countries. Asia and. Africa remained agricultural and raw material appendages of former metropolises, dependent on the supply of machinery, equipment, and the influx of foreign investment. Underdevelopment, wars, epidemics, famine, financial debt, ethnic and territorial problems were common occurrences for them. The newly formed countries faced such common complex problems determining ways for further development:

o development of own domestic and foreign policies;

o establishing the nature of power and the form of socio-political structure;

o economic orientation

About the state and political structure of young states. Asia and. Africa, then after gaining independence, political institutions began to be created in them mainly according to Western models: constitutions were adopted, parliaments were elected as representative legislative bodies, presidential positions were established or monarchical power was formalized in legislation, political parties were formed, etc. However, all these As a result of the civilizational specifics of Afro-Asian societies, the institutions acquired a special internal “coloring.” As a rule, in these countries a one-party system of power was established, headed by a recognized leader, a national leader, the so-called paternalistic (from the Latin word “pater” - father), which was formed according to ethnic, tribal and similar principles. The army played an important role in society, often interfering in government affairs. The socio-political instability of the countries of the region manifested itself in the second half of the 20th century in revolutions, coups d'etat, military rebellions, civil wars, interstate conflicts, power conflicts, etc.

Problems in economic development were also difficult. Most countries. Asia and. Africa has chosen the capitalist path of development - market relations, private property, limited government intervention in the economy. These are mainly countries with rich natural resources and a relatively high level of industrial development.

Underdeveloped countries in conditions of expansion. USSR on. The East chose the socialist path of development - rejection of private market relations, preference for the public sector in the economy. Thanks to propaganda. Comintern nom (later - Cominform) Marxist provisions, a decisive victory. USSR over fascism, direct support Soviet troops on the path of socialism. Asia steel. China,. Northern. Korea,. Vietnam,. La os,. Cambodia. Later pro-communist regimes were installed in. Africa (Mali, Ethiopia, Somalia, Tanzania, Mozambique, Ghana, Congo, Guinea, Angola, etc.). Latin. America (Cuba). The USSR supported any regimes that declared their devotion to the ideas of socialism (Nicaragua, Afghanistan). True, these Soviet-style regimes, as a rule, were unstable.

In the last quarter of the 20th century in countries. Asia and. Africa, following the positive example of countries. Latin. America, revised their development strategy: they changed the policy of counteracting the world economy to flights and adapting it to their needs. They began to accelerate the development of export potential and facilitate the import of foreign capital, which led to the accelerated modernization of most countries in the region; they were able to create domestic industry, introduce new technologies, supported by attacks called the “green revolution”. USA and other countries. The West removed the threat of mass starvation. The process of gradual formation of democratic institutions in countries continues. Asia and. AfricaAsia and. Africa.

Former colonial countries are actively fighting for a new world economic order that would take their interests into account. They are trying to resist economic dependence on developed countries. This is a refuge for few people. Thus, the “Asian tigers” became the new industrialized countries: South. Korea,. Taiwan,. Hong Kong,. Singapore, for which it was a reference point. Japan. Since the 60s, they have had the highest average annual rates of economic development in the world: at the end of the 90s, the economic growth rates of these countries reached 8.8% per year (in Europe on average 3.7%), their foreign exchange reserves increased ( Thailand ranks 1st - 2nd in the world in terms of foreign exchange reserves - $82.5 billion). These countries are characterized by a synthesis of traditional “eastern” relations and private market foundations. So, if. Hong Kong and Singapore will prosper thanks to its remarkable geopolitical position (the crossroads of important sea routes), then. Yugo. Korea and Taiwan - due to the targeted policies of the government and the hard work of the population and the hard work of the population.

Extremely pressing problems for international cooperation unresolved international and domestic conflicts, international terrorism, and piracy remain. The Arab-Israeli conflict has not been resolved for more than 60 years, the history of which is filled with numerous crises, wars and armed clashes. On the. The Caucasus is prone to complex and protracted conflicts. Nagorno-Karabakh inter. Armenia and Azerbaijan, as a result of which the latter lost only. Karabakh, but also 16% of its own territory and is forced to support about 600 thousand refugees. Indirect outside interference. Russia and. Turkey, which we have determined, makes it difficult to resolve it. Direct intervention. Russia in conflicts between. Georgia and Abkhazia. Georgia and South. Ossetia has extremely aggravated international situation in the region. This was especially clearly demonstrated by the Russian-Georgian war in August 2008-2008.

In December 2003, American troops took it. S. Hussein. After trial The former Iraqi dictator was executed on December 30, 2006, but the situation in... Iraq remains tense. Despite the presence of almost 150,000 American troops, the war of “all against all” continues in the country. The main warring parties remain the American occupation forces, the former Pribychniks. S. Hussein and the party. Ba'ath, Shia population. Iraq and various terrorist groups. Regular Act of terrorism undermine the stability of the government and the ability to implement socio-economic development projects in the country.

The problem of terrorism remains one of the key ones in the peaceful settlement of the century. Afghanistan. After the first presidential elections in the country's history in October 2004, a representative of the Pashto people. G. Karzai was transported. Oshen is the president of the country. However, violence by terrorist groups and armed conflicts on a regional and ethnic basis remain unsolved problem. The precarious ethnic balance between the main national groups is largely maintained. International peacekeeping forces (about 8,500 people) operating within the framework. NATO since 2002, up to 3 million Afghan refugees have returned home during development. Afghanistan's peace scenario is complicated by weak economic fundamentals. IN last years There has been an increase in the production of opium poppy" is also a social and political problematic issue.

A serious blow to the stability of international relations. Asia are attempts by several countries to stage different tasks, seize nuclear status. If in the case of India and. While Pakistan, which almost simultaneously conducted nuclear tests in 1998, the world's leading countries failed to adequately prevent the process of nuclearization, then, according to the Iranian and North Korean nuclear programs, the majority of the conductors of x states are trying to prevent this type of weapon from falling into the hands of politically “non-vigilant” regimes The dispute between the two is still ongoing. Tehran on the one hand and... UN,. IAEA. EU and. The USA with another daily problem of uranium enrichment and other actions. Iran in the field of nuclear energy.

Independent African countries were formed in complex international and internal conditions. Former colonies of European states gained independence in different ways, but their shared colonial past was evident. Artificial borders, absent in most countries national basis, tribalism, multiplied by the intervention of superpowers during " cold war", led to long-term civil wars and interstate conflicts. The logical consequence of this situation was the significant marginalization of Africa in international economic and political relations, problems of poverty, the spread of diseases, infections, etc. For most African countries, the issue of political stability, the transition of life to a peaceful path, which significantly hinders the development plan and development.

In 2002 Angola has ended one of its longest civil wars, which lasted since the country gained independence in 1975 and claimed the lives of about 1.5 million people.

If in. In Angola, the line of conflict generally ran between warring political factions, then in 1993. A real genocide has begun in Burundi. Dominant in state power The Tutsi tribe began a bloody massacre of another tribe - the Hutus. The war lasted almost 10 years, as a result of which 200 thousand citizens of the country, mostly Hututu, died.

One of the characteristic. Africa problem. Darfur, eastern province. Sudan, in which, with the support of the government (dominated by Muslim Arabs), the non-Arab and non-Islamic population was subjected to bloody extermination. Only the intervention of the world community -. UN and. African Union - somewhat alleviated this humanitarian catastrophe.

Attempts to unite the country around an authoritarian personality were made during the reign of V. Zaire (now Democratic Republic of Congo) dictator. Mobutu. But after his expulsion in 1997, interethnic pepper soup does not provide opportunities for this state rich in industrial raw materials. Africa will become a stable developing one.

The economic basis of African states remains the export of raw materials, both industrial and agricultural. Prices for it cannot be modern conditions provide a sustainable foundation for economic development, since the cost of raw materials is not able to adequately compensate for the need for imports of food and engineering products.

Lives in Africa about 500 ethnic groups, each of which has its own language. When Europeans carved up Africa to create their colonial empires, they did not pay attention to ethnic diversity. But with the acquisition of independence by the former colonies, it became clear that within the framework of the new independent states there lived different nationalities, relations between which, for various reasons, were tense.

Moreover, some large nations found themselves divided by state borders, which could lead to territorial disputes and conflicts. Therefore, the Organization of African Unity (OAU) decided in 1964 to approve the borders left over from colonial times. This principle has been recognized by all African governments, but interethnic conflicts nevertheless flare up constantly.

If in rural areas Since the population is mainly monoethnic, African cities, on the contrary, began to attract representatives of different peoples and tribes. People from villages settled in cities as compatriots, that is, in tribal groups, forming the corresponding city neighborhoods from “their own.” They supported politicians and military men from the same places and tribes, which often provoked internal conflicts.

Behind all internal conflicts in Africa, in one way or another, it is intertribal strife - tribalism, although outwardly this may be framed as “political interests.” This was the case, for example, in Angola, where long time there was a struggle between the authorities of Luanda (oriented towards socialism and the USSR) and Jonas Savimbi, the leader of UNITA (oriented towards capitalism and Western support). If you look closely, you can see inter-tribal conflicts behind this confrontation.

Once independent, African states represented such a diversity of languages, ethnic groups, religious beliefs and cultures that they bore little resemblance to the monolithic state formations they appeared on the political map.

A typical example of tribal conflict in Africa is the former Belgian Congo (Zaire). Immediately after the declaration of independence in I960, unrest began there, caused by the rivalry of politicians based on various tribes and nationalities.

When attempts to secede in the wealthy province of Katanga seemed to have ended in 1964, problems arose in other parts of the country, notably the rebellion of Pierre Mulele in the Eastern Province, which was suppressed in 1966. dictator Mobutu.

But already in 1967, an attempt was made again to secede in Katanga. The same thing happened 10 years later, in 1977, when the Balunda people rebelled in the same province, announcing the creation of the National Liberation Front of the Congo. This conflict prompted international intervention, including the deployment of troops from Morocco, Senegal, and Bereg Ivory, Togo and Gabon.

But that couldn't fix it main reason- the country was increasingly plunging into chaos, the economy and infrastructure were collapsing, government spheres were engulfed in corruption, the standard of living of the population was constantly falling, provincial governors actually became independent; average life expectancy dropped to 40 years.

In May 1997, Mobutu was finally overthrown in an uprising. The country was headed by Laurent-Désiré Kabila, a personal friend of P. Lumumba and E. Che Guevara. He was supported by neighboring states - Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi. But in July 1998, Kabila quarreled with representatives of the Tutsi people living in eastern Congo, among whom were many refugees from these countries.

In August 1998, a rebellion began against the Kabila regime, supported by Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi, which sent troops to the Congo. Angola, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Chad and other countries came to the aid of the government.

Thus began this African war, which continues to this day. Almost half of Congo's territory is now controlled by rebels. According to some data, over 1 million 700 thousand people have already died from military actions.

The problem of relations between Tutsis and Hutus is a long-standing one. The taller Tutsis always considered themselves more aristocratic. In Burundi, after the 1993 elections, Tutsi rule was overthrown, but the massacre of the Hutu people began. The following year, 1994, Tutsis moved from neighboring Uganda to Rwanda and carried out a massacre of Hutus, according to some estimates, killing about 1 million people. Currently, the Tutsis still rule Rwanda and Burundi and oppress the Hutus.

In 2001 the situation became even more complicated: in January killed the head of the regime himself L.-D. Kabila; power passed on to his son Joseph Kabila commander of the ground forces. While the end of the war is not in sight, any attempts to conclude a truce end in failure. In 2002, Zimbabwe announced the withdrawal of its troops. But in May of the same 2002, the situation in the east of the country worsened due to the activation of the so-called Patriotic Army of Rwanda. Recently, the UN Security Council extended the mandate of the international force until June 30, 2003 (MONUC).

Fate became no less tragic Nigeria, the most populous country in Africa. The former British colony was a mixture of different peoples, religions and cultures. There were two peoples living in the North - the Fulani and the Hausa, between whom there was a long-standing conflict; in the West - the Yoruba people; The southern part was mostly inhabited by Ibos - very energetic people.

Since the beginning of the 20th century. for they began to populate both the North and the West. After independence was declared in 1960, a native of Northern Nigeria took the post of prime minister, a representative of the Ibo people took the post of president, and the leader of Western Nigeria, Chief Obafemi Awolowo, formed the opposition in parliament.

But soon this situation changed: the union of the North and the Ibo people fell apart; Awolowo was replaced by Chief Akintola, who began to favor an alliance with the North. Since January 1966, a series of coups d'etat took place in the capital of Nigeria, Lagos, as a result of which Colonel Yakubu Gowon, a native of the North and a Christian, seized power. He began to carry out some liberalization of the regime and convened a conference of representatives of all the peoples of Nigeria in Lagos.

In May 1967, Governor of Eastern Nigeria Odumegwu Ojukwu announced on the creation of an independent state of the Ibo people-- Biafra. A long time has begun Civil War, during which many hundreds of thousands of civilians died. The Federal Army of Nigeria, whose strength had increased to 220 thousand, gradually gained the upper hand, but the conflict dragged on until 1970. The USSR and Great Britain supported the government of Nigeria, France and some African states - Biafra. In January 1970, Biafra capitulated.

Soon, it would seem, prosperous times had arrived, as Nigeria was one of the world's six oil producers. Following the increase in world oil prices by OPEC countries in 1973, Nigeria's economic growth rate reached 7% per year. But in the 1980s. a sharp decline followed, per capita income decreased by 4 times. This led to an aggravation of the internal political situation; Yakubu Gowon was overthrown already in 1975. Currently, coups d'etat are continuously taking place in the country, which reflects the complex ethnic structure of society.

Almost all African states became republics, and as national languages languages ​​of the former metropolises were approved. This happened due to the complex ethnic structure of the countries, otherwise any leader, having become a king, would immediately antagonize all other tribes and peoples. In addition, all African states have parliaments through which the interests of various peoples and tribes must be expressed democratically. Political parties in Africa were formed mainly along ethnic-tribal lines. This is the specificity of public relations: any person who made a career had to surround himself with relatives and fellow tribesmen who formed his political support.

It would seem that parliamentary democracy corresponds to the ethnic diversity of Africa, especially since representatives of the elite are well acquainted with the history of parliamentary traditions in Europe. Externally were present in African countries all attributes of democracy: elections, presidents, constitutions guaranteeing democratic freedoms to the population. But in reality, everything was different: one-party regimes were established almost everywhere, a significant part of ethnic groups were excluded from power, or they were offered only a small share of formal participation. In any case, almost everywhere the opposition was reduced to the level of a dependent junior partner.

This predetermined frequent changes of power in African countries, constant political crises. The only well organized state institute in Africa is army. She is forced to constantly interfere in political life, regularly organizing military coups.

The first successful state coup took place in Togo V 1963 when President Silvanus Olympio was assassinated. This was followed by similar events in the former French Congo, Benin, Gabon, Zaire, Upper Volta, Ghana - until 1968, 64 military coups took place in Black Africa.

At the end of the 1960s. the situation worsened - only Dahomey (Benin) experienced 6 coups; They simply stopped paying attention to them. In the 1970s Military coups were the main means of changing power in Africa. Elections did not play any role; as they said in the West, in Africa they were carried out according to the principle: “One person - one vote - one time.”

Since it is practically impossible to maintain a military regime for a long time, after a certain time the army transfers power to civilians or organizes elections where its protege wins. A few years later the situation repeats itself again - these are the realities political life in African countries. Even when the military did not become an arbiter in the conflict between politicians, Western-style parliamentary democracy collapsed within a few years. In about thirty of the world's poorest countries in Africa, a one-party system was introduced, and presidents had virtually absolute power.

An authoritarian style of government has established itself in Africa; Several leaders of this kind were in power for almost three decades, until 1990: Mobutu in the Congo, Houphouet Boigny in Côte d'Ivoire, Hesting Banda in Malawi. Only in the 1990s did they emerge some changes: in 1991, the first free presidential elections were held in Benin; in the same year, President Kenneth Kaunda, who had been in power for 27 years, was also not elected to a new term.

IN African political life already in the 1960s. began to dominate violence, obscurantism and tyranny. IN Burundi's two prime ministers were assassinated one after the other. The President of Benin personally killed his Minister of the Interior. IN People's Republic Congo television showed the corpse of a senior military official with his mouth stuffed with dollars. In Equatorial Guinea, where Francisco Macias Nguema became president in 1968, a real massacre began: the president personally beat his foreign minister to death; He did the same in relation to other subordinates until his overthrow in August 1979.

An even more odious incident occurred in Central African Republic. Army commander Bokassa in 1966 he was proclaimed president for life, and in 1977 he declared himself emperor and the country an empire. On this occasion, a magnificent coronation ceremony was held in December 1977, which was attended by 35 thousand foreign guests. A luxurious throne in the form of an eagle, a crown decorated with 2 thousand diamonds, imperial regalia etc. - all this cost the country one fifth of its annual income.

Bokassa “became famous” for his unbridled violence and tyranny: in 1979, he personally participated in the murders of 80 children, and hit the personal envoy of the French President on the head with the imperial scepter. Only after the intervention of French troops was he overthrown on September 9, 1979. The dictator received political asylum in the Ivory Coast, but was accused in absentia of cannibalism, murder, and fraud with gold and diamonds.

In many African countries widespread witchcraft and related rituals. In Uganda, for example, some peoples With Muslim North drank the blood of their victims and ate their liver, many mutilated the bodies of their enemies, thus performing religious rituals. The reign of the Ugandan dictator Go Amina are still remembered with horror. Even before Uganda's independence in 1963 He acquired a reputation as an extremely cruel person and was involved in numerous murders and torture of people. But the British colonial authorities did not try one of the few black officers. Under President Milton Obote, Amin gradually emerged as commander-in-chief of the army. Coming from the North, Amin converted to Islam at the age of 16. He subsequently established connections with Libyan President Gaddafi and the leaders of Palestinian organizations.

In 1971 Amin overthrew Obote and installed his power in Uganda. Muslims made up only 5% of the country's population, but nevertheless Amin, relying on the support of Libyans and Palestinians, established a real dictatorship. His regime cost the lives of 300 thousand Ugandans, Amin destroyed all those dissatisfied, and personally dealt with several ministers.

Many fled the country already in 1971, so the essence of what was happening was known to the world. Amin was a ritual cannibal; it is known that he killed his wife, dismembered her corpse and then ate it. On the advice of one shaman, he killed his son and ate his heart. It is proven that he had a collection of illustrations from an anatomy manual and stored specially selected human organs in the refrigerator. Amin personally dealt with the senior police officials who were investigating his crimes. The main weapon in his hands was an organization called the State Research Center (GRC), where advisers from Libya and Palestinians worked. It was a center of torture and reprisals against those who were dissatisfied or suspected of opposing the dictator.

It is striking that even when Amin's crimes in Uganda were already widely known, he enjoyed widespread international support, especially in Africa. In the OAU, no one criticized Amin at all until 1978, when he attacked neighboring country- Tanzania. Moreover, in 1975 he was elected Chairman of the OAU and in this capacity addressed the UN General Assembly on October 1, 1975, after which a dinner was held in his honor by prominent persons. Amin was overthrown 4 March 1979 by the Tanzanian army, found refuge with Gaddafi in Libya. But the violence in Uganda has not stopped.

Other problems also pose a serious threat; in particular, the problem of AIDS. In some countries of Tropical Africa, a significant part of the population is affected. Experts talk about the so-called “AIDS belt,” which includes countries such as Zambia, Mozambique, Botswana, Swaziland, and Namibia. Food shortages and famines occur periodically in Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan, Angola, Zaire and other countries.

Africa's problem remains racism, but not in terms of discrimination against blacks by whites. In one form or another, all African states have carried out racial politics. Arab countries back in the 1950s-1960s. expelled Jews from their territory or drove those who remained into ghettos.

Tanzania in the 1960s expelled the Arabs or deprived those who remained equal rights. In the 1970s from East Africa the expulsion of people from Asia began, even in Kenya they were discriminated against in 1982. Most African countries with a black population after gaining independence discriminated against the white minority at the level public policy, with the exception of only two countries: Kenya and Ivory Coast.

Since the beginning of 2000, attacks on white farmers began in Zimbabwe, The government announced that about 3 thousand farms would be transferred to poor black peasants, but many farms that were not subject to expropriation were also seized. Now the authorities cannot do anything about these violent seizures. Farmers have filed lawsuits against President R. Mugabe, but clashes on farms continue and blood is shed. Chaos reigned in the country. The economy is experiencing a crisis, the United States is threatening an economic boycott, and President R. Mugabe nevertheless won new presidential elections (in March 2002). In August 2002, he dismissed the government, blaming it for the political and economic crisis that befell the country.

Concepts such as Negritude, emphasizing the racial superiority of black peoples, became widespread. IN different countries their leaders try to extol the originality of Africans, develop doctrines that prove this originality. Thus, in Zaire, the dictator Mobutu developed the doctrine of Mobutism, referring to purely African values, for example, one-party regimes, the deification of the power of the president. He ordered that all geographical names in the country be changed to African ones and banned all Christian names. He even changed his name to Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Igbendu Wa Za ​​Banga, which translated means “The Rooster who does not leave any hen unattended.” Many other leaders of African states are now making similar sermons.

As for South Africa, where the percentage of the white population is large, a balance is now maintained between the interests of different groups, thanks to which economic development is guaranteed. However, this may change in the future, given the huge difference in income. The fact that this can happen is proven by the events of 2000 in Zimbabwe, the former Southern Rhodesia, where the flight of the European population from the country began.

PROBLEMS AND DIFFICULTIES OF AFRICAN STATES

All of Africa saw the elimination of colonial regimes and the transfer of political power to Africans as a huge achievement. Africans pinned great hopes on the declaration of independence. There was widespread confidence that a fundamental improvement in life would come almost immediately. Along with the majority of the population, many African leaders shared the rosy hopes, although with a lesser degree of naivety.

Improvements did follow. Africans themselves began to form all parts of the state apparatus, the army, and the police. Opened ample opportunities to the development of African cultures. Full participation in the work of the UN and in many international organizations contributed to the self-assertion of new countries and their citizens. Young states began to receive significant assistance from many countries of the world, from specialized UN organizations, from international funds, banks.

In the context of the Cold War, a struggle began between rival blocs for influence over African states. The question of choosing the path of socio-economic development was decided by the governments of African states, often in connection with their attitude to these blocs. Since capitalism in the minds of Africans was associated with colonialism and therefore caused disappointment, socialist ideas seemed extremely attractive. The Soviet Union and other socialist countries used this to emphasize that none of these countries bore the blame for colonialism in Africa. Even more effective was the assertion that the socialist camp would help African states avoid the hardships of capitalism altogether and move on to higher phases of development, bypassing capitalism.

Since the late 50s, Marxist-Leninist theory has paid increasing attention to the development of the concept of “non-capitalist development” and “socialist orientation”. These ideas were warmly supported by many African leaders. The ruling parties declared “African socialism” as their ideology, and then some declared Marxism-Leninism. The first steps in this direction were taken by the governments of Ghana, Guinea and Mali, then Tanzania, Congo, the Malagasy Republic and some other states took this path. Soon the experience of these countries showed that the experiment was not successful. But the ideas of non-capitalist development continued to attract, and new ones took the place of countries that left this path. Since the mid-70s - Ethiopia, Angola and Mozambique.

Often in countries that chose a non-capitalist path of development, the situation was tense, the dictatorship of the leader and the ruling party turned out to be harsh, and civil wars turned out to be bloody. But a number of the most basic difficulties were approximately the same as in states that agreed with the inevitability of the capitalist path.

Most African countries after the declaration of independence remained, as they were, among the poorest in the world. Statehood building turned out to be a very difficult process. Many of the difficulties were caused by the colonial past, while others were caused by pre-colonial traditions. Whatever the apparatus of colonial administration, it was based on long experience, served by professionals and acted like a well-oiled machine. With its collapse, the entire management system had to be created anew at all its links, from bottom to top, and people who did not have the experience to do so came to power.

In most African countries, a bloated, unprofessional and ineffective bureaucracy, thoroughly permeated with corruption, embezzlement, nepotism, vertical solidarity of the tribalist type. Given the amorphous nature of social structures, the only organized force remained the army. The result is endless military coups. Dictators who came to power appropriated untold wealth for themselves. The capital of Mobutu, the President of the Congo, at the time of his overthrow was $7 billion. The economy functioned poorly, and this gave scope for a “destructive” economy: the production and distribution of drugs, illegal mining of gold and diamonds, even human trafficking. Africa's share in world GDP and its share in world exports were declining, and output per capita was declining.

The formation of statehood was extremely complicated by absolute artificiality state borders. Africa inherited them from its colonial past. They were established during the division of the continent into spheres of influence and have little to do with ethnic boundaries. The Organization of African Unity, created in 1963, aware that any attempt to correct a particular border could lead to unpredictable consequences, to a “domino effect” or a house of cards, called for these borders to be considered immutable, no matter how unfair they may be. But these borders have nevertheless become a source of ethnic conflicts and the displacement of millions of refugees.

Colonialism, through its policy of divide and rule, did dampen many of the bitter ethnic divisions that date back to pre-colonial times - otherwise the colonial economy could not function. With the passing of the colonial regimes, these conflicts exploded like time bombs. Interethnic strife, both between states and within one state, has become a tragedy in Africa. Civil war in 1967-1970. in Nigeria, when the eastern part of the country, inhabited by the Igbo people, decided to secede and declare itself the Republic of Biafra, it claimed between 1 and 2 million lives. Go Amin bloody dictator Uganda in 1971-1979, dealt with entire nations and brought the country into a state of ruin. The enmity between the Hutu and Tutsi peoples in Rwanda and Burundi has caused incalculable damage to these states and their populations.

In an effort to escape poverty, war and genocide, to escape from overcrowded cities where it was impossible to find work due to the lack of industry, Africans left their continent. In the 60s, when Western Europe there was an economic boom and cheap labor was needed; Africans, along with Indo-Pakistanis and Arabs, emigrated there. There are now millions of them in Great Britain, France and other European countries. There is no reliable data on their number, since many of them are illegal immigrants. There are efforts in Europe to stop the influx of immigrants from Africa, but this process is unlikely to stop. The overwhelming number of immigrants do not seek a quick return to their native lands, but are fighting for their rights in their current habitats.

Despite all the interstate and interethnic contradictions, Africa remained unanimous in condemning the last colonial regime on the African continent - the apartheid system in the Republic of South Africa.

The final stage of decolonization after the Second World War was the liberation of the peoples of Africa from colonial dependence. More than four dozen independent states were created on the ruins of the colonial empires of Great Britain, France, and Portugal.

Most of the liberated countries, having gained independence, did not have their own political experience. New African states began to define themselves on the basis of tribal ties, while often the appeal to tradition did not unite, but rather separated the inhabitants of the new states along tribal, clan or country lines.

Often the very borders of new states were determined solely by the geography of colonial conquests. The European powers defined such boundaries for their African colonies that representatives of many ethnic groups that had nothing in common with each other were actually mixed together or, on the contrary, were separated.

Traditional forms African life were absolutely unsuited to create a stable political structure. Having achieved independence, the ruling educated elite often turned to the experience of the metropolis.

In the first years after the declaration of independence of states on the African continent, hopes that this would give impetus to economic growth and development did not materialize. Instead of prosperity, the economy of most countries actually began to deteriorate.

Trying to reverse the unfavorable trend, The World Bank came up with an idea "planned development" based on the public sector. Steps have been taken to implement the doctrine "basic needs".International Monetary Fund proposed the idea of ​​the need for reform policies aimed at liberalizing economic activity, abandoning government intervention in the economy and stabilizing the financial system.

Considering that previously external assistance, allocated to African countries for the implementation of specific economic tasks, usually turned out to be ineffective, the IMF, wanting to prevent the squandering of funds, actually established control over the actions of the governments of debtor countries.

IN early 80s The countries of the continent suffered a drought, which led to a reduction in revenue from exports of agricultural products. Most African countries were characterized by low annual income per capita and GNP growth. Main reasons for the crisis become:

– incompleteness of the process of formation of the peasant class;

– absence of civil society structures, pronounced authoritarian principles;

– regional conflicts (Somalia, Rwanda, Angola, South Africa, Mozambique, Persian Gulf and etc.);

– export and raw materials specialization, dependence on world market conditions;

– large external debt;

– demographic problem;

– uneven development. In northern Africa there are relatively highly developed countries - Algeria, Tunisia, Libya. In Tropical Africa there are less developed ones - Chad;

– Most African countries do not produce bread; almost all food is imported.

Algeria and Libya had a large share public sector, since these are oil-producing countries and oil production has been nationalized. But this trend was not always effective; there was a departure from priorities government regulation economics. Noticeable progress in economic development was achieved by those African states where the basis of the economy was local private and mixed sectors– Tunisia, Morocco, Kenya, Nigeria.

From the very beginning, the IMF's demands to reduce social sector funding carried the risk of provoking instability.

Insufficient knowledge of the socio-economic conditions and original life of the main group of the African population - the peasantry, led to the fact that the recommendations of the IMF and the World Bank aimed at modernization Agriculture, were also doomed to failure.

The liberalization of the domestic market was also not carried out properly, as the authorities feared discontent in the backward areas receiving subsidies. But the greatest resistance in African countries was caused by recommendations to devalue local currencies. This led to a sharp increase in the cost of imports and affected the interests of the elite and middle classes.

IN 90s There have been positive economic developments on the African continent. GDP increased, and economic growth was recorded for the first time even in the most backward African countries.

In general, the economic growth rates of African countries were influenced by limiting factors, among which:

The negative impact of a wasteful public sector;

Poor economic infrastructure;

Ongoing internal political instability;

Interstate conflicts;

Reducing the influx of financial resources from outside;

Deteriorating terms of trade;

Difficulty in accessing international markets.

Main reasons negatively affecting the influx of foreign productive capital to Africa, steel:

Political instability;

Low GDP growth rates in most countries of the continent;

Limited domestic market;

Underdeveloped infrastructure;

High level of public debt;

Slow implementation of market reforms.

The main creditors of African states were the IMF and the World Bank.

Not content with Western recipes, African countries increasingly turned their attention to newly industrialized countries of Asia: Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, South Korea, Thailand, etc. African leaders were also satisfied with the authoritarian-command forms of government existing in Asian countries.

1996- creation of the Union for the Industrialization of Africa. Purpose of the Union– promoting the industrial development of African states, increasing the competitiveness of their industrial products in the international market, attracting the international community to participate in the industrialization of Africa and providing assistance to it.

Unlike the previous three decades, end of XX century was marked by a relative improvement in the political situation in a number of countries on the African continent. Regime change in South Africa had a beneficial effect on the political situation in Southern Africa. Mozambique and Namibia have ceased to be an arena of irreconcilable political struggle.

But the overall situation on the African continent was far from stable politically. Many countries continued to be in a state of internal conflicts and civil strife (Angola, Congo, Rwanda, Uganda, Zaire, Sudan, Cote d'Ivoire, Nigeria, etc.). A particular danger to world shipping in the first decade of the 20th century was pirates of Somalia, capturing passing ships. And if international terrorism the world somehow learned to resist, it was difficult to develop effective measures against the activities of pirate groups in Somalia, which was in distress.

After the end of World War II, there were only three independent states in southern and central Africa - Ethiopia, the Union of South Africa and Liberia. In other states, the anti-colonial movement intensified significantly during this period.

The Collapse of Apartheid and Colonialism

In 1947, under pressure from the obligations ratified by the UN, the colonial states were forced to ease their pressure on the African colonies. However, the governments of Great Britain and France retained the right to locate their military facilities in the territories of the colonies, which de facto maintained their control over the states.

The final collapse of the metropolises began only in 1960, when 17 African countries gained independence. Colonial regimes, by the beginning of the 70s, survived only in southern Africa.

France and Great Britain gave up power in the colonies peacefully, as they tried to maintain the status of democratic liberal states. The policy of Portugal turned out to be radically opposite, whose government flatly refused to grant freedom to its colonies.

In 1973-74, Portugal started military conflicts with Mozambique and Angola in order to suppress anti-colonial movements. In 1974, on this basis, a democratic revolution took place in Portugal, which resulted in the granting of independence to all colonies.

Problems of development of African states

Gaining independence entailed the emergence of new problems, the peoples of the former colonial states had no experience in solving. The liberated states received new borders that absolutely did not correspond to ethnic ones.

This became the reason for the outbreak of many armed conflicts, despite the UN decision that prohibited changes in the borders of African states. Africa has become a theater of ethnic wars and separatist movements. The intensification of conflicts led to the fact that the USA, USSR and Cuba were forced to be drawn into internal confrontations among Africans.

The former metropolises maintained political and military neutrality. Protracted wars led to the decline of industry and agriculture in African states. Internal resources for modernization National economy were absent, and foreign investors were in no hurry to invest their funds due to political instability.

At the same time, significant population growth during this period led to acute food shortages and even famine in certain regions. The communist course also dealt a significant blow to economic development political development, which many African states have chosen.

In countries such as Congo, Zimbabwe, Somalia and Angola, harsh totalitarian regimes operated, which largely repeated the Stalinist model. Help Soviet Union friendly republics turned out to be ineffective: all enterprises fell into disrepair.

There were not enough specialists to work in the industrial sector, since the majority of citizens of African countries did not even have primary education. Development problem African continent Already in the early 80s it reached the international level. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the flow of capital into the coffers of developing countries came to an abrupt halt.