7. Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century During the Seven Years' War, Russia's actions brought Prussia to the brink of a military catastrophe, and King Frederick II was preparing to make peace on any terms. He was saved by the death of Elizabeth, which followed on December 25, 1761.

The policy of Catherine II (1762-1796) was called "enlightened absolutism". European politicians of that period considered Catherine II as an enlightened head of state and nation, who cared for her subjects on the basis of the laws he established.

In the concept of Catherine II, autocracy was not questioned. It was it that was to become the main instrument of gradual reform in all spheres of life. Russian society. And the whole system of state institutions, according to Catherine II, is only a mechanism for implementing the supreme will of an enlightened autocrat.

One of the first initiatives of Catherine II was the reform of the Senate.

On December 15, 1763, a decree appeared, according to which its powers and structure were changed. The Senate was deprived of legislative powers, retaining only the functions of control and the highest judicial body.

Structurally, the Senate was divided into 6 departments with strictly defined competence, which made it possible to increase the efficiency of this central government body.

The main historical document, which outlined the political doctrine of Catherine II, was the "Instruction of the Commission on the drafting of a new Code", written by the Empress herself in 1764-1766. and representing the talented revision of the works of Sh.L. Montesquieu and other philosophers and jurists. It contains a lot of reasoning about the nature of laws, which should correspond to the historical characteristics of the people. And the Russian people, according to Catherine II, belonged to the European community.

The Nakaz said that the vast extent of the territories of Russia requires only an autocratic form of government, any other can lead the country to death. It was noted that the goal of autocracy is the welfare of all subjects. The monarch rules in accordance with the laws established by him. All citizens are equal before the law.

The order was intended for a commission convened from all over the country to develop a draft of a new Code, which began to meet in Moscow in July 1767. The commission consisted of 572 deputies elected according to the estate-territorial principle from nobles, townspeople, Cossacks, state peasants, non-Russian peoples of the Volga region and Siberia.

But it soon became clear that the deputies of the Legislative Commission were poorly prepared for legislative work. The main reason for the failure of the commission's activities was the contradictions between representatives of different social, regional and national groups, which it was not possible to overcome in the course of work. In December 1768, the empress issued a decree dissolving the Legislative Commission under the pretext of another war with Turkey. As a result, Catherine II took up law-making on her own and continued to govern the state with the help of nominal decrees and manifestos, replacing in this sense the entire Legislative Commission.

Another important transformative element in the policy of Catherine II was the secularization reform. In February 1764, the empress issued a decree, according to which the monastery lands, together with the population, were seized from the church and subordinated to the College of Economy. Now the peasants, by their legal status, became state-owned and paid taxes no longer to the church, but to the state. They got rid of the monastic corvee. The land plots of the peasants increased, it became easier for them to engage in crafts and trade. As a result of this reform, spiritual power was finally transferred to the maintenance of secular power, and the clergy turned into civil servants.

Catherine II eliminated the remaining elements of the liberties and privileges of the national territories that became part of Russia. The governing bodies and the administrative-territorial division of the Novgorod land, Smolensk, Livonia (Russia's Baltic possessions) were unified and brought into line with Russian laws. In 1764, the hetmanate in Ukraine was liquidated and P.A. Rumyantsev. The remnants of autonomy and the former Cossack freemen were liquidated. In 1783, Catherine II issued a decree prohibiting the transfer of Ukrainian peasants from one landowner to another, which finally consolidated serfdom here.

In 1791, the Empress established the Pale of Settlement for the Jewish population, which limited the rights of Jews to settle in certain territories.

New in the national policy of the state was the invitation to Russia of German colonists, mostly simple peasants. In the mid 1760s. more than 30 thousand migrants began to develop the territories of the Lower Volga region, the Urals, and later the Crimea and the North Caucasus.

In the general structure of Catherine's reforms, the reform of the local government system occupies an extremely important place.

As a result of the provincial reform (1775), local government acquired a clearer and more organized structure. The number of provinces increased to 50. The province was a territory with a population of 300-400 thousand people, which was divided into counties, each with a population of 20-30 thousand people. In county towns, power belonged to the appointed mayor. Administrative and judicial functions were separated. Special provincial chambers of criminal and civil courts were created. Some positions are elective.

The provincial reform strengthened the local government, the center was moved here management activities, which allowed the gradual abolition of some boards.

In 1782, a police reform was carried out, according to which police and church-moral control was established over the population.

The management reform was completed by the adoption of two important documents- Letters of grant to the nobility and cities (1785), which became the fundamental legal acts in the field of the estate policy of the empress.

The charter granted to the nobility legally secured for him all the rights and privileges as the main class of society. In the case of the service, the right to choose or refuse service was confirmed, special rights were retained in matters of land ownership, court, taxation, and corporal punishment. The criteria for reckoning with the nobility were strictly defined, the compilation of genealogical books put all the nobles in their places. The corporatism of the nobles was strengthened by legal registration meetings of the nobility and the election of provincial and district leaders. Only one question, concerning the right and ownership of serf souls, was not covered in the Letter of Complaint. The Empress, as it were, left this problem open.

The charter granted to the cities was aimed at the formation of the "third estate" in Russia. A new body of city self-government was created - the city duma, headed by the mayor. City residents were elected and could be elected to it, divided into six categories depending on property and social differences. Thus, an elective-representative institution of power appeared in Russian cities. The charter provided the city dwellers (philistines) with a structure of rights and privileges close to that of the nobility. The philistines were defined as a special class, and this title, like the nobility, was hereditary. The right of ownership of property and its inheritance, the right to engage in industrial and commercial activities were guaranteed. The merchants of the first and second guilds, as the most significant part of the townspeople, were exempted from corporal punishment, as well as from the poll tax and recruitment duty. In return, they paid a tax of 1% on capital and contributed 360 rubles per recruit.

In 1786, an educational reform was carried out: a system of educational institutions was created.

Catherine II opposed the extremes of serfdom, condemning them in her works. But objectively, during her reign, there was an increase in feudal oppression in the country (the final spread of serfdom in Ukraine, the tightening in 1765 of Elizabeth's decree on the right of landlords to exile serfs without trial to Siberia for settlement and hard labor, the ban on peasants to file complaints against the nobles), which was one of the main reasons for the intensification of popular uprisings, which resulted in the largest in the eighteenth century. Cossack-peasant war.

During the reign of Catherine II, social contradictions intensified in the country, caused by the strengthening of serfdom against various categories of peasants and the expansion of the privileges of the nobility. Quite often, popular demonstrations broke out under anti-serfdom slogans, and the flight from the landowners of the peasants, driven to despair, acquired a massive character.

The southern regions of the state became the center of social discontent. The movement began among the Cossacks. It was headed by Emelyan Ivanovich Pugachev. Serfs, working people, as well as foreigners of the Volga region (Bashkirs, Tatars, Mari, Udmurts, etc.) become under his banner.

In the territories under the control of the Pugachevites, authorities were created like a Cossack circle (community) with elected chieftains, elders and other officials.

The war had three main phases:

Stage I (September 1773 - March 1774): an unsuccessful 6-month siege of Orenburg by E. Pugachev and a defeat from government troops near the Tatishchev fortress.

Stage II (April-July 1774): the movement of Pugachev's troops from the city of Orenburg through the Urals and the Kama region to Kazan; battle for Kazan (July 12–17, 1774). The capture of the city by the rebels, and then the defeat of the troops of Colonel I.M. Michelson.

Stage III (July 1774 - January 1775): On July 31, 1774, E. Pugachev issued a decree on the release of peasants from serfdom and taxes; the movement of E. Pugachev from Kazan to the south; unsuccessful siege by E. Pugachev of the city of Tsaritsyn; August 25, 1774 - the decisive defeat of the rebels at the Salnikov plant; the army of E. Pugachev ceased to exist; September 18, 1774 - the capture of E. Pugachev by the Cossack elite and his extradition to the tsarist authorities; January 10, 1775 E.I. Pugachev and his closest associates were executed in Moscow.

Peasant war in Russia in the second half of the 18th century. was the largest uprising of the masses against serfdom and was, in essence, a kind of civil. All this testified to the crisis of the feudal-serf system in the country.

In the second half of the XVIII century. Russia's foreign policy was focused on solving problems in two main directions: southern and western.

In the southern direction, there was a sharp struggle between Russia and the Ottoman Empire for the Northern Black Sea region and ensuring the security of the southern borders. This led to two Russo-Turkish wars.

Russo-Turkish War 1768–1774 The reason for the war was the intervention of Russia in the affairs of Poland, which caused discontent in Turkey. September 25, 1768 Turkey declared war on Russia.

The fighting began in the winter of 1769, when the Crimean Khan, an ally of Turkey, invaded Ukraine, but his attack was repelled by Russian troops under the command of P.A. Rumyantsev.

Military operations were conducted on the territory of Moldova, Wallachia and at sea. The decisive year in the war was 1770, in which brilliant victories were won by the Russian army.

The fleet under the command of Admiral G.A. Spiridov and Count A.G. Orlov rounded Europe, entered the Mediterranean Sea and in the Chesme Bay off the coast of Asia Minor on June 24–26, 1770 completely destroyed the Turkish squadron.

On land, a number of victories were won by the Russian army led by P.A. Rumyantsev. In the summer of 1770, he won victories on the tributaries of the Prut - the Larga and Cahul rivers, which made it possible for Russia to reach the Danube.

In 1771, Russian troops under the command of Prince V.M. Dolgorukov took the Crimea. In 1772–1773 an armistice was concluded between the warring parties and peace negotiations began. However, they ended up with nothing. The war has resumed. The Russians crossed the Danube, in this campaign brilliant victories in the summer of 1774 were won by the corps of A.V. Suvorov. Turkey started talking about making peace. On July 10, 1774, at the headquarters of the Russian command, in the town of Kyuchuk-Kaynarzhi, a peace treaty was signed, according to which Russia received the Black Sea lands between the Dnieper and the Bug; the right to build a Russian military fleet on the Black Sea; indemnity from Turkey in the amount of 4.5 million rubles; recognition of independence Crimean Khanate from the Ottoman Empire.

Russo-Turkish War 1787–1791 The confrontation between Russia and the Ottoman Empire continued. The Turkish Sultan Selim III began to demand the return of the Crimea, the recognition of Georgia as his vassal and the inspection of Russian merchant ships passing through the Bosporus and Dardanelles. On August 13, 1787, having received a refusal, he declared war on Russia, which acted in alliance with Austria.

Military operations began with the repulse of an attack by Turkish troops on the fortress of Kinburn (not far from Ochakov). The general leadership of the Russian army was carried out by the head of the Military Collegium, Prince G.A. Potemkin. In December 1788, after a long siege, Russian troops took the Turkish fortress of Ochakov. In 1789 A.V. Suvorov, with lesser forces, twice achieved victory in the battles of Focsani and on the Rymnik River. For this victory, he received the title of count and became known as Count Suvorov-Rymniksky. In December 1790, the troops under his command managed to achieve the capture of the fortress of Izmail, the citadel of Ottoman rule on the Danube, which was the main victory in the war.

In 1791, the Turks lost the fortress of Anapa in the Caucasus, and then lost the naval battle at Cape Kaliakria (near the Bulgarian city of Varna) in the Black Sea to the Russian fleet under the command of Admiral F.F. Ushakov. All this forced Turkey to conclude a peace treaty, which was signed in Iasi in December 1791. This treaty confirmed the accession to Russia of the Crimea and the protectorate over Eastern Georgia; acquisition by Russia of lands between the Dniester and the southern Bug; the withdrawal of Russian troops from Moldova, Wallachia and Bessarabia.

The implementation of the policy in the western direction was to strengthen the position of Russia in Europe and was associated with participation in the partitions of Poland, as well as with the opposition of France, in which in 1789-1794. a bourgeois revolution took place and whose revolutionary influence was feared by the European monarchical states, and above all by the Russian Empire.

The initiator of the division of the weakened Poland was Prussia. Its king, Frederick II, offered Catherine II to divide the Commonwealth between its neighbors, especially since Austria had already begun the division, since its troops were located directly on the territory of this state. As a result, the St. Petersburg Convention of July 25, 1772 was concluded, which sanctioned the first partition of Poland. Russia received the eastern part of Belarus and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia. In 1793, the second partition of Poland took place. Russia took possession of central Belarus with the cities of Minsk, Slutsk, Pinsk and Right-Bank Ukraine, including Zhytomyr and Kamenets-Podolsky. This caused an uprising of Polish patriots in 1794 led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko. It was brutally suppressed by Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov. The third and last partition of the Commonwealth took place in 1795. The lands of Courland, Lithuania, and Western Belarus were ceded to Russia. As a result, Russia captured more than half of all Polish lands. Poland lost its statehood for more than a hundred years.

As a result of the divisions of Poland, Russia acquired vast territories, transferred state border far to the west to the center of the continent, which greatly increased its influence in Europe. The reunification of the Belarusian and Ukrainian peoples with Russia freed them from the religious oppression of Catholicism and created opportunities for the further development of peoples within the framework of the Eastern Slavic socio-cultural community.

And finally, at the end of the XVIII century. main task Russia's foreign policy was the struggle against revolutionary France. After the execution of King Louis XVI, Catherine II broke off diplomatic and trade relations with France, actively helped the counter-revolutionaries, and, together with England, tried to put economic pressure on France. Only the Polish national liberation uprising of 1794 prevented Russia from openly organizing an intervention.

Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the 18th century. was active and expansionist in nature, which made it possible to include new lands in the state and strengthen its position in Europe.

Paul's views were formed under the influence of many factors and underwent a certain evolution during his life. The heir to the throne grew up as a romantic youth and believed in the ideals of enlightened absolutism until he saw many inconsistencies in the policy of Catherine II compared to the proclaimed ideals. Gradually, a critical attitude towards the deeds of his mother grew in him. Other factors soon added to this: the estrangement between Paul and Catherine II, who was not going to share power with him and even thought about depriving her son of the throne and handing him over to his beloved grandson Alexander. All this led to a change in his views and character. He becomes nervous, quick-tempered, suspicious and despotic.

With the accession of Paul I to the throne, a reorientation of domestic policy and, above all, the system of government controlled.

Centralization based on administrative-bureaucratic methods began to play the predominant role in this area. Paul I replaced elected positions of the nobility with appointed bureaucratic and bureaucratic ones and strengthened the supervisory functions of the prosecutor's office. He restored a number of state departments involved in the economy: berg-, manufactory-, camera-, commerce-boards.

Introduced a new system of succession. On April 7, 1797, he issued a decree on the succession to the Russian throne, in accordance with which the decree of Peter I of 1722 on the appointment of his heir as the current emperor was canceled. Now the principle was introduced (in force until 1917), which provided for the transfer of the throne by inheritance according to the right of primogeniture through the male line.

The system of local government underwent a major change: city dumas were closed, the chambers of the civil and criminal courts were again merged into one, and some judicial instances were abolished.

The administrative-territorial division of the country and the principles of managing the national outskirts were revised. 50 provinces were transformed into 41 provinces and regions of the Don Cossacks, in Ukraine and in the Baltic provinces traditional government bodies were reintroduced.

The trend in Pavlovian politics towards centralization included such extreme manifestations as the desire for complete unification and regulation in the life of society. Special decrees ordered the wearing of certain styles of clothing, it was forbidden to wear round hats, shoes with ribbons instead of buckles, and so on. Censorship is on the rise. In 1797–1799 639 publications were banned. The production of books in Russia was sharply reduced, and a ban was introduced on their import from abroad.

Paul I paid special attention to the army, deciding to reform it in the Prussian manner. He entered the army new form, completely copying the Prussian, put things in order in drill training, new charters were developed, discipline was tightened.

Estate policy was also based on principles different from Catherine's. For Paul I, the class freedom enjoyed by the nobles thanks to the reforms of Catherine II was unacceptable. He obliged the nobles to serve, allowed them to be subjected to corporal punishment, abolished provincial noble assemblies, and county ones lost many powers. Restrictions were imposed on the transition of nobles from military service to civil service: to choose a civil service instead of a military one, the permission of the Senate, approved by the tsar, was required. The nobles were taxed for the maintenance of the provincial administration.

There is a certain amount of historical facts that can be interpreted as the monarch's concern for the people, for example: a manifesto appeared on a three-day corvee a week; for the first time in the history of the country, serfs were ordered to swear allegiance to Paul I, who had ascended the throne, along with freemen; some recruiting sets were canceled (in 1796 and 1800); arrears were withdrawn from the peasants and philistines for poll taxes; it was forbidden to sell serfs without land; peasant complaints were resolved. But other historical facts are also known. At the beginning of his reign, peasant unrest broke out in a number of provinces, which were brutally suppressed. The peasants were ordered to obey the landowners without complaint.

The reign of Paul is characterized by the mass distribution of state-owned peasants to private individuals as a reward.

There are no archival historical documents that testify to Paul's ardent desire to abolish serfdom.

In general, the domestic policy of Paul I was controversial and was aimed at leveling Catherine's reforms, which, in principle, could not be done, since the period of Paul I's stay in power was short.

The foreign policy of Paul I was inconsistent. At the beginning of his reign, he declared neutrality with respect to revolutionary France and refused to send a Russian corps there to conduct military operations. However, after the capture of the island of Malta by Napoleon in 1798, Paul I decided to participate in the struggle against France as part of a coalition with England, Austria and the Kingdom of Naples. But in 1800, he was moving towards rapprochement with France, while becoming an enemy of England, since her troops captured the "road" for the Russian autocrat, the island of Malta.

Violating international rules, Paul ordered the arrest of all English merchant ships.

In December 1800, without fodder, without the necessary maps, without knowledge of the terrain, Paul I sent 40 regiments of Don Cossacks (22,500 people) to conquer British India, dooming them to death.

The unpredictable controversial policy of Paul I, the uncertainty of the highest dignitaries and the environment for their future led to the emergence of hidden opposition and the formation of a political conspiracy. The heir to the throne, Alexander, was also informed about the conspiracy. On the night of March 11-12, 1801, the conspirators entered the residence of Paul I - Mikhailovsky Castle - and killed the emperor.

On March 12, 1801, a manifesto was published on the death of Paul I and the accession to the throne of Alexander I.

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The reforms of Peter the Great strengthened the feudal-serf system in Russia, but at the same time they gave a great impetus to the development of an internal socio-economic crisis. The reforms of Peter I were the beginning of the process of decomposition of the feudal-serf system of the national economy, gave impetus to the formation and development of capitalist relations. Criticism of the vices of serfdom begins, and then of the serf system itself.

The economic development of Russia in the middle of the 18th century reached its peak in the conditions of feudal-serf relations. Feudalism, growing in depth and breadth, began to collapse from within. Commodity economy could not get along with serfdom, and as a result, both landowners and serfs found themselves in contradictory relations. The material interest of the manufacturer was needed, and it was inherent only to a free, free person.

The accession to Russia in the 18th century of vast territories required their development. And serfdom was a brake on the rapid development of these territories.

The Russian bourgeoisie was constrained in its aspirations, at the same time it was generated by the socio-economic development of Russia and was dependent on the monarchy.

After the death of Peter I, between his followers and the old Russian nobility, also, by the way, followers of Peter, a struggle began for influence on power. In a short time there was a change in the faces of political figures.

After the death of Peter I, the favorite of his wife Menshikov came to the fore. In 1727 Catherine I dies and the grandson of Peter I, Peter II Alekseevich, enters the throne. But he was only 14 years old and a supreme secret council was created to govern the country (Menshikov, Prince Dolgoruky, etc.). But there was no unity within this council, and a struggle ensued between Menshikov and Dolgoruky, the winner of which was the latter, but he did not have to take advantage of this, since in 1730. Peter II dies. The throne is free again.

At this time, the guardsmen, dissatisfied with the policy of the Privy Council, make a coup, enthroning the niece of Peter I Anna Ioannovna, who lived in Jelgava (near Riga).

Anna Ioannovna was offered some conditions, which she signed, which stipulated that her power was limited in favor of the large Russian aristocracy (Privy Council). The nobles were unhappy and Anna Ioannovna dispersed the Privy Council, restoring the Senate. She ruled for 10 years.

The reign of Anna Ioannovna is characterized by mass terror against Russian nobility(Dolgoruky, Golitsin and many others suffered). Rising at the court of Biron, who rose from a groom to the chancellor of Russia.

Under Anna Ioannovna, a war was waged with Turkey.

Arbitrariness was unbearable, and only after the death of Anna Ioannovna in Russia does calm come. Dying, Anna Ioannovna leaves a will, which stated that the Russian throne should pass into the hands of Ioann Antonovich, the nephew of Anna Ioannovna (the grandson of Peter I and Charles CII, former enemies), while still a baby.

Naturally, his mother ruled for him - Anna Leopoldovna and regent Biron. But November 25, 1741. there was a coup. Biron and Munnich were arrested and exiled. The coup was carried out by the guards, dissatisfied with the dominance of foreigners.

Elizabeth ascends the throne, declaring that the death penalty is abolished. This ban was in effect throughout the 25 years of her reign.

In 1755 opened a Russian university.

Elizabeth surrounds herself with a group of advisers, among whom were Shuvalov, Panin, Chernyshov and others.

Under Elizabeth, a 7-year war was waged against Prussia (Frederick II), which led to the victory of Russian weapons. Subsequently, Frederick II said that "It is not enough to kill a Russian soldier, he and the dead one must also be thrown down."

The years of Elizabeth's reign were called best years Russia.

After Elizabeth, Peter III came to the throne, whose reign characterizes the dominance of the military. Peter III abolished all restrictions for the nobility. The peasants under him became the likeness of slaves. The landowner received the right to exile the peasant to Siberia for hard labor.

The activities of Peter III caused a storm of discontent and in June 1762. was committed coup d'état. Peter III was removed from power, and Catherine II the Great came to the throne.

The distribution of state lands begins, serfdom goes in breadth.

Catherine II, again using the nobility, secularized church lands in 1764. All lands owned by churches and monasteries were confiscated and transferred to the College of Economics. Church peasants were transferred to quitrent (that is, about 1,000,000 peasants received freedom); part of the land was transferred to the landowners.

Catherine signed a decree on the ownership of their land.

In 1767 adopted a decree on the attachment of peasants. Peasants were forbidden to complain about their landowners. The complaint was regarded as a serious state crime. Decree of January 17, 1765. peasants could be sent to hard labor by their landowner. Decree of May 3, 1783. Ukrainian peasants were assigned to their landlords.

The domestic policy of Catherine II was aimed at strengthening serfdom. Code of 1649 already hopelessly outdated. In this regard, Catherine II convenes the established commission to adopt new laws. As a reaction to the policy of Catherine, numerous peasant unrest and uprisings begin, which later develop into a peasant war led by Emelyan Pugachev of 73-75. The uprising showed that the administration of the state did not correspond to the times.

After the suppression of the uprising, Catherine begins new reforms. In 1775 By decree of Catherine II, regional reforms were carried out. In Russia, provinces and districts have been created, governors have been appointed, nobility supervision has been created, noble corporate and class institutions are being created, and the staff of officials, police and detectives is being increased.

In the same 1775. Decree on freedom of entrepreneurship and merchants was adopted. This decree led the need for reform in the cities. The process of registration of the privileges of the nobility and the merchants ends with two letters of liberties and advantages of the Russian nobility and a letter of commendation to the cities (1785). The first letter was aimed at consolidating the forces of the nobility, and the second met the interests of the merchants. The purpose of issuing charters is to strengthen power, create new groups and layers on which the Russian monarchy could rely.

Catherine decides to increase censorship after the French Revolution. Novikov and Radishchev were arrested.

In 1796 Catherine II died and Paul I came to the throne.

The character of the new emperor was largely contradictory. He did many things contrary to his mother's. Paul demanded that the nobility return to their regiments.

Some time later, by decree of April 5, 1797. approved that the peasants should work for the landowner no more than 3 days a week, banned the sale of peasants.

Paul broke off trade relations with England.

The higher nobility created a conspiracy against Paul, and on March 12, 1801. he was killed in the Mikhailovsky Castle.

The foreign policy of Russia in the 18th century was characterized by the struggle for access to the Black Sea, Azov was captured in 1736, Kabardino-Balkaria was completely annexed, in 1731. Kazakhstan voluntarily joins Russia. During the 7-year war, Berlin and Konigsberg were captured.

During the reign of Catherine II, Poland was partitioned three times, and Poland itself ceased to exist as an independent state.

During the reign of Paul I, great heroic deeds of Russian troops took place under the leadership of Suvorov.

Russia in the second half of the 18th century. Catherine II

Peter I and the beginning of the modernization of the country. The era of palace coups

In the history of the Russian state, Peter I played a key role. His reign is considered a kind of frontier between the Muscovite kingdom and the Russian Empire. The frontier clearly delineates the forms of state power: from Ivan III to Peter I and from Peter I to Soviet Russia.

At the king Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov(1645-1676) from the first wife - Maria Ilyinichna Miloslavskaya- had 13 children. But if the daughters grew up strong and healthy, then the sons - frail and sickly. During the life of the king, three of his sons died at an early age, the eldest son Fedor could not move his swollen legs, and the other son Ivan was "poor in mind" and blind.

A widower, 42-year-old Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich married again and married a young, healthy Natalia Naryshkina, which on May 30, 1672 gave birth to him son of Peter. Peter was three and a half years old when Tsar Alexei suddenly fell ill and died. Throne occupied Fedor Alekseevich (1676-1682). Having reigned for 6 years, the sickly Fyodor died, leaving no offspring, no memory of himself among his contemporaries and subsequent generations. Ivan, Peter's older brother, was to be the successor, but the weak-minded heir was opposed Consecrated Cathedral and Boyar Duma. The situation was complicated by the fact that after the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, the relatives of his first wife, the Miloslavskys, became masters of the situation, removing from the court those close to the queen-widow Natalya Naryshkina. The prospect of Peter's accession did not suit the Miloslavskys, and they decided to use the discontent of the archers, who complained about the delay in salaries. Miloslavsky and sister Petra Princess Sophia managed to direct the streltsy rebellion in a beneficial direction for themselves - against the Naryshkins. Some of the Naryshkins were killed, others were exiled.

As a result of the Streltsy rebellion, Ivan was declared the first king, Peter the second, and their elder sister Sophia became regents with child kings. During the reign of Sophia, Peter and his mother lived mainly in the villages of Kolomenskoye, Preobrazhenskoye, Semenovskoye near Moscow. From the age of three, Peter began to learn to read and write from the deacon Nikita Zotov. Peter did not receive a systematic education(in his mature years he wrote with grammatical errors). When Peter was 17 years old, Tsarina Natalya decided to marry her son and, thus, get rid of Sophia's guardianship. After the marriage, hostility between Sophia and Peter intensified. Sophia again tried to use the archers for her own purposes, but a new streltsy revolt in August 1689 was suppressed. Sophia, under the name of her sister Susanna, was exiled to Novodevichy Convent where she lived for 14 years until her death in 1704.

Formally, Peter began to rule jointly with Ivan, but the ailing Ivan did not take any part in state affairs - with the exception of official ceremonies. Young Peter was absorbed in military amusements, and the current state affairs were decided by the princes. Boris Alekseevich Golitsyn, Fedor Yurievich Romodanovsky and queen Natalia. Peter, although he felt indomitable energy in himself, did not yet imagine the role that he was to play in the history of Russia.

Peter was a figure of enormous historical proportions, a complex and highly controversial figure. He was smart, inquisitive, hardworking, energetic. Having not received a proper education, he nevertheless possessed extensive knowledge in the most diverse fields of science, technology, crafts, and military art. There is no doubt that everything he did was directed, in the opinion of Peter himself, for the benefit of Russia, and not for his, the Tsar, personally. But many of Peter's personal qualities were due to the nature of the harsh era in which he lived, and to a large extent determined his cruelty, suspicion, lust for power, etc. It is very significant that Peter liked being compared to Ivan the Terrible. In achieving his goals, he did not disdain any means, he was not just cruel to people (personally, for example, chopped off the heads of archers in 1689), he generally looked at a person as a tool, material for creating what he had conceived for the good empire. During the reign of Peter in the country, taxes increased three times and the population decreased by 15%. Peter did not stop before using the most sophisticated methods of the Middle Ages: torture, surveillance, encouraging denunciations. He was convinced that in the name of the state "benefit" moral norms can be neglected.

So, at the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. Russia was on the threshold of transformations. These transformations could take different forms and lead to different results. The personality of the reformer played a huge role in choosing the forms of development.

The name of Peter is associated with the transformation of Russia into an empire, a Eurasian military power.

Peter back in the 90s. XVII century came to the conclusion that in order to eliminate relative international isolation, it is necessary access to the seas - Black and Baltic- or at least one of them. Initially, Russian expansion rushed south - in 1695 and 1696. Azov campaigns took place. Failed under Azov in 1695, Peter, with his characteristic energy, set about building a fleet. The fleet was built on the Voronezh River at its confluence with the Don. During the year, about 30 large ships were built, lowered down the Don. As a result of the second campaign, Azov was taken, access to the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov was secured. However, the Turks refused to allow Russian ships to pass through the Kerch Strait, and even more so through the Bosphorus - access to the trade routes was still closed.

After "great embassy" to Europe (1697-1698) It became clear to Peter that the center of gravity in Russia's foreign policy must shift to the West. The main goal was to reach Baltic Sea dominated by Sweden. The origins of Russia's territorial claims to Sweden lead to the Pillar Peace of 1617, according to which Sweden received the territory from Lake Ladoga to Ivangorod (Yam, Koporye, Oreshek and Korela). The main damage for Russia was that it was closed access to the Baltic Sea. But it was impossible to cope with Sweden alone. Allies were needed. They managed to be found in the face of Denmark and Saxony, who were dissatisfied with the dominance of Sweden in the Baltic. In 1699, Russia established allied relations with Denmark and Saxony. Characteristically, Peter managed to hide the true intentions of Russia. The Swedish king Charles XII, who was interested in the war between Russia and Turkey, even gave Peter 300 cannons.

Northern War (1700-1721) was divided into two stages: the first - from 1700 to 1709 (before the Battle of Poltava), the second - from 1709 to 1721 (from the Poltava victory to the conclusion of the Nystadt peace). The war began unsuccessfully for Russia and its allies. Denmark was immediately withdrawn from the war. In November 1700, 8 thousand Swedes defeated the 60 thousandth Russian army near Narva. This was a serious lesson, and Peter was forced to embark on hasty transformations, to create a new European-style regular army. Already in 1702-1703. Russian troops won the first victory. Forts were taken Noteburg(renamed to Shlisselburg - Klyuch-gorod), Nienschanz; mouth Not you was in the hands of the Russians.

Nevertheless, at the first stage of the war, the strategic initiative remained in the hands of Sweden, whose troops occupied Poland, Saxony and invaded Russia. The victorious for Russian army Battle of Poltava (June 27, 1709). The strategic initiative passed into the hands of Russia. But the nature of the war on the part of Russia has changed. Peter renounced his previous promises to the Allies to confine himself to the return of the old Russian territories. In 1710, they were liberated from the Swedes Karelia, Livonia, Estonia, fortresses taken Vyborg, Revel, Riga. If not for the war with Turkey in 1710-1713, the Northern War would have ended faster. The Allies ousted Sweden from all its overseas territories. The Swedish empire collapsed.

The final fate of the Northern War was decided at sea in the battles of Gangute(1714), islands Ezel(1719) and Grengam(1720). Moreover, Russian troops repeatedly landed on the Swedish coast. Charles XII could not accept defeat and continued to fight until his death in Norway in 1718. The new king of Sweden, Frederick I, had to sit down at the negotiating table. On August 30, 1721, the Treaty of Nystadt was signed, according to which Estland, Livonia, Ingermanland, the cities of Vyborg and Kexholm passed to Russia. Sweden retained Finland, received compensation for Livonia (2 million efimki) and negotiated the right to buy bread duty-free in Riga and Revel.

Peter considered his victory the greatest joy of his life. In October 1721, the month-long festivities in the capital ended with a solemn ceremony of acceptance by the tsar title of emperor of all Russia. During Peter's lifetime, Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, Holland, and Venice recognized his new status as emperor.

Russia solved the main foreign policy task that the Russian tsars had been trying to accomplish for two centuries - access to the sea. Russia has firmly entered the circle of European powers. Permanent diplomatic relations were established with major European countries.

After the end of the Northern War, the eastern direction of Russian politics became more active. The goal was to capture the transit routes of eastern trade going through the Caspian regions. In 1722-1723. the western and southern coast of the Caspian Sea, which previously belonged to Persia, passed to Russia.

Thus, Russia's foreign policy evolved in the direction of imperial policy. It was under Peter I that the Russian Empire was created, imperial thinking was formed, which persisted for almost three centuries.

The reforms of Peter I are a huge conglomerate of government measures that were carried out without a clearly developed long-term program and were conditioned both by the urgent, momentary needs of the state and by the personal preferences of the autocrat. The reforms were dictated, on the one hand, by the processes that began to develop in the country in the second half of the 17th century, on the other hand, by Russia's failures in the first period of its war with the Swedes, and on the third hand, by Peter's attachment to European ideas, orders and way of life.

The economic policy of the early 18th century was decisively influenced by mercantilism concept. According to the ideas of mercantilism, the basis of the wealth of the state is accumulation of money through active balance of trade, export of goods to foreign markets and restrictions on the import of foreign goods into their own market. This involved state intervention in the economic sphere: encouraging production, building manufactories, organizing trading companies, and introducing new technology.

Another important stimulus for active state intervention in the economy was the defeat of Russian troops on initial stage war with Sweden. With the outbreak of the war, Russia lost its main source of iron and copper supplies. Possessing large financial and material resources for that time, the state took over the regulation of industrial construction. With his direct participation and with his money, state-owned manufactories began to be created, primarily for the production of military products.

The state also seized trade - by introducing monopolies for the procurement and sale of certain goods. In 1705, a monopoly on salt and tobacco was introduced. Profit on the first doubled; for tobacco - 8 times. A monopoly was introduced for the sale of goods abroad: for bread, bacon, flax, hemp, resin, caviar, mast wood, wax, iron, etc. The establishment of a monopoly was accompanied by a strong-willed increase in prices for these goods, and the regulation of the trading activities of Russian merchants. The consequence of this was the disorganization of free, based on market conditions, entrepreneurship. The state achieved its goal - revenues to the treasury increased sharply, but the violence against entrepreneurship systematically ruined the most prosperous part of the merchant class.

By the end of the Northern War, when the victory was obvious, certain changes took place in the commercial and industrial policy of the government. Measures were taken to encourage private entrepreneurship. "Berg-privilege" (1719) allowed to search for minerals and build factories to all residents of the country and foreigners without exception. The practice of transferring state-owned enterprises (primarily unprofitable ones) to private owners or companies has become widespread. The new owners received various benefits from the treasury: interest-free loans, the right to sell goods duty-free, etc. The state abandoned its monopoly on the sale of goods on the foreign market.

However, entrepreneurs did not receive real economic freedom. In 1715, a decree was adopted on the creation of industrial and trading companies, whose members, having given their capital to a common pool, were bound by mutual responsibility and bore common responsibility to the state. The company did not actually have the right to private property. It was a kind of lease, the terms of which were determined by the state, which had the right to confiscate the enterprise in case of violation. Fulfillment of government orders became the main responsibility of the owner of the plant. And only the surplus could be sold on the market. This reduced the importance of competition as the main incentive for business development. The lack of competition also hindered the improvement of production.

Control over domestic industry was exercised by the Berg and Manufactory Colleges, which had exclusive rights: they gave permission to open factories, set prices for products, had a monopoly right to purchase goods from manufactories, and exercised administrative and judicial power over owners and workers.

The government of Peter I was very attentive to the development of its own industry, protecting it from hopeless competition with products from developed European countries. In terms of quality, the products of Russian manufactories were still inferior to foreign ones, so Peter forbade the import into the country of those foreign goods, the production of which was mastered in Russia. So, according to the customs tariff of 1724, a huge - 75% - duty was imposed on those European products, the demand for which could be satisfied by home means. The same duty was imposed on raw materials exported from Russia. The politics of mercantilism became in the first quarter of the 18th century a powerful weapon in the hands of the government and reliable protection domestic entrepreneurship.

The active intervention of the state in the sphere of the economy deformed social relations. First of all, this was manifested in the nature of the use of labor force. During the Northern War, the state and the owners of manufactories used both civilian labor, "runaway and walking", and ascribed peasants who worked out state taxes at the factories. However, in the early 20's. In the 18th century, the problem of labor force escalated: the fight against the escapes of peasants intensified, the mass return of the fugitives to their former owners began, an audit of the population was carried out, followed by fixing the social status of each person by fixing forever to the place of entry in the tax cadastre. Outlaws were placed "free and walking", who were equated with fugitive criminals.

In 1718-1724. Was held poll census. Instead of the peasant household, the unit of taxation became the “male soul”, which could be breastfed baby, and a decrepit old man. The dead were listed in the lists ("fairy tales") until the next revision. The soul tax was paid by serfs and state peasants, townspeople. Nobles and clergy were exempted from paying the poll tax. In 1724 was established passport system. Without a passport, peasants were forbidden to move further than 30 versts from their place of residence. In 1721, Peter signed a decree allowing serfs to buy from factories. Such peasants became known as possession (ownership). Peter I clearly understood that the treasury alone could not solve grandiose tasks. Therefore, government policy was aimed at involving private capital in industrial construction. A prime example such a policy was the transfer in 1702 of the Nevyansk plant in the Urals, which had just been built by the treasury, into private hands. By this time, Nikita Demidov was already a well-known and major entrepreneur of the Tula Arms Settlement. The justification of such a step is confirmed by the mutually beneficial terms of the deal: the breeder had to significantly increase production, supply military supplies to the treasury at preferential prices, “build schools for children, and hospitals for the sick” and much more, and in return he was allowed to look for ores in the vast territory of the Urals “and build all sorts of factories. The Demidovs fulfilled their obligations and created a grand economy. Hundreds of people rushed to build factories. Many failed, but by the middle of the 18th century there were already more than 40 private factories in the Urals, and large "iron-making complexes of the Stroganovs, Demidovs, Mosolovs, Osokins, Tverdyshevs and Myasnikovs".

A feature of the development of Russian industry in the first half of the 18th century was the widespread use of forced labor. This meant the transformation of industrial enterprises, where the capitalist way of life could be born, into enterprises of the feudal economy. In the first quarter of the 18th century, a relatively powerful economic base was created - about 100 manufacturing enterprises, and at the beginning of the reign there were 15 of them. By the 1740s, the country produced 1.5 times more iron than England.

Having come to power in 1689, Peter inherited the traditional system of government of the 17th century with the Boyar Duma and orders as central institutions. As the autocracy grew stronger, the Boyar Duma, as a narrow body of estates, lost its significance and disappeared at the beginning of the 18th century. Information about the meetings of the Boyar Duma is interrupted in 1704. Its functions began to be performed "ministerial council"- council of chiefs of the most important government departments. In the activities of this body, elements of bureaucratization of management are already visible - work schedule, strict distribution of duties, introduction of regulated office work.

Education Senate in 1711 was the next step in the organization of a new administrative apparatus. The Senate was created as the highest governing body, concentrating in its hands administrative, judicial and legislative functions. The Senate introduced principle of collegiality: without a general consent, the decision did not enter into force. For the first time in a state institution, as in the army, a personal oath was introduced.

The reform of the administrative system was continued at the turn of the 10-20s. XVIII century. It was based on principles of cameralism- the doctrine of bureaucratic management, which assumed: the functional principle of management, collegiality, a clear regulation of the duties of officials, specialization of clerical work, uniform staffing and salaries.

In 1718 was adopted "Register of colleges". Instead of 44 orders, colleges were established. Their number was 10-11. In 1720 it was approved General Regulations collegiums, according to which each collegium consisted of a president, vice president, 4-5 advisers and 4 assessors. In addition to the four colleges in charge of foreign, military and court cases(Foreign, Military, Admiralty, Justice College), a group of colleges dealt with finance (income - the Chamber College, expenses - the State Office College, control over the collection and spending of funds - the Revision College), trade (Commerce College), metallurgy and light industry(Berg Manufactory College, later divided into two). In 1722, the most important control body was created - prosecutor's office. Prosecutor General P. I. Yaguzhinsky became the unofficial head of the Senate. Explicit state supervision was supplemented by covert supervision by introducing a system fiscals who carried out covert monitoring of the activities of the administration at all levels. Peter freed the fiscals from responsibility for a false denunciation. The phenomenon of denunciation is firmly established in state system and in society.

became a special board Holy Synod, created in 1721. The position of patriarch was abolished. A state official was placed at the head of the Synod - chief prosecutor. The church has actually become constituent part state apparatus. This meant for the Russians the loss of a spiritual alternative to the state ideology. The Church moved away from believers, ceased to be a defender of the "humiliated and offended", became an obedient instrument of power, which was contrary to Russian traditions, spiritual values, and the whole age-old way of life. The abolition of the secrecy of confession, the ban on hanging icons over the door of the house, the persecution of monasticism and other "reforms" allowed many contemporaries to call Peter the Antichrist Tsar.

The General Regulations and other decrees of Peter I consolidated the idea of ​​the service of the Russian nobility as the most important form of fulfilling duties to the sovereign and the state. AT 1714 was accepted Decree on unanimity, according to which the noble estate was equalized in rights with the estate. He contributed to the completion of the process of unification of the estates of the feudal lords into a single class-estate, which had certain privileges. But the title of nobility could only be privileged when its holder served. Table of ranks (1722) introduced a new hierarchy of ranks. All military and civil positions were divided into 14 ranks. To get the next rank, you had to go through all the previous ones. A military or civil official who reached the eighth rank, corresponding to a collegiate assessor or major, received hereditary nobility. The new position of the bureaucracy, other forms and methods of its activity gave rise to a very special psychology of bureaucracy. The idea of ​​Peter I that a person would receive a rank corresponding to his knowledge and diligence, and according to his rank, a position, did not work from the very beginning. There were far more employees who received the same ranks than the positions they applied for. Instead of the old, boyar, a new, bureaucratic localism began to flourish, expressed in the promotion to a new rank by seniority, that is, depending on who had previously been promoted to the previous class. In Russia, a cult of institutions has developed, and the pursuit of ranks and positions has become a national disaster. Peculiar "bureaucratic revolution"- the main result of imposing the European idea of ​​rationalism on Russian soil. The principle of generosity in appointment to the civil service was finally replaced by the principle of length of service. If in the West service was a privilege, in Russia it was a duty. The "emancipation" of the nobility occurred later - in the 30-60s. XVIII century.

One of the central places in Peter's reforms was the creation of powerful armed forces. At the end of the 18th century, the Russian army consisted of regiments of a soldier's system (in 1689 - 70% of the total), archery regiments and noble militia. Soldiers' regiments were only the beginnings of a regular army, since the treasury could not fully take them into its own content, and in their free time, the soldiers were engaged in crafts and trade. Archers increasingly turned into a police force and an instrument of palace intrigues. By the middle of the 17th century, the noble cavalry had largely lost its combat capability. The most combat-ready part of the troops were the so-called "amusing" regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky - the basis of the future guard. Having no access to non-freezing seas, Russia did not have a fleet either. The central issue in the creation of a regular army was the question of new system its assembly. In 1705 was introduced recruitment duty: from a certain number of households of taxable estates, a recruit was to be supplied to the army. Recruits were enrolled in the class of soldiers for life. The nobles began to serve from the rank of private in the guards regiments. Thus, a regular army was created, which had high fighting qualities. The army was re-equipped, taking into account foreign and domestic experience, strategy and tactics were changed, Military and Naval charters. By the end of Peter's reign, Russia had the strongest army in Europe, up to 250 thousand people, and the world's second navy (more than 1,000 ships).

However, the reverse side of the reforms was the accelerating militarization of the imperial state machine. Having taken a very honorable place in the state, the army began to perform not only military, but also police functions. The colonel oversaw the collection of per capita money and funds for the needs of his regiment, and also had to eradicate "robbery", including suppressing peasant unrest. The practice of participation of professional military personnel in state administration has spread. The military, especially the guards, were often used as emissaries of the king, and were endowed with emergency powers.

It can be seen from the foregoing that a powerful military-bureaucratic system was formed in Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century. At the top of the cumbersome pyramid of power was the king. The monarch was the only source of law, had immense power. The apotheosis of autocracy was the assignment of the title of emperor to Peter I.

The middle and second half of the 18th century went down in the history of Russia as a continuation of the "Petersburg period", as the time of our country's transformation into a great European power. The reign of Peter the Great opened new era. Russia acquired Europeanized features of the state system: administration and jurisdiction, the army and navy were reorganized in a Western way. This time was a period of great upheavals (mass unrest of peasants in the middle of the century, the Plague Riot, the Pugachev uprising), but also of serious transformations. The need to strengthen social basis"autocratic absolutism" forced the Russian monarchs to change the forms of cooperation with estate structures. As a result, the nobility was given estate management and guarantees of property.

The history of Russia in the second quarter and the middle of the 18th century was characterized by a sharp struggle of noble groups for power, which led to frequent changes in the reigning persons on the throne, to rearrangements in their immediate environment. FROM light hand IN. Klyuchevsky, the term “the era of palace coups” was assigned to this period. IN. Klyuchevsky associated the onset of political instability after the death of Peter I with the "autocracy" of the latter, who, in particular, decided to break the traditional order of succession to the throne. Previously, the throne passed in a direct male descending line, but according to the manifesto of February 5, 1722, the autocrat was given the right to appoint his own successor at his own request. “Rarely did autocracy punish itself so cruelly as in the person of Peter with this law on February 5,” wrote Klyuchevsky. Peter I did not have time to appoint an heir to himself: the throne turned out to be given "to chance and became his toy" - it was not the law that determined who should sit on the throne, but the guard, which at that time was the "dominant force."

After the death of Peter I, the contenders for supreme power were Empress Ekaterina Alekseevna, wife of the late sovereign, and his grandson, son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, 9-year-old Petr Alekseevich. Catherine was supported by the guards and the new nobility, who advanced under Peter I - HELL. Menshikov, P.A. Tolstoy and others. Peter Alekseevich was supported by representatives of the old aristocracy, headed by the prince D.M. Golitsyn. Strength was on the side of the first party. With the support of the Guards regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky - Catherine I (1725-1727) came to the throne.

empress Catherine practically did not engage in state affairs. All power was concentrated in Supreme Privy Council, created on February 8, 1726. The council included 7 nobles, the most influential of which was His Serene Highness Prince A.D. Menshikov. The Supreme Privy Council reduced the size of the poll tax and abolished the participation of the army in its collection. The official duties of the nobility were facilitated, the nobles were granted the right to trade in all cities and marinas (before that, only merchants had such a right). After the demise Catherine I and accession to the throne Peter II the struggle between the leaders and those who were not members of the Supreme Privy Council intensified. Against A.D. Menshikov was intrigued by the princes Dolgoruky, Vice-Chancellor Osterman and others. As soon as the Serene Highness fell ill, he was sent into retirement, and then into exile in the Siberian city of Berezov, where Menshikov died two years later. However, Peter II did not reign for long - on January 19, 1730, he died of smallpox.

Disputes began in the Supreme Privy Council over the question of a candidate for the Russian throne. Prince D.M. Golitsyn put forward a proposal to invite the niece of Peter the Great - Anna Ioannovna, Dowager Duchess of Courland. Anna satisfied everyone, because she was not associated with either the guard or the court factions. Having invited Anna Ioannovna to the throne, the nobles offered her written conditions (conditions) which were supposed to significantly limit the autocracy. According to these conditions, the future empress was not supposed to marry, appoint an heir to the throne, decide the most important state affairs without the consent of eight members of the Supreme Privy Council; the army and guard were to be subordinate to the Privy Council.

Anna Ioannovna at first signed the terms. However, the nobility was dissatisfied with the dominance of the tribal aristocracy from the Supreme Privy Council. On February 25, representatives of the nobility, primarily from the guards, submitted a petition to Anna with a request to cancel the conditions and restore autocracy. The Empress immediately, in the presence of a crowd of nobles, tore the condition. Soon the Supreme Privy Council was abolished; its members were exiled and executed. The former Senate was restored, which, however, did not play a significant role in state administration under Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740). In 1731 was created Cabinet of three ministers, which was actually headed by A.I. Osterman. Subsequently, the decrees of the Cabinet were equated with the imperial, in essence, the Cabinet assumed the functions of the Privy Council.

At court, the Courland nobles who arrived with Anna Ioannovna, who headed state institutions, army and guard regiments, acquired more and more power. The favorite of the Empress enjoyed omnipotent influence E.I. Biron, whom she later made Duke of Courland.

Before her death, Anna Ioannovna announced her successor baby John VI Antonovich(1740-1741), son of her niece Anna Leopoldovna and Prince Anton-Ulrich of Brunswick(representatives of this family were called the "Brunswick surname"). Biron became regent under John. However, the commander of the Russian army, Field Marshal B.-H. Minich on the night of November 9, 1740 Biron was arrested. The former temporary worker was exiled to the Siberian city of Pelym. The emperor's mother, Anna Leopoldovna, became the ruler. A year later, another palace coup followed.

In 1741, as a result of a palace coup, the daughter of Peter the Great ascended the Russian throne Elizaveta Petrovna. The coup was carried out by the forces of the guard. On the night of November 25, Elizabeth appeared at the barracks of the Preobrazhensky Regiment and addressed the soldiers with a speech. 300 guardsmen followed her to the imperial palace. Representatives of the ruling "Brunswick family" were arrested. The infant emperor John Antonovich was subsequently imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress. His mother-ruler with her husband and other children were sent into exile in Kholmogory. Here in 1746 Anna Leopoldovna died. Ioann Antonovich was killed by the guards of the Shlisselburg fortress in 1756 when officer V. Mirovich tried to free the prisoner.

Persons who helped Elizabeth Petrovna ascend the throne were generously rewarded. The 300 guardsmen who carried out the military coup formed a special privileged detachment, the "life company". All of them received noble dignity and estates. The Germans surrounding Anna were replaced by Russian nobles.

Elizaveta Petrovna preferred to spend her time in court amusements; she left the administration of the state to her ministers. Of the nobles close to the empress, they enjoyed great influence Razumovsky brothers who emerged from ordinary Little Russian Cossacks. The eldest of the brothers, Alexei Grigorievich, who in his youth was a court chorister, rose thanks to the gracious attention of Elizabeth Petrovna, became a field marshal and a count. The younger, Cyril, became the hetman of Little Russia. The Shuvalovs occupied a prominent position at court. One of them - Ivan Ivanovich - rendered significant services to the state with his concerns about public education and earned the glory of a Russian patron of the arts. He patronized the famous M.V. Lomonosov; through his efforts the first Russian university was founded. A prominent role in the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna was played by Chancellor Alexei Petrovich Bestuzhev-Ryumin, who was in charge of foreign affairs.

The first important order of Elizabeth Petrovna in the affairs internal management was the destruction of the Cabinet of Ministers, created by Anna Ioannovna, and the return to the Senate of the value that was given to it by Peter I.

In the reign of Elizabeth, city magistrates were restored. In 1752, the Naval Cadet Corps was founded in St. Petersburg (instead of the Naval Academy). Two loan banks were established - one for the nobility, the other for the merchant class. The loan was secured by movable and immovable property with the condition of payment of 6%. In 1754, at the suggestion Pyotr Ivanovich Shuvalov internal customs and petty fees, which were restrictive for trade, were abolished. At the same time, duties on foreign goods imposed by the tariff of Peter I were significantly increased. The death penalty was abolished in criminal proceedings. But in general, the judiciary and administration under Elizabeth Petrovna were in a rather upset state. As the famous Russian historian D.I. Ilovaisky, "the regional administration was still a discordant mixture of the old Moscow order with the institutions of Peter I." The lack of public security measures was especially strong. The harassment of the landlords, the injustice of the governors and officials continued to serve as a source of internal unrest and disasters. The peasants responded with uprisings, continuous escapes and participation in robber gangs. The Volga was especially famous for robberies, the deserted banks of which abounded with convenient channels and backwaters. Gangs gathered here under the command of the most famous atamans (“low freemen”). They were sometimes very numerous, had cannons on their boats, attacked caravans of ships and even entered into open battle with military detachments.

A significant change took place in the upper strata of society: the German influence, which had dominated since the time of Peter I, was replaced by the influence of French culture under Elizabeth. At court and in the homes of the nobility, the era of the dominance of French customs and Parisian fashions begins.

Having removed the offspring of Tsar John Alekseevich from power, Elizabeth tried to consolidate the Russian throne for the descendants of Peter I. The Empress summoned her nephew, the Duke of Holstein, to Russia Karl-Peter Ulrich(the son of Elizabeth's older sister, Anna Petrovna), and declared him her heir. Karl-Peter received a name in baptism Petr Fedorovich. From birth, the boy grew up without a mother, lost his father early and was left to the care of educators, who turned out to be ignorant and rude, severely punished and intimidated the sickly and weak child. When the Grand Duke was 17 years old, he was married to the princess of a small Anhalt-Zerbst principality Sophia Augusta Frederick, which received the name in Orthodoxy Ekaterina Alekseevna.

Everything connected with Russia was deeply alien to Peter, who was brought up in Protestant Holstein. He did not know well and did not seek to learn the language and customs of the country in which he was to reign, he treated Orthodoxy with disdain and even the outward observance of the Orthodox ritual. The Russian prince chose the Prussian king Frederick II as his ideal, and considered the war with Denmark, which had once taken away Schleswig from the Holstein dukes, as his main goal.

Elizabeth disliked her nephew and kept him out of public affairs. Peter, in turn, sought to oppose the court of the Empress with his "small court" in Oranienbaum. In 1761, after the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, Peter III came to the throne.

As soon as I ascended the throne, Peter III irrevocably turned against himself public opinion. He informed Frederick II of Russia's intention to make peace with Prussia separately, without the allies of France and Austria. On the other hand, despite the brevity of his reign, Peter III managed to make very important and beneficial orders. First, wonderful "Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility", which eliminated the obligation of public service for the nobility. Now it could serve only according to its desire. The nobles were able to live on their estates, freely travel abroad and even enter the service of foreign sovereigns. But at the same time, the military or civil service of the nobles was encouraged by the state. Secondly, a decree on the secularization of 2 church lands followed: all estates were confiscated from the church and transferred to the jurisdiction of a special state College of Economy, officers-managers were appointed to the estates. Former monastic peasants received land that they cultivated for monasteries; they were exempted from dues in favor of the church and were subject to state dues, like state peasants. Thirdly, Peter III abolished the Secret Investigative Office. The secret office was engaged in political investigation and widely used denunciations. As soon as any informer uttered the phrase "word and deed", a political investigation immediately began with interrogations and torture. True criminals sometimes uttered "word and deed" in order to gain time and avoid the deserved punishment; others spoke it out of malice and slandered innocent people. Peter III forbade to pronounce the hated "word and deed." The functions of political investigation were transferred to the Secret Expedition, which was part of the Senate.

Peter III forbade the persecution of the Old Believers, and those of them who fled abroad were allowed to return; they were assigned land in Siberia for settlement. Peasants who disobeyed the landowners' power were forgiven if they repented. Many nobles exiled in the previous reign were returned from Siberia, including the famous Field Marshal B.-Kh. Minich, Duke E.I. Biron and others.

At the same time, the decrees of Peter III on the equalization of the rights of all religions, the allocation of money for the construction of a Lutheran church gave rise to rumors about the imminent closure of Orthodox churches. It is clear that the decree on secularization did not contribute to the growth of Peter's popularity among the Russian clergy. Peter's commitment to the Germans, immoderate worship of Frederick II, the strict military discipline instituted by the tsar - all this caused displeasure of the guard. Attempts to transform the army along the Prussian model and the creation of a special commission for this, the liquidation of the "life company" confirmed the long-standing suspicion that Peter III intended to liquidate the guards regiments. The Holstein relatives of the emperor and the Oranienbaum officers pressed the old nobility at court and made her worry about the future. The clever Catherine skillfully took advantage of the displeasure of the guards and the excessive self-confidence of her husband, and Peter III had to yield the throne to her.

Russia in the second half of the 18th century. Catherine II

The era of Catherine II (1762-1796) constitutes a significant stage in the history of Russia. Although Catherine came to power as a result of a coup, her policy was successively connected with the policy of Peter III.

Catherine's real name Sophia-Frederica-Augusta, she was born in Prussian Pomerania, in the city Stettin, in 1729 Sophia's father, a general in the Prussian service, was the governor of Stettin, and later, when he died cousin, the sovereign prince of Zerbst, he became his successor and moved to his small principality. Sophia's mother was from a Holstein family, therefore, Sophia was a distant relative of her future husband, Pyotr Fedorovich. The marriage of the future empress was most bothered by Frederick II, who hoped in this way to enter into a close alliance with Russia. At the age of 14, Sofya came with her mother to Russia; the bride converted to Orthodoxy, and in 1745 she was married to the heir to the throne.

Having been baptized into Orthodoxy, Sophia-Frederica-Augusta received the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna. Gifted by nature with various abilities, Catherine managed to develop her mind by literary pursuits, especially by reading the best French writers of her time. By diligent study of the Russian language, the history and customs of the Russian people, she prepared herself for the great work that awaited her, that is, for the government of Russia. Catherine was characterized by insight, the art of taking advantage of circumstances and the ability to find people to carry out her plans.

In 1762, as a result of a conspiracy of guards officers, in which Catherine herself took part, her husband Peter III was deposed from the throne. The main assistants of Catherine in the implementation of the coup were Orlov brothers, Panin, Princess Dashkova. A spiritual dignitary also acted in favor of Catherine Dmitry Sechenov, Archbishop of Novgorod, who relied on the clergy, dissatisfied with the secularization of church estates.

The coup was carried out on June 28, 1762, when the emperor was in his beloved castle of Oranienbaum. On this day in the morning, Catherine arrived from Peterhof to Petersburg. The guard immediately swore allegiance to her, and the entire capital followed the example of the guard. Peter, having received news of the events in the capital, was confused. Having learned about the movement of troops against him, led by Catherine, Peter III with his retinue boarded a yacht and sailed to Kronstadt. However, the Kronstadt garrison had already gone over to the side of Catherine. Peter III finally lost heart, returned to Oranienbaum and signed the act of abdication. A few days later, on July 6, he was killed by guards officers guarding him in Ropsha. It was officially announced that death was due to "hemorrhoidal colic." All prominent participants in the events of June 28 were generously awarded.

Historians have certain disagreements about the motives for the activities of Catherine II. Some believe that during her reign the empress tried to implement a well-thought-out program of reforms, that she was a liberal reformer who dreamed of cultivating the ideas of enlightenment on Russian soil. According to another opinion, Catherine solved the problems that arose before her in the spirit of the Russian tradition, but under the cover of new European ideas. Some historians believe that in reality Catherine's policy was determined by her nobles and favorites.

From the position of the XVIII century, the monarchical form of government and the ideas of enlightenment did not contain contradictions at all. Enlighteners (Ch. Montesquieu and others) fully allowed a monarchical form of government, especially for countries with such a vast territory as Russia. Moreover, it was the monarch who was entrusted with the task of taking care of the welfare of his subjects and introducing the principles of legality, consistent with reason and truth. How young Catherine imagined the tasks of an enlightened monarch can be seen from her draft note: “1. It is necessary to educate the nation, which must govern. 2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, to support society and force it to comply with the laws. 3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police in the state. 4. It is necessary to promote the flowering of the state and make it abundant. 5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspire respect for its neighbors.

What life circumstances influenced this educational program, subjugated it? Firstly, the nature and national specifics of those state tasks that the empress had to solve. Secondly, the circumstances of her accession to the throne: without any legal rights, ascended to the throne with her own mind and the support of the nobility, Catherine had to express the aspirations of the nobility, and correspond to the ideal of the Russian monarch, and demonstrate her moral - due to personal qualities and merits - the right to reign. German by birth, Catherine aspired to be a good Russian empress. This meant being a successor to the work of Peter I and expressing Russian national interests.

Many events of Catherine II, most imbued with the spirit of liberalism and enlightenment, turned out to be unfinished and ineffective, rejected by Russian reality. This applies, in particular, to the attempt to develop new legislation based on the principles of the Enlightenment. Even Peter I made an attempt to draw up a new code of laws, since the code of his father (Council Code of 1649) did not meet the new needs of the state. Peter's successors renewed his attempt and appointed commissions for this purpose, but the matter did not move forward. Meanwhile, the difficult state of finance, legal proceedings and regional administration caused an urgent need to improve legislation. From the very beginning of her reign, Catherine set about developing a project for a new state system. In 1767, a commission was convened to revise Russian laws, which received the name laid down; it was headed A.I. Bibikov. The commission was made up of deputies from various estates and social groups - the nobility, townspeople, state peasants, Cossacks. All deputies came to the commission with instructions from their electors, which allow them to judge the problems, needs and demands of the local population.

Before the start of the work of the commission, Catherine turned to her with an eloquent message, “Instruction”, in which the enlightening ideas of Montesquieu and the Italian lawyer Beccaria about the state, laws, duties of a citizen, equality of citizens before the law and the presumption of innocence were used. On June 30, 1767, in Moscow, in the Palace of Facets, the grand opening of the commission took place. On the initiative of Catherine II, one of the liberal nobles raised the question of the abolition of serfdom. But the majority of noble deputies rebelled against this. Representatives of the merchant class also made claims for the right to own serfs.

In December 1768, in connection with the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish war, the general meeting of the commission stopped its work, and some of the deputies were dissolved. Separate commissions continued to work on projects for another five years, but the main goal set for the commission - the development of a new Code - was never achieved. However, the commission, as Catherine II stated, “gave me light and information about the whole empire, with whom we are dealing and who we should worry about.” The debates that lasted for a year acquainted the empress with the real state of affairs in the country and the demands of the estates, but did not give a practical result. The commission provided the government with information about the internal state of the state and had a great influence on the subsequent government activities of Catherine II, especially on her regional institutions.

An important part of the domestic policy of Catherine II was the reform of public administration. In 1762, Catherine rejected N.I. Panin on the creation of the Imperial Council, which was to become the legislative body under the Empress. In 1763, the Senate was reformed: it was divided into 6 departments with strictly defined functions and under the leadership of a prosecutor general appointed by the monarch. The Senate became the body of control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest judicial instance, but lost its main function - legislative initiative, the right of legislative initiative actually passed to the empress.

In 1775 there was regional reform, which increased the number of provinces from 23 to 50. The size of the new provinces was determined by the population; each of them had to live from 300 to 400 thousand souls, the provinces were divided into counties of 20-30 thousand inhabitants each. 2-3 provinces were entrusted to the governor-general or governor, who was vested with great power and supervised all branches of government. The governor's assistants were the vice-governor, two provincial councilors and the provincial prosecutor, who made up the provincial government. The vice-governor headed the state chamber (revenues and expenses of the treasury, state property, farming, monopolies, etc.), the provincial prosecutor was in charge of all judicial institutions. In the cities, the position of mayor appointed by the government was introduced.

Simultaneously with the establishment of the provinces, a system of class courts was created: for each class (nobles, townspeople, state peasants), their own special judicial institutions were introduced. County courts were introduced for the nobility, city magistrates for merchants and philistines, lower reprisals for foreigners and state peasants. Some of the new courts introduced the principle of elected assessors. The power in the county belonged to the police captain elected by the noble assembly. From county institutions, cases could go to higher authorities, that is, to provincial institutions: the upper zemstvo court, the provincial magistrate and the upper massacre. In the provincial cities were established: the criminal chamber - for criminal proceedings, civil - for civil, state - for state revenues, provincial government - with executive and police power. In addition, conscientious courts, guardianship of the nobility, orphan's courts and orders of public charity (in charge of schools, shelters, hospitals) were established.

Provincial reform significantly strengthened the administrative apparatus, and consequently, the supervision of the population. As part of the policy of centralization, the Zaporozhian Sich was liquidated, the autonomy of other regions was abolished or limited. Created provincial reform 1775, the system of local government in its main features was preserved until 1864, and the administrative-territorial division introduced by it - until 1917.

The government of Catherine II cared a lot about the appearance of cities, that is, about laying straight wide streets and building stone buildings. Economic growth was reflected in the increase in population, up to 200 sprawling villages received the status of cities. Catherine took care of the sanitary condition of cities, the prevention of epidemics, and as an example for her subjects, she was the first to inoculate smallpox.

The policy documents of Catherine II were Letters granted to the nobility and cities. Catherine determined the meaning, rights and obligations of different estates. In 1785 was granted Complaint to the nobility, which determined the rights and privileges of the nobility, which, after the Pugachev rebellion, was considered the main support of the throne. The nobility finally took shape as a privileged estate. The charter confirmed the old privileges: the monopoly right to own peasants, land and mineral resources; consolidated the rights of the nobility to their own corporations, freedom from poll tax, recruitment, corporal punishment, confiscation of estates for criminal offenses; the nobility received the right to petition the government for their needs; the right to trade and entrepreneurship, the transfer of a title of nobility by inheritance and the impossibility of losing it except by court order, etc. The letter confirmed the freedom of the nobles from public service. At the same time, the nobility received a special class corporate structure: county and provincial noble assemblies. Once every three years, these meetings elected district and provincial marshals of the nobility, who had the right to directly appeal to the king. This measure turned the nobility of the provinces and counties into a cohesive force. The landlords of each province constituted a special noble society. The nobles filled many bureaucratic positions in the local administrative apparatus; they have long dominated the central apparatus and the army. Thus, the nobility turned into a politically dominant class in the state.

In the same 1785 was published Complaint letter to cities, which completed the structure of the so-called urban society. This society was made up of inhabitants belonging to taxable estates, that is, merchants, philistines and artisans. Merchants were divided into three guilds according to the amount of capital declared by them; declared less than 500 rubles. capital were called "philistines". Craftsmen for different occupations were divided into "workshops" on the model of Western European ones. There were city governments. All tax-paying townsfolk gathered together and made up the "common city duma"; they elected from their midst the mayor and 6 members to the so-called six-member duma. The Duma was supposed to deal with the current affairs of the city, its income, expenses, public buildings, and most importantly, it took care of the execution of state duties, for the serviceability of which all citizens were responsible.

The city dwellers were given the right to engage in trade and entrepreneurial activities. A number of privileges were received by the top of the townspeople - "eminent citizens" and the guild merchants. But the privileges of the townspeople against the backdrop of permissiveness of the nobility seemed imperceptible, the city self-government bodies were tightly controlled by the tsarist administration. On the whole, the attempt to lay the foundations of a bourgeois estate failed.

Under Catherine II, attempts were made to solve the peasant question. In the first years of her reign, Catherine had the intention to begin to limit the power of the landowners. However, she did not meet with sympathy in this matter in the court aristocracy and among the mass of nobles. Subsequently, the empress, preoccupied mainly with foreign policy issues, abandoned the idea of ​​reforming the peasant class. New decrees were even issued that strengthened the power of the landlords. The landowners were given the right to exile the peasants "for their presumptuous state" to hard labor (1765). Serfs were forbidden to file complaints against their masters under pain of punishment with a whip and exile to Nerchinsk for eternal hard labor (decree of August 22, 1767). Meanwhile, the number of serfs increased significantly as a result of the continued distribution of state peasants to dignitaries and favorites. The empress distributed 800 thousand serfs to her close associates. In 1783 serfdom was legally registered in Ukraine.

Under Catherine II, the government tried to return the Old Believers to Russia, in in large numbers leaving abroad. Those who returned were given a full pardon. The Old Believers were exempted from the double head salary, from the obligation to wear a special dress and shave their beards. At the request of Potemkin, the Old Believers in Novorossia were allowed to have their own churches and priests (1785). The Ukrainian Old Believers formed the so-called Edinoverie Church.

Catherine II completed the secularization of spiritual estates, which was initiated by Peter I and continued by Peter III. On the day of the coup in 1762, Catherine tried to attract the clergy to her and promised to return to him the lands confiscated by Peter III. However, soon the empress "changed her mind" and appointed a commission to accurately inventory all church lands and income. By a decree of February 26, 1764, all the peasants who belonged to monasteries and episcopal houses (more than 900 thousand male souls) were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economics. Instead of the previous dues and duties, they were subject to a fee of one and a half rubles per soul. New staffs were drawn up for monasteries and episcopal houses, and it was necessary to release salaries to them from the College of Economy. In addition, some land was left to them. Secularization naturally caused displeasure on the part of many members of the clergy. Of these, Metropolitan Arseny Matseevich of Rostov is especially famous, deprived of his dignity and imprisoned under the name of Andrei Vral in the Revel casemate.

In 1773-1775. the entire southeast of Russia, the Urals, the regions of the Middle and Lower Volga regions, Western Siberia were captured by the peasant-Cossack uprising under the leadership of the Don Cossack Emelyan Pugachev who declared himself miraculously saved from death by Emperor Peter III. On behalf of Peter III, Pugachev announced the abolition of serfdom and the release of all privately owned peasants. Soviet historians qualified this uprising as a peasant war, although in reality the social composition of the participants in the movement was complex, and, as you know, the Cossacks were the initiator of the uprising. The movement received wide support among the Yaik Cossacks, Russian peasants, the mining population of the Urals, non-Russian peoples: Bashkirs, Kalmyks, Tatars, Maris, Mordovians, Udmurts, dissatisfied with feudal exploitation, the state's attack on traditional rights and privileges. The rebels besieged Orenburg for a long time, they managed to burn Kazan, take Penza and Saratov.

However, in the end, the Pugachevites were defeated by government troops superior in equipment and training. The leader of the movement himself was captured, taken to Moscow and executed in 1775. To erase the memory of the Great Riot, Catherine II ordered the Yaik River to be renamed the Urals, and the Yaik Cossacks - the Ural Cossacks.

Domestic political instability in the second quarter of the 18th century did not always allow the full use of the advantages that military victories gave Russia. Under Anna Ioannovna, Russia interfered in Polish affairs and opposed French candidates for the Polish throne ( War of the Polish Succession 1733-1735). The clash of interests between Russia and France in Poland led to a serious deterioration in Russian-French relations. French diplomacy tried to raise Turkey and Sweden against Russia.

The Turkish government was dissatisfied with the entry of Russian troops into Poland and was actively looking for allies in a close war with Russia. The Russian government also considered war inevitable. In order to enlist the support of Iran, a neighbor of the Ottoman Empire, in 1735 Russia returned to it the provinces annexed to Russia as a result of the Persian campaign of Peter I. In 1735, the Crimean army, by decision Ottoman government went through Russian possessions to the lands returned by Russia to Iran. Clashes broke out between the Crimeans and the Russian armed forces. The following year, Russia officially declared war on Turkey. Russian-Turkish war 1735-1739 conducted mainly in the Crimea and Moldova. Russian troops under the command of Field Marshal B.-Kh. Minikha won a series of important victories (near Stavuchany, near Khotyn), occupied Perekop, Ochakov, Azov, Kinburn, Gezlev (Evpatoria), Bakhchisaray, Yassy. According to the Belgrade Peace Treaty of 1739, Russia moved its border to the south somewhat, receiving steppe spaces from the Bug to Taganrog.

In 1741, war was declared on Russia, instigated by France and Prussia. Sweden who dreamed of returning the part of Finland conquered by Peter I. But the Russian troops under the command of P.P. Lassi defeated the Swedes. According to the peace concluded in 1743 in the town of Abo, Russia retained all its possessions and received a small part of Finland, up to the Kyumena River (Kyumenogorsk and part of the Savolak province).

In the middle of the 18th century, a rapid increase in Friedrich II (1740-1786) Prussia upset the European balance and dramatically changed the balance of power on the continent. The threat of Prussian hegemony in Europe united against her Austria, France, Russia, Saxony and Sweden. Great Britain became an ally of Prussia. At the beginning of the war (1756-1757), Frederick II won a number of victories over Austria, France and Saxony. Russia's entry into the war in 1757 changed its character. East Prussia was occupied by the Russian army. In the same year, 1757, Russian troops took Memel and defeated the Prussian Field Marshal H. Lewald at Gross-Jegersdorf. In 1759, the Russian army under the command of General Count P.S. Saltykova, together with the Austrians, inflicted a decisive defeat on Frederick II in the battle of Kunersdorf. The following year, Russian troops occupied Berlin. Prussia was placed on the brink of ruin. Only the death of Elizabeth Petrovna and the coming to power of Peter III, an admirer of Frederick II, saved Prussia. Elizabeth's successor concluded a separate peace with Frederick. Moreover, he wanted to send the Russian army to help Prussia against the recent Russian allies, but this intention caused the performance of the guards and the palace coup, which ended in the overthrow and death of Peter III.

Russia's participation in the war (1757-1762) did not give her any material gains. But the prestige of the country and the Russian army as a result Seven Years' War has grown significantly. It can be said without exaggeration that this war played an important role in the formation of Russia as a great European power.

If the almost 40-year period between 1725 and 1762 (the death of Peter I and the coronation of Catherine II) was insignificant from the point of view of the immediate results of Russia's foreign policy in Europe, then for the eastern direction of Russian policy it was of great importance. The main milestones of the new Eastern policy were outlined by Peter I, who erected strongholds for it in the Middle and Far East. He tried to enter into relations with China, tried to establish relations with Japan. Already after the death of Peter the Great, Russia concluded an eternal treaty with China (Treaty of Kyakhta, 1727). Russia received the right to have a religious mission in Beijing, which at the same time performed diplomatic functions. The result of the Russian eastern policy was the successful acquisition of land in the Far East and joining Russia in 1731-1743. lands of the Junior and Middle Kazakh zhuzes.

Peter organized the expedition V. Bering to explore the junction of Asia with America. In St. Petersburg, they did not know that this problem had already been solved in 1648 by S.I. Dezhnev. The first expedition of captain Vitus Bering in 1724-1730. did not give significant practical results. But in 1732, the navigator Fedorov and the surveyor Gvozdev stumbled upon the "Great Land" - Alaska - on the American continent. During the next decade (1733-1743) the Russian government organized the so-called "Great Northern Expedition", which was of enormous scientific importance and was one of the most outstanding undertakings in the history of science. In 1741, the ships of captains Bering and Chirikov reached the coast of America. Chirikov brought many valuable furs from the islands near Alaska, which aroused the interest of Siberian merchants. The first "merchant sea voyage" was undertaken in 1743, followed by many others. Began Russian exploration of Alaska and becoming Russian America, the only official colony in the history of the Russian Empire.

Catherine II completed the transformation of Russia into an empire begun by Peter the Great. During her reign, Russia became an authoritative European and world power, dictating its will to other states. In 1779, with the mediation of Russia, Teshensky treatise, which put an end to the war between Austria and Prussia for the Bavarian inheritance. The Treaty of Teschen, of which Russia became the guarantor, demonstrated the increased international weight of Russia, which allowed it to influence the state of affairs in Europe. In modern Western literature, this event is regarded as a turning point, testifying to the transformation of Russia from an Eastern European great power (since the beginning of the 18th century) into a great European power, which played not the last violin in the concert of European states over the next century.

Catherine's policy in Europe was closely connected with the Polish and Black Sea issues. First of all, she sought to decide the fate of the former Kyiv lands, most of which belonged to the Commonwealth in the middle of the 18th century, and secondly, to expand the territory of Russia to the shores of the Black Sea.

Economic development. In the second half of the 18th century, Russia continued to be an agrarian country, but its economy gradually evolved towards the capitalist model. During this period, serious contradictions emerged between the new methods of management in industry and trade, and the state system of serfdom, which hampered the economic development of the country.

Agricultural production remained the leading branch of the economy. It has changed little compared to the previous century, it continued to develop in an extensive way - due to the inclusion of new territories in the crop rotation. In the second half of the XVIII century. increased exploitation of the peasants. In the Non-Black Earth region for 50 years, quitrent has increased by 3-5 times, corvee in some parts of the country was 6 days a week. Taxes in favor of the state increased by 4.3 times. There was a gradual transition from corvée to cash dues.

New developments in agriculture are otkhodnichestvo and month. Otkhodnichestvo is the departure of peasants to the city to earn money with the permission of the landowner. As a rule, such peasants were employed by the owners of manufactories or in craft workshops. The month appeared in the 80s. XVIII century: the landowner took away his land allotment from the peasant, and he worked for a monthly allowance (usually a small one).

The expansion of the sphere of commodity-money relations led to the destruction of the natural isolation of the landlord and peasant economy. Produced products were increasingly exported for sale.

Industry developed much more intensively than agriculture. For the second half of the XVIII century. the number of manufactories doubled. On the one hand, this was due to the military needs of the country, and on the other hand, the interest of foreign consumers in cheap Russian goods.

The vast majority of manufactories used serf peasant labor. At the same time, the number of manufactories that used freelance labor also grew. In the second half of the XVIII century. the number of civilian workers doubled, and they prevailed in the cotton, leather, haberdashery and glass industries.

The impetus for the development of handicrafts and industry was given by a decree of 1775, which allowed the opening of enterprises without the consent of the authorities. This led to an increase in the number of breeders from wealthy peasants and merchants. Metallurgy developed especially rapidly. Iron smelting has increased 5 times in 50 years. The main base of Russian metallurgy was the Urals. The manufacturing industry experienced a rise, working not only for the domestic, but also for the foreign market.

Advances in industry contributed to the development of domestic and foreign trade. In 1754, internal customs duties were abolished, which contributed to the revival of trade relations between individual parts of the country. The number of rural auctions and fairs has increased. The exchange of goods between town and country increased. Stationary shops and shops appeared in the cities.

Foreign trade was still in the hands of foreign merchants. The largest Russian exports were iron, grain, hemp, linen and linen fabrics. In trade with the East, Russia exported the products of its manufactories, while in trade with the West it imported higher quality European industrial products.

The chronic budget deficit, caused by the constant conduct of hostilities, was covered by the entry into circulation from 1769 of paper money - banknotes. For the first time under Catherine II in 1769, Russia took an external loan from Holland.

These processes gradually led to the ruin of a significant part of the nobility, the emergence of merchants-industrialists, and stratification among the peasantry. New phenomena in the economy were the loss of the isolation of the feudal economy, noble entrepreneurship in industry and agriculture, and the creation of a market for hired labor.

Catherine's domestic policy II . The reign of Catherine II can be divided into three periods:

1762 - 1775 - from the beginning of the reign to the peasant war of E. Pugacheva - the period of Catherine's passion for the ideas of the Enlightenment, the era of reforms in caring for the "public good";

1775 - 1789 - from the peasant war to the French Revolution - a period of continuation of internal reforms, but with a different goal: to strengthen state control over all spheres of society, protect the existing order and maintain "silence" in the state;

1789 - 1796 - from the French Revolution to the end of the reign - a period of strict censorship, the use of punitive measures against "freethinking", the confiscation of French literature and the persecution of Russian enlighteners.

Catherine II developed a special policy, which in history received the name "enlightened absolutism". One of the most major projects Catherine in the spirit of "enlightenment" was the convening of the Legislative Commission 1767 - 1768. The commission included deputies from all walks of life (except the serfs). The purpose of the commission is to develop a code of laws, clarify the mood of society and discuss the mandates of deputies. Unexpectedly for Catherine, heated debates unfolded during the discussion of the peasant question. The question of the abolition of serfdom was also raised here. However, the work of the commission soon began to weigh on Catherine. The established commission was dissolved under the pretext of starting a war with Turkey, having worked for a year and a half.

One of Catherine's first reforms was secularization church and monastery lands - their transfer to state ownership. Secularization was carried out in 1763-1764.

The reign of Catherine II is called the "golden age" of the Russian nobility. In the interests of the nobility, she signed a number of important decrees:

1763 - the cost of suppressing peasant riots was assigned to the peasants themselves;

1765 - it is allowed to exile peasants to Siberia for hard labor without trial or investigation;

1783 - the introduction of serfdom in Ukraine;

1785 - "Charter to the nobility", which brought together and confirmed all the privileges given to the nobility after the death of Peter I. In addition, it was allowed to create noble societies in provinces and counties.

After the uprising of E. Pugachev, the domestic policy of Catherine II became tougher. The Peasant War revealed the weakness of local authorities, unable to prevent or extinguish peasant uprisings. In 1775, a provincial (regional) reform was carried out, according to which the country was divided into 50 provinces, which, in turn, were divided into counties. The head of the regional administration was appointed governor or governor. The provincial government became the executive, administrative and police body in the province. At the county level, the organ of provincial government was the Nizhny Zemsky Court, chaired by a police officer or captain. Thus, the centralization of power was strengthened, and a clear structure was given to provincial and district institutions.

In 1775, the Zaporizhian Sich and the remnants of self-government in Ukraine were liquidated.

In 1785, a city reform was carried out - "Charter to the cities." The city society was divided into 6 categories: depending on the property qualification, the rights and privileges of each category were determined. City self-government was introduced. Elected city bodies were in charge of the current city administration, supply, city repairs and landscaping.

In 1782-1786. education reform took place. A network of public schools was created - as a system of general education schools with uniform start and end dates, lessons in the classroom, a single methodology for teaching disciplines and general educational literature.

The results of the reforms were: a clearer definition of the boundaries of the estates, their privileges and position in relation to the state; a more harmonious system of state administration that lasted for about a century.

During the reign of Catherine II, the largest peasant war in the history of Russia took place under the leadership of Emelyan Pugachev (1773 - 1775). Posing as a survivor of the assassination attempt by Peter III, he outlined his program in "charming letters." Here Pugachev promised to make all participants in his movement free Cossacks, to give them land and exempt them from taxes, as well as to execute landlords and bribe-taking judges. Pugachev hoped to overthrow Catherine II and become his own "muzhik" tsar for the people. Such a program of action attracted numerous supporters to him. The war covered vast territories from the Volga region to the Urals, and regular troops had to be called in to suppress it. January 10, 1775 Pugachev, along with his closest associates, was executed on Bolotnaya Square in Moscow. The rest of the participants in the uprising were also brutally dealt with. Thousands of people were executed without trial or investigation.

The Peasant War of E. Pugachev and the Great French Revolution, during which Louis XVI was executed, forced Catherine II to abandon the policy of "enlightened absolutism." In an effort to prevent the penetration of revolutionary ideas into the country, the government introduced strict censorship, control over literature coming from abroad, and confiscated publications of French enlighteners. In 1790, A. N. Radishchev, the author of the book Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow, was arrested and exiled to Siberia for "seditious ideas". And in 1792, a well-known publisher and writer, a longtime opponent of Catherine - N. I. Novikov was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress for 15 years.

The end of the 34-year reign of Catherine II was marked by a breakdown in finances, disorder in management affairs, bureaucratic arbitrariness, and the flourishing of bribery. The aging empress could not control the conduct of state affairs, delegating them to her favorites.

Catherine also faced the problem of her predecessors - to whom to transfer the throne? The relations between the Empress and her son were hostile. She decided to transfer the throne to her eldest grandson, Alexander, and announce this on November 24, 1796. But on November 6, Catherine died, and her son, Paul, became emperor.

Russia during the reign of Paul I (1796-1801) . The purpose of the reforms of Paul I was to strengthen the foundations of the socio-economic life and political system of Russia.

To prevent palace coups and increase the stability of power, on the day of his coronation - April 5, 1797, Paul issued the "Institution on the Imperial Family." Here a strict procedure was established for the transfer of the throne from father to eldest son, and in the absence of sons - to the elder brother.

Paul sought to maximize the centralization of power. The emperor developed a plan for the establishment of 7 ministries and the State Treasury. However, this plan was implemented after his death. 50 Catherine's provinces were transformed into 41. The restructuring of local self-government was accompanied by the restriction of noble self-government. Administrative and police functions were withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the noble assemblies, and in 1799 the provincial noble assemblies were abolished.

The peasant question remained the most urgent after the uprising of E. Pugachev. On April 5, 1797, the Manifesto on the three-day corvee was promulgated, which prescribed the use of corvee labor by peasants no more than 3 days a week. In addition, in 1798 it was forbidden to sell yard people and peasants under the hammer, and the grain tax was replaced by a moderate cash tax.

The policy towards the nobility was controversial. On the one hand, the emperor took care of the material well-being of the nobility, providing him with material assistance through the credit and banking system and creating a maximum favorable treatment for the service. But on the other hand, Paul abolished the most important provisions of the Charter to the nobility - freedom from compulsory service and from corporal punishment.

Pavel continued his mother's struggle with "freethinking". It was forbidden to import foreign books and study abroad, Russians were forbidden to leave Russia, and foreigners were forbidden to enter Russia.

A supporter of strict discipline and order, Paul decided to rebuild the army along the Prussian model. The main occupations of the guard were endless divorces, parades and formations. A murmur arose in the guard, which threatened to develop into another palace coup.

The main reason for the last palace coup in the history of Russia was the dissatisfaction of the guards and the nobility with the emperor, who infringed on their interests. The conspiracy was headed by the military governor of St. Petersburg - Count Palen. On the night of March 12, 1801, the conspirators broke into the Mikhailovsky Palace and demanded that Paul abdicate in favor of his son, Alexander. Having been refused, they strangled the emperor. The next day, the manifesto announced the beginning of a new reign - Emperor Alexander I.

Foreign policy of the second half XVIII century. In the second half of the 18th century, three directions can be distinguished in Russian foreign policy:

Southern – expansion of the state border to the Black Sea coast;

Western – annexation of ancient Russian lands - right-bank Ukraine and Belarus;

Fight against the French Revolution.

The most important task was the struggle for access to the Black Sea. Turkey, at the instigation of France and England, was the first to declare war on Russia. The Russian-Turkish war of 1768 - 1774 began . Initially, the battles went on with varying success, but as the Russian troops were replenished, the situation began to change in favor of Russia. Having suffered a complete defeat, Turkey turned to Russia with a request for peace. The Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji in 1774 gave Russia access to the Black Sea, the right to have a Black Sea fleet and cross the Black Sea straits to the Mediterranean Sea. The Ottoman Empire transferred to Russia the territories between the Southern Bug and the Dnieper, Azov and Kerch, the fortress of Kabarda in the North Caucasus. Crimea was declared independent from Turkey, Russia received the right to act as the guardian of rights Orthodox population Ottoman Empire.

However, both parties viewed this treaty as temporary. They were preparing for a new war that broke out in 1787. The successful actions of the Russian army and Russian navy forced the Turks to sign the Iasi peace treaty in 1791. Turkey handed over the Crimea to Russia and recognized all the Russian conquests in the Northern Black Sea region. The Dniester River became the border between the two powers.

The second important task for Russia was the return of the ancient Russian lands that were part of Poland. In the second half of the 18th century, Poland was a weak state, with many internal problems - national, religious and political. The weakening of Poland took advantage of its neighbors - Prussia, Austria and Russia. In 1772 they attacked Poland and divided part of its territory among themselves. Russia received Eastern Belarus and the Polish part of Livonia (Latvian lands). The second partition, in which Prussia and Russia participated, took place in 1793. In 1795, the third and final partition of Poland took place, according to which the lands of Western Belarus, Western Volhynia and the main part of Lithuania were transferred to Russia.

Catherine II took the revolutionary events in France with extreme concern. After the execution of the royal couple, Russia began to form an anti-French coalition and prepare an invasion of revolutionary France. In 1793, an agreement was concluded between England and Russia on a joint economic blockade of France. In 1795, an alliance was concluded between Russia, England and Austria to jointly fight the revolution in France. In 1796, a military campaign against France was to begin. But this was prevented by the death of Catherine.

The foreign policy of Paul I was distinguished by inconsistency. Initially, according to allied obligations, in 1798 Russia declared war on France. Military operations were successful for Russia. In 1799, the Black Sea Fleet took the Ionian Islands from the French, and the army under the command of the outstanding commander A.V. Suvorov inflicted a number of defeats on France in Northern Italy. At the same time, Suvorov made an unprecedented crossing of the Alps. But disagreements between the allies led to the fact that Paul withdrew the Russian troops and in 1800 signed a peace treaty with France. In the same year, he sent 40 regiments of Don Cossacks to conquer the British colony - India. Only the death of the emperor interrupted this military campaign.

Social thought and culture of the second half XVIII century. Empress Catherine II herself was a prominent publicist. Her writings are permeated with the idea of ​​defending autocracy as the only acceptable form of government for Russia. Catherine also wrote about the special historical mission of the Russian people.

During this period, the ideas of the European Enlightenment had a wide resonance in Russian society. Russian enlighteners - N. I. Novikov, A. Ya. Polenov, S. E. Desnitsky and others considered the constitutional monarchy to be the perfect state system, defended the “legal provision of liberty and property”, and criticized serfdom.

The most radical ideas of this time were expressed in the book by A. N. Radishchev "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" (1790). Radishchev agreed with the enlighteners in many respects, opposing serfdom and recognizing the importance of educating the people. But unlike them, Radishchev believed that the monarch would never voluntarily give up his power. Therefore, the only way to achieve freedom is revolution. “A rebel, worse than Pugachev,” Catherine II assessed his ideas in this way.

In the second half of the XVIII century. there is the emergence of the main currents of Russian socio-political thought, which finally took shape in the next century.

The development of Russian culture continued to be dominated by the trends laid down in the Petrine era. Borrowings from Europe concerned only the upper strata of society.

In the second half of the 18th century, three styles developed in Russian literature: classicism (A. P. Sumarokov), realism (D. I. Fonvizin) and sentimentalism (N. M. Karamzin).

Russian painting during this period reached an unprecedented rise. First of all, he was associated with the work of portrait painters (F. S. Rokotov, V. L. Borovikovsky, D. G. Levitsky), but new genres appeared - landscape, historical canvases, everyday paintings, still lifes.

Among the Russian sculptors, F. Shubin and M. Kozlovsky stood out, representing two trends - realism and classicism.

One of the most rapidly developing sciences in the XVIII century. - geography. Numerous expeditions discovered and described the most remote corners of Siberia, the Urals and the Caucasus.

Medicine has developed greatly. The Medico-Surgical Academy and the Faculty of Medicine were opened at Moscow University.

In Russia, 20 years earlier than in England, I. Polzunov invented a steam engine, but it did not find practical application, and was dismantled.

An important milestone in the development of national history was the publication of M. M. Shcherbatov’s major historical work “The History of Russia from Ancient Times”.

The military science of the strategy and tactics of land and sea combat was developed by commanders - Suvorov and Ushakov.

In architecture, Russian baroque is beginning to be replaced by classicism. It is characterized by strictly proportional and symmetrical buildings, colonnades and porticos, the subordination of secondary architectural elements to the main one. Famous Russian architects - V. Bazhenov, I. Starov, M. Kazakov - worked in the style of classicism.