English revolution of the 17th century. Oliver Cromwell. Oliver Cromwell and his Ironsides
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Name: Oliver Cromwell
Age: 59 years old
Activity: statesman, commander
Family status: was married
Oliver Cromwell: biography
Oliver Cromwell is an English commander and statesman of the 16th-17th centuries. He became the leader of the English Revolution, led the movement of Independents who separated from the Puritans, and in his later years political career served as Lord General and Lord Protector of England, Ireland and Scotland.
The biography of Oliver Cromwell began on April 25, 1599 in the city of Huntingdon. His parents were poor English nobles - Elizabeth Steward and Robert Cromwell. The last one was youngest son in a family descended from Thomas Cromwell (the closest ally of King Henry VIII and his main assistant in implementing reforms). During the reign of this king, the ancestors of Oliver Cromwell made a fortune through the confiscation of ecclesiastical and monastic lands.
Elementary education Oliver received his education at the parochial school of his native city. Between 1616 and 1617 he studied at Sidney Sussex College, affiliated to the University of Cambridge. This college was known for its Puritan spirit. Cromwell Jr. began studying at the Faculty of Law, but soon decided to quit his studies and married the daughter of a neighboring landowner.
Oliver was prompted to take such a step by the death of his father: he had to give up his education in order to help his mother and sisters. During this period of his life, he ran a household as a squire should: he brewed beer, made cheese, sold bread and wool.
Policy
In 1628, Cromwell attempted to start a political campaign. He even managed to get elected to parliament from his native Huntingdon district. Oliver's first speech in the highest legislative body of England took place in February 1629. It was dedicated to the defense of Puritan preachers. But already in March of the same year, King Charles I dissolved parliament, and Cromwell’s career ended before it really began.
Over the next eleven years, Cromwell again led the life of an ordinary landowner. In the period from 1636 to 1638, he took part in the movement to protect the communal rights of peasants. A few years later, Oliver Cromwell reappeared on the political stage of his country: in April and November 1640 he was elected to the Short and Long Parliaments, respectively. Cromwell became MP for Cambridge. In his speeches, he mainly defended the interests of the new nobility and bourgeoisie.
English Revolution
In August 1642, the English Revolution (English Civil War) began. The main opposing forces during this revolution were King Charles I and parliament. Oliver Cromwell fought on the side of the parliamentary army, which he joined with the rank of captain.
He decided to recruit soldiers not under duress - instead, he wanted to find volunteer cavalrymen for whom divine justice and the fight against the king would be akin to conviction. Oliver Cromwell found such “ideological” subjects in the yeoman peasants who lived in East Anglia.
They were ardent Puritans and strongly opposed the feudal order. Cromwell's regiment, composed of these peasants, was nicknamed the "Ironsides" for their exceptional discipline and fortitude.
The commander went through many battles with his army, gradually receiving higher and higher ranks. In 1644 he was awarded the title of lieutenant general. His skill as a military leader was of particular importance in the Battle of Marston Moor, which took place on July 2, 1644, and in the Battle of Naseby, which took place on June 14, 1645. These battles were decisive in the history of the English Revolution, and without the military genius of Oliver Cromwell they could have gone differently.
The history of England after the victory of Parliament in the First Civil War followed the path of transition to a constitutional monarchy from an absolute one. The dictatorship of the king, who single-handedly determines how the country's politics will develop, is a thing of the past. Moreover, it was the organizational skills and inexhaustible energy of Oliver Cromwell, confident that he was fighting for a just cause, that largely determined the success of parliament in confronting the king.
Soon after the end of the English Revolution, Cromwell demanded the transformation of the state army. In 1645, he contributed to the creation of a new type of army, based on “ironside” units. Cromwell used the experience gained over several years of war to create an effective army.
Civil War
Directly during the English civil war Oliver Cromwell represented the forces of revolutionary democracy. But after the parliament defeated the king's troops, the commander decided to move to a more moderate political position and abandon radical democratic views. Because of this, he had a confrontation with the Levellers, who were not happy with the result of the English Revolution and demanded that the battles continue.
In 1647, Oliver Cromwell found himself caught between three serious political forces: the king, the army and the Presbyterian representatives in Parliament, who had the majority of votes. In such a situation, from a brave and inspiring military leader, Cromwell turned into a clever and resourceful politician, relying on the army and brutally punishing rebellious soldiers in a secret alliance with the king.
Also in 1647, the army captured the king. Oliver Cromwell tried to resolve the situation by negotiating with the king about the conditions under which the monarchy could be maintained. The Levellers, still demanding radical change, saw this as a betrayal. No matter how hard the politician tried to unite the warring parties, he failed to prevent the Second Civil War, which began in 1648.
During this revolution, Oliver Cromwell opposed the royalists and, in order to strengthen his army, agreed to an alliance with the Levellers. During September and October 1648 he fought against the royalists in Scotland and the north of England. In early October, his troops entered Edinburgh, where a victorious peace treaty was signed. In the following months, the commander, coming to London with his army, achieved the cleansing of the House of Commons of ardent royalist supporters.
In 1649, Cromwell agreed to the execution of the king, the destruction of the monarchy and the proclamation of England as a republic. The “silk” independents, led by Oliver Cromwell, were in power. He showed himself to be a tough ruler: he ruthlessly suppressed any attempts at uprising, initiated a bloody military expedition, during which Ireland learned firsthand about the cruelty of his soldiers, and continued to mercilessly crush royalist detachments.
last years of life
As Oliver Cromwell's life waned, his reign became increasingly conservative. Once a defender of the people, he began to be hostile to the desire of his subjects to establish democracy, to their demands social requirements. In 1650, he became Lord General of the Republic, that is, commander-in-chief of all its armed forces, which he intended to use to establish a personal dictatorship.
In 1653, the commander adopted a new Constitution, which was called the “Instrument of Control.” This document gave him the status of "Lord Protector" in England, Ireland and Scotland. Maintaining domestic policy state was difficult for him: the country was brewing economic crisis, spicy social problems remained unresolved. At the same time, Cromwell was successful in foreign policy, capturing Jamaica, signing a trade treaty with Sweden and concluding peace with Holland on terms favorable to England.
Although during Oliver Cromwell's lifetime the republic was not abolished, and his power was not questioned, the commander's inept internal policies only brought the restoration of the monarchy closer. After his death in 1658, his son Richard, who soon lost power, became the successor to the Lord Protector.
Personal life
Cromwell's only wife was Elizabeth Bourchier, whom he married after dropping out of university.
This marriage produced eight children: sons Robert, Oliver, Henry and Richard, and daughters Frances, Maria, Elizabeth and Bridget.
Death
Oliver Cromwell died on September 3, 1658, the cause of death being typhoid fever and malaria. The funeral of the state leader was magnificent and pompous, but soon after this, unrest, chaos and arbitrariness began in the country, which Cromwell’s successor, his eldest son Richard, could not cope with.
In 1659, deputies, having called Charles II to the throne (the son of Charles I, whose execution was once agreed to by Oliver Cromwell), exhumed the commander’s body on charges of regicide in order to carry out a posthumous execution. The body hung on the gallows for several hours, after which his head was placed on a pole near the Palace of Westminster.
- There is a legend that as a child, little Oliver Cromwell met his peer Charles I, who was destined to become king of England. During the game, the boys fought, and Cromwell even broke his friend’s nose.
- In 1970, the historical film “Cromwell” was shot, in which the leading actor, Richard Harris, received praise from film critics for his excellent embodiment of the character.
- In early childhood, Oliver had two brothers, but they died in infancy. As a result, the boy grew up surrounded by six sisters, with whom he had warm relationships.
- Until the age of 41, Cromwell did not feel any particular passion for revolutionary activities. Only when he recruited a detachment of “ironsides” with his own money did a true love for politics and a desire to make the history of his country awaken in him.
- September 3 turned out to be a fatal date in the fate of Oliver Cromwell. It was on this day that he defeated the Scottish troops at Denbar, the army of Charles I at Worcester, it was on September 3 that his first parliament began to work, and subsequently this day began to be celebrated as Thanksgiving Day. Oliver Cromwell also died on September 3.
Cromwell was born on April 25, 1599 in Huntingdon (the center of the county of the same name) into a family of typical English nobles - Robert Cromwell and Elizabeth Steward. Huntingdon was then provincial town with a population of 1000-1200 people, whose monotonous life was enlivened only by events in the market square and large week-long fairs. The Cromwell family had been entrenched as representatives of the local elite since the Reformation and the subsequent closure of the monasteries and confiscation of their property to the crown. Oliver's great-grandfather, Richard Williams, preferred the family name to the surname of his uncle Thomas Cromwell, a powerful temporary worker under King Henry VIII, nicknamed "the hammer of the monks."
Oliver's father, Robert Cromwell, was the youngest son in Sir Henry's family and, as the law prescribed, inherited only a small share of his father's estates. His
This consciousness, which hurt his pride during his childhood, was especially aggravated when he compared the luxury that reigned in the palace of his uncle in Hinchinbrook, and the life of his home, in which, in addition to himself, six of his sisters grew up. Was it not this consciousness that explained, on the one hand, the “sharpness” and “hot temper” of his nature, which were rumored, and on the other hand, a certain hostility towards the arrogant nobility, which manifested itself in cases of obvious injustice and arbitrariness committed by them in relation to the weak and defenseless.
In general, little is known about childhood and youth Olivera. Only later did they remember that in Cromwell’s parental home an atmosphere of Puritan piety reigned, with its ethical ideal of “temperance”, “worldly calling”, i.e. business practicality, the conviction that “every action is in the sight of God”, and an attitude to business like a prayer. Oliver's mother, Elizabeth Steward, set the tone in the family.
In 1616, Cromwell became a student at the most puritanical of Cambridge colleges, Sidney Sussex College, where he studied for only a year. Of the subjects taught there, he was most attracted to mathematics and history. However, according to surviving evidence, he did not sit very diligently at his books, but with immeasurably greater enthusiasm was engaged in horse riding, swimming, hunting, archery and fencing.
The news of his father's death in the summer of 1617 forced Oliver to leave the university and return home to help his mother run the household, because he was the only man in a family of seven women.
From the university, Cromwell took away a lifelong admiration for secular sciences and, in particular, a special interest in history. This time he lived in his home for two years, showing himself, to the surprise of his neighbors, to be a very zealous and capable rural owner.
In 1619 Oliver went to London to study law. And there was nothing surprising in this step: the rural squire, with his economic affairs and public responsibilities as a potential justice of the peace or member of parliament from his native county, needed knowledge of at least the basics of the so-called common law. However, in which legal court he studied and how he mastered this science remained forever a mystery. What is known is that 20-year-old Oliver in August 1620 married the eldest daughter of a wealthy London fur trader, Elizabeth Burshire, and soon returned with her to his native Huntingdon. Thus began 20 years in Cromwell’s life, during which the worries of a rural squire and the father of a large family (within 11 years his wife Elizabeth bore him seven children, six of them - 4 sons and 2 daughters - survived) almost completely absorbed the seething and searching release of Cromwell's energy.
The beginning of Oliver Cromwell's political career.
Over the next 20 years, Cromwell led the ordinary life of a rural nobleman and landowner, albeit filled with intense spiritual quest; in addition, he took an active part in local political life.
In 1628, Cromwell was elected Member of Parliament for Huntingdon, the same Parliament that passed the famous "petition of right" and was soon dissolved by Charles I.
It is also noteworthy that Cromwell’s first recorded speech as a member of Parliament was devoted to the defense of the Puritan views of his teacher Thomas Beard, who was persecuted by the prelates of the Anglican Church for denouncing a papist who had taken refuge at court. And one more characteristic detail: when on March 2, 1629, the king ordered the interruption of parliamentary sessions, Oliver Cromwell was among those who disobeyed the royal will.
From 1630 to 1636 was the most difficult period in Cromwell's life. Having been defeated in a clash with the Huntingdon oligarchy, Oliver makes a difficult decision. In May 1630 he sold everything he owned in hometown, and moved with his family to St. Ives, in neighboring Cambridgeshire, where he found himself in a clearly degraded position: instead of his previous status as a freeholder, he had to be content with only the position of a tenant of someone else's land. At the same time, financial difficulties also had an acute impact (rumor explains them by the extravagances of his youth). According to rumors, at this time Cromwell was seriously thinking about emigrating to the North American colony of New England, which was a refuge for many true Puritans who were persecuted in their homeland or simply did not accept the prevailing order in the country. In addition to everything, he found himself in conflict with the royal will; this time - for refusal to acquire, for payment of course, a knighthood, which entailed a fine of 10 pounds sterling. Obviously, it was not about the monetary side of this demand, but about the principle. Cromwell well remembered the school of parliament in 1628-1629 - to resist with all his might the crown's attempts to replenish the treasury bypassing parliament.
A period of severe spiritual crisis began for Cromwell. At night he is tormented by premonitions of hellish torment, in a cold sweat he jumps out of bed, screams, falls... The consciousness of his sinfulness scorches Cromwell from the inside and changes his behavior. He becomes more serious, more focused. His house gradually becomes a haven for persecuted Puritans. In the garden, in a large barn, he sets up a prayer room - there they gather, preach, argue, sing psalms. At the age of thirty-three, Cromwell completes the process of conversion outlined by Calvin. Merciless self-judgment, grief and torment from his own sinfulness, repentance, hope and, finally, confidence in salvation lead Cromwell to the realization of his holiness, his chosenness by God for great deeds. He now understands the meaning of his life as serving justice.
The beginning of the civil war.
During the period of non-parliamentary rule, Charles I made many enemies for himself, imposing exorbitant taxes on all layers of society. Using royal prerogatives left over from the Middle Ages, he demanded payment of the “ship tax” (1635), fined nobles (including Cromwell) if they refused to accept the title of knight, and collected the so-called. "voluntary offerings" and increased taxes. Charles did all this because without the consent of parliament he did not have the right to impose new taxes on the population. His further goal was to ensure the financial independence of royal power and introduce “church uniformity” throughout the country. The latter alienated both the Puritan reformers and many of the nobles and townspeople from Charles. In 1638, Charles waged war against his Scottish subjects (by right of succession he was king of both England and Scotland), failing in his attempt to impose on them a prayer book similar to that used in the Church of England. The Scots Presbyterians, seeing this as a threat to their religion, rebelled, and the king was forced to convene parliament to ask him for money for the war.
Parliament met in the spring of 1640, Cromwell was again elected to the House of Commons (from Cambridge). A large number of claims against the king, accumulated over 11 years of unparliamentary rule, set the leaders of the House of Commons in an aggressive and intractable mood. Cromwell immediately established himself as a militant Puritan, consistently supporting critics of the established church and government.
This so-called “Short Parliament” (April 13 - May 5, 1640) was soon dissolved, but in the summer of 1640 the Scots again defeated Charles and, most humiliating of all, occupied the northern regions of England.
From that time on, Cromwell, who was already 40 years old and had no military experience, advanced to Front edge- both as a military organizer and as a leader of the Puritan movement. He became famous for his radical Puritan views in the Long Parliament, advocating the complete abolition of the episcopate, and throughout eastern England he was known as a fighter for the right of church communities to choose both their priests and those forms of religious life that suit the given community.
Cromwell the commander.
With the outbreak of the civil war between Parliament and the king, Cromwell entered the Parliamentary army with the rank of captain and began to assemble a detachment of cavalry among his fellow countrymen in Huntingdon and Cambridge. In September 1642, he already had 60 volunteers in his detachment. This detachment takes part in the first battles, and Cromwell sees that to defeat the king, a completely different army is needed, capable, united, inspired by a high ideal. He recruits into his squad honest Puritans who hate royal tyranny and are ready to lay down their heads for a just cause. Oliver himself teaches recruits to quickly load a musket, hold a pike correctly, rearrange ranks, and obey commands. He teaches them unconditional obedience to the commander's word and mercilessness in battle. By January 1643, Parliament granted Cromwell the rank of colonel. He divides his regiment into detachments and at the head of each he puts a commander - a cab driver, a shoemaker, a boilermaker, a ship skipper. This was unheard of for those times: people from the upper classes were always appointed commanders. But Cromwell is adamant. By March 1643, the regiment already numbered about two thousand horsemen.
The most terrifying impression on the royalists was that Cromwell’s soldiers sang psalms before the start of the battle in full combat readiness. At the beginning of 1644, Cromwell received the rank of lieutenant general.
But Cromwell’s victories do not seem to please the army command, which is prolonging the war and is afraid of decisive action. And parliament is infected with cowardice and indifference, Cromwell convinces, insists, demands a decisive battle. He is confident in the rightness of his cause. At the end of November, he travels to London and speaks in parliament, where he openly accuses the commander-in-chief of the army, the Earl of Manchester, of cowardice and treason. It requires a reorganization of the army and a change of command. And he ensures that the House of Commons passes the “Act of Self-Denial”; members of Parliament are prohibited from holding senior army positions. This means that all those who prolong the war will automatically lose their posts in the army. Everyone except Cromwell himself. For him, given his military merits, parliament makes an exception. And he decides to create a regular parliamentary army - a New Model Army.
On June 14, 1645, this army under the command of Cromwell inflicted the last crushing defeat on the king's troops. Cromwell wrote in a report to the speaker of the lower house: “Sir, after three hours of stubborn fighting, which went on with varying success, we scattered the enemy, killed and captured about five thousand, including many officers. Two hundred wagons were also captured, that is, the entire convoy , and all the artillery. We pursued the enemy beyond Harborough almost to Leicester, where the king fled..."
After the end of the civil war, the victorious Cromwell acquired enormous authority in the country, and his army became a formidable force. This frightens the Presbyterian Parliament. He prefers to come to an agreement with the captive king, and disband the army or send it to pacify rebellious Ireland. In response to this, a movement of levellers—political equalizers—begins in the army. In the summer of 1647, a detachment of cornet Joyce captured and transported the captive king to the army headquarters. A little more - and the army will completely lose control. Cromwell leaves London and goes to the army. And when he sees that the ferment there has reached its highest intensity, that the army is ready to march on London and take power into its own hands, he goes over to its side and on August 6, 1647, at its head, enters London.
Conflict between parliament and army.
All this time, Cromwell retained his seat in Parliament and appeared there as soon as the opportunity presented itself. In 1644 he played key role in the adoption of the Bill of Self-Denial, according to which members of Parliament who held command posts in the army had to resign from them so that the army could join new blood. This paved the way for the appointment of the apolitical Thomas Fairfax as commander-in-chief. Cromwell was ready to resign his command, however, yielding to the insistence of Fairfax, he remained to take part in the Battle of Naseby. Cromwell did not downplay his talents, but throughout his life he attributed victories to the Almighty.
It was Cromwell's highly independent, deeply personal Puritan faith that motivated him to take up arms against the king and inspired him in battle. When an alliance was concluded with the Scots, under which, in exchange for help in the fight against the royalists, Presbyterianism was extended to all of England, Cromwell stipulated guarantees of freedom of religion for himself and his Independent friends. But at first he granted the right to determine the future form government system the civil leaders of Parliament, most of them Presbyterians.However, it turned out that the House of Commons (abandoned by the king's supporters at the beginning of the war) and the pitiful remnants of the House of Lords were seeking to impose a rigid Presbyterian structure on the entire Church of England and to dismiss Fairfax's soldiers, most of them independents, to their homes without paying them any satisfactory reward for their service . At first, Cromwell, as a member of Parliament and a man who enjoyed enormous authority in the army, tried to act as a mediator between Parliament and the soldiers, but ultimately was forced to make a choice, tying his future fate with the army. He made considerable efforts to reach an agreement with the king, whom the Scots handed over as a prisoner to Parliament in February 1647 before their troops left England. Cromwell did not object to the announcement of the Presbyterian Church state church, however, insisted that Puritan sects (Independents) be allowed to exist outside of it. Conducting negotiations on behalf of the army with parliament and the king regarding post-war structure, Cromwell was invariably intransigent on this issue. At the same time, he acted as an intermediary within the army itself, trying to convince the radicals who wanted to introduce a democratic republic that the time had not yet come for such revolutionary changes. His own program called for the establishment of a constitutional monarchy with a parliament expressing the interests of the middle classes and a church tolerant of other faiths.
But Cromwell is not yet ready to end the monarchy, as some hotheads demand. He begins negotiations with Karl, for which the Levelers declare him a traitor. October 28 - November 11 in Petney, a suburb of London, Cromwell presides over meetings of the Army Council discussing drafts of a new constitution. The disputes become more and more fierce, Cromwell either offers to stop for a while to turn to God together and ask for his help, or convinces that a republic means disintegration, the death of the nation, chaos and ruin. And when the disputes finally reach a dead end, he dissolves the Army Council and orders its participants to immediately return to their regiments to perform their duties. On November 15, at an army review in Ware, where the Levellers tried to again put forward their demands, he in a rage rears his horse and, with his sword drawn, crashes into the ranks of disobedient soldiers. The four instigators are captured on his orders and sentenced to death. Having cooled down, Cromwell agrees to shoot only one - on whom the lot will fall.
Oliver Cromwell(English) Oliver Cromwell; April 25, Huntingdon - September 3, London) - leader of the English Revolution, an outstanding military leader and statesman, in - gg. - Lieutenant General of the Parliamentary Army, in - gg. - Lord General, in - gg. - First Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland. It is believed that his death was due to malaria or poisoning. After his death, his body was removed from the grave, hanged and quartered, which was the traditional punishment for treason in England.
Origin
Born into the family of a poor Puritan landowner in Huntingdon, Cambridgeshire. He studied at the parish school of Huntingdon, in - gg. - at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, which was a newly founded college with a strong Puritan spirit. However, he abandoned it without receiving it. academic degree, possibly due to the death of Robert Cromwell's father (1560-1617).
Before the war, Oliver Cromwell was a simple landowner. Cromwell's distant ancestors enriched themselves during the reign of King Henry VIII, when they confiscated monastic and church lands. After he quit Faculty of Law Cambridge University, Oliver had to marry the daughter of a poor London merchant. After the wedding, Cromwell took up farming on his estate.
Cromwell was a zealous Protestant and Puritan. Catchphrase became the words of Cromwell addressed to the soldiers while crossing the river: “Trust in God, but keep your gunpowder dry!”
Military career
At the outbreak of the English Civil War, Cromwell began his military career by leading a 60-horse cavalry unit as captain known as the Ironside Cavalry, which became the basis of his New Model Army. Cromwell's leadership at the Battle of Marston Moor brought him to great eminence. Cromwell turned out to be a talented commander. His troops won one victory after another over the king's supporters, and it was Cromwell's army that completely defeated Charles I in the decisive battle of Naseby on June 14, 1645. As leader of the parliamentary Puritan coalition (also known as the "Roundheads" because of their close-cropped hair) and commander of the New Model Army, Cromwell defeated King Charles I, ending the monarch's claim to absolute power. Oliver Cromwell, having received certain powers, abolished the upper house of parliament and appointed a council from his Protestant comrades-in-arms. Under the new leader, Oliver Cromwell, the following amendments were adopted: duels in the army were abolished, civil marriage was allowed, and all royal property was transferred to the state treasury. Cromwell also received the title of Generalissimo. However, having taken power into his own hands (having received the new title of Lord Protector), Cromwell began to establish strict order and establish his dictatorship. He brutally suppressed uprisings in Ireland and Scotland, divided the country into 12 military governorates led by major generals reporting to him, introduced protection of main roads, and established a tax collection system. He collected money, and considerable money, for all the transformations from the defeated supporters of the king.
During his reign, Oliver Cromwell made peace with Denmark, Sweden, Holland, France, and Portugal. He continued the war with England's longtime enemy, Spain. Through consistency and firmness, Cromwell ensured that both England and its head, the Lord Protector, were respected in Europe. After order was established in the country, Cromwell allowed the election of parliament. Oliver Cromwell nobly refused to accept the crown and was given the honor of appointing his own successor, the new king.
Until his death, he was popular among the people, including due to the image of a “people’s” politician as opposed to the respectable gentry and the king. Of particular importance in this case was such a trait of Cromwell as absolute incorruptibility. It is also important to note that Cromwell was constantly under guard (there were several units constantly changing each other according to the duty schedule) and often changed places of overnight stay.
Until Cromwell's death, England remained a republic. After his death, his eldest son Richard became Lord Protector, and Oliver himself was buried with extraordinary pomp. However, it was then that real chaos, arbitrariness and unrest began in the country, since the military people had power. The deputies were frightened by the prospects with such a situation in the country and quickly called for the throne the son of King Charles I, who had recently been executed by them, Charles II. After this, Cromwell’s body was dug out of the grave and executed on the gallows, as was fitting for state traitors.
Bibliography
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See what "Cromwell Oliver" is in other dictionaries:
- (1599 1658) figure in the English Revolution of the 17th century, leader of the Independents. With the convening of the so-called Long Parliament (in 1640), he gained fame as a supporter of the interests of the bourgeoisie and the new nobility. In the civil war of 1642 46... ... Historical Dictionary
Cromwell Oliver- (Cromwell, Oliver) (1599 1658), English. state figure, Lord Protector of the Republic of England (1653 58). Genus. in the Huntingdon gentry family, an indirect descendant of Thomas Cromwell. As a member of the opposition in the Long Parliament, K. came forward during... ... The World History
This term has other meanings, see Cromwell. Oliver Cromwell Oliver Cromwell ... Wikipedia
- (Cromwell) (1599 1658), figure in the English Revolution of the 17th century, leader of the Independents. In 1640 he was elected to the Long Parliament. One of the main organizers of the parliamentary army, which won victories over the royal army in the 1st (1642-46) and 2nd (1648)… … encyclopedic Dictionary
Cromwell Oliver (25.4.1599, Huntingdon, ≈ 3.9.1658, London). leader of the English bourgeois revolution of the 17th century, leader of the Independents, Lord Protector of England (from 1653); according to F. Engels’ definition, “... combined in one person Robespierre and... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Cromwell, Oliver- CROMWELL, Oliver, known. English state and military figure, gen. in 1599. The son is not rich. a landowner, he grew up in the village and received an elementary education. education in local coming. school. Having then graduated from the University of Cambridge, K. studied for some time... ... Military encyclopedia
- (Cromwell, Oliver) (1599 1658), English statesman and military leader, leader of the Puritan revolution, who, as Lord Protector of the Republic of England, Scotland and Ireland, greatest contribution in the formation of modern England... ... Collier's Encyclopedia
Cromwell Oliver- O. Cromwell. Portrait. 17th century Museum of Versailles. O. Cromwell. Portrait. 17th century Museum of Versailles. Cromwell Oliver () figure in the English Revolution of the 17th century, leader of the Independents. With the convening of the so-called Long Parliament (.) gained fame as... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary "World History"
Cromwell, Oliver- O. Cromwell. Portrait. 17th century Museum of Versailles. CROMWELL Oliver (1599 1658), activist English revolution 17th century In 1640 he was elected to the Long Parliament. One of the main organizers of the parliamentary army, which defeated the royal army in... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
- (Cromwell) Lord Protector of England, b. in 1599 at Huntingdon. His family belonged to the middle nobility and rose to prominence during the era of the closure of the monasteries under Henry VIII, receiving, thanks to the patronage of Thomas K. (q.v.), valuable confiscated estates... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Ephron
After the execution of the king, England became a republic. The House of Commons passed a law by which the House of Lords was abolished, and it was also forbidden to proclaim the heir to the throne, Charles, or anyone else, as king.
To govern the country, Parliament appointed a 40-member Council of State, chaired by Bradshaw. The House of Commons was expanded again - about 150 people. The tone in the council was set by the officers - Oliver Cromwell and John Hutchison. The poet John Milton was appointed secretary of the council.
By decision of the State Council, Cromwell was sent to Ireland to subjugate local Catholics who did not want to recognize the power of England. Arriving there, he brutally dealt with the enemy. There was also a victory in Scotland.
Many European powers condemned what was happening in England. Among them was Holland. Holland claimed the role of primacy in the dispute between the sea powers; the Dutch captains did not want to endure humiliation and salute the English ships, which was the cause of the war. The war was fierce, but still the Dutch had to come to terms.
Already in 1650, the English bourgeois republic was recognized by Spain, then by France.
England was strengthening its position in international politics, but problems were brewing in the republic itself. Members of parliament and state councils were seized with a thirst for enrichment. The new government did not stop the fencing process - all this caused discontent broad masses, as well as Cromwell himself.
In the same year, an emergency parliament was convened - the Small Parliament, which included 140 deputies, among whom were some religious enthusiasts. It was thanks to them that the Small Parliament abolished church marriage, replacing it with civil marriage, and abolished the tax farming system - army officers did not like such zeal.
They developed and introduced a constitution - the “Instrument of Government” - according to which, on December 16, 1653, Cromwell was proclaimed Lord Protector of England.
Under Cromwell, a state council of 15 people was formed. However, the possibility remained of convening a parliament, which, however, was not “free” at all.
To facilitate administration, England was divided into 12 districts, headed by “governors” called major generals. This regime was abolished in 1657.
Cromwell renounced the crown of England, but was able to appoint his son as heir to the post of protector.
Illness and constant stress worsened Cromwell's health and he died in 1658. Power passed to his son Richard Cromwell. However, facing the threat of defeat from the royalists, Richard Cromwell fled to France. Command of the army was seized by General Monck, who entered into negotiations with Charles II Stuart and prepared the return of the dynasty to the throne. On April 4, 1660, Charles signed an appeal to the people of England in Breda, in which he promised forgiveness to all who opposed the crown.
(Cromwell) - Lord Protector of England, b. in 1599 at Huntingdon. His family belonged to the middle nobility and rose to prominence during the era of the closure of the monasteries under Henry VIII, receiving, thanks to the patronage of Thomas Cromwell (q.v.), valuable confiscated estates. This fortune was significantly weakened due to the wasteful lifestyle of Cromwell’s closest ancestors. Oliver Cromwell's father, Robert Cromwell, an educated man, led a modest lifestyle, farming his estates and taking part in local government. His concerns about his large family (he had ten children, of whom Oliver was the fifth) were shared by his wife Elizabeth Steward, an intelligent and energetic woman, a zealous Puritan who had great influence on the upbringing of her famous son. In 1616, Cromwell entered Cambridge University, but in 1617 his father died, and he left Cambridge to take over the management of the estate he inherited. Subsequently, Cromwell studied law for some time in London, where he married Elizabeth Bourchier, daughter of a wealthy merchant of the City of London, in 1620; they had eight children. Cromwell's house in Huntingdon served as a refuge for those suffering persecution for religious beliefs. They said about him that his farm was going badly because he gathered workers around him twice a day, reasoned with them and prayed. In 1628 he was elected a member of the House of Commons from Huntingdon, but only once (February 11, 1629) took part in the debate, speaking in defense of the freedom to preach Puritan doctrines. In 1635-38. Cromwell, who moved to Ely, took some part in the struggle against the arbitrary imposition of ship taxes - a struggle that was mainly led by John Hampden, cousin and friend of Cromwell (q.v.). In so called. "long parliament" (q.v.) Cromwell was elected MP from Cambridge. His role, which was quite active here from the very beginning, began to especially increase since relations between the king and parliament worsened. When, at the beginning of 1642, Charles I left London and civil war became inevitable, Cromwell donated a significant sum of 500 pounds. Art. to defend people's rights, and in July of the same year organized two detachments of volunteers in Cambridge. In August 1642 it began internecine war(see Revolution in England) between the royal and parliamentary armies, and from then on for nine years Cromwell lived entirely the life of a soldier. Without any special military training, Cromwell, however, soon discovered outstanding abilities as a military leader, strategist and tactician, and managed from his volunteer troops to form the core of a regular army, which in discipline, art and courage reached a high degree of perfection. Cromwell's success was greatly facilitated by the systematic implementation of the principle that he adhered to when organizing detachments - to recruit people who were conscientious about the cause and filled with religious inspiration for the tasks of the struggle. To counteract the connection of the northern parts royal army with the southern ones, Cromwell formed the “Eastern Association” from several adjacent counties, which became the basis of the independent army. Promoted to colonel in March 1643, Cromwell, with his exemplary cavalry detachment, won an important victory over an enemy twice as strong at Grantham (in May of the same year), and in October, together with the Earl of Manchester, won the great battle of Wainsby. In February 1644, Parliament appointed Cromwell to a committee for the supreme direction of the war effort. As assistant to the Earl of Manchester, Cromwell was in fact the main commander of the eastern army, which consisted almost entirely of zealous Puritans. In July 1644, a decisive battle took place near York, at Marston Moor. At one time, success leaned towards the side of the royal army, but Cromwell, who commanded the left wing, crashed into the enemy army and ensured its complete defeat. This victory gave Cromwell enormous popularity, which was strengthened by the failures of other leaders of the parliamentary army. The defeat of the Earl of Manchester at Newbury served as a reason for Cromwell to initiate a formal charge in Parliament against Manchester, who, for his part, accused Cromwell of disobedience. Victory remained with Cromwell; in his opinion, parliament adopted the so-called. "Self-denying Ordinance" or act of self-denial, according to which members of both houses (including Essex, Manchester, etc.) had to relinquish command. At the same time, Cromwell carried out a new organization of troops (New Model), according to which three irregular armies were merged into one regular army, under the command of Fairfax. An exception was made for Cromwell to the Self-denying Ordinance; being, as it were, an assistant to Fairfax, he played a leading role in further events of the war, especially in the battle of Nezby (in June 1645), which ended in the complete defeat of the royal army. Now political issues have come to the fore, shifting the center of gravity of events to parliament (about the struggle among the latter, negotiations with the king, their failure, the second civil war, the “Pride cleansing” of parliament, the trial of the king and his execution, see Great Britain, The Long Parliament and Charles I). With the proclamation of the republic and the abolition of the House of Lords, supreme power was concentrated in the House of Commons, and the highest executive branch was entrusted to a council of 42 members, chaired by Bradshaw. Its most influential member was Cromwell, whom critical circumstances increasingly brought to the fore into the position of dictator. This was especially facilitated by the brilliant victories won by Cromwell in Ireland, where he was sent in August. 1649 to suppress the uprising (see Ireland), and in Scotland, where the son of the executed Charles I was proclaimed king under the name Charles II. During 1650 and 1651 Cromwell inflicted a series of defeats on the Scots and proclaimed the annexation of Scotland to England. On the other hand, Cromwell had predominant influence in parliament; one of its main manifestations was the implementation (in October 1651) of the “Navigation Act” (q.v.), which greatly contributed to the development of England’s maritime power. When, little by little, the conflict between parliament and the army, which demanded new elections, intensified, Cromwell decided to resort to force and on April 20. 1653, suddenly appearing in parliament, he dissolved it (see Long Parliament). This coup, which gave Cromwell dictatorial power, was generally greeted with sympathy. The monarchists hoped that Cromwell would call Charles II to the English throne, content with the position of Viceroy of Ireland; others believed that Cromwell would take the crown himself. The title of Generalissimo of the Three Kingdoms granted to Cromwell by Parliament made him the sole bearer of power; but to establish a legal order of government it was necessary to convene a new parliament. Its formation was accomplished not through general elections, but through a special procedure. First, lists of “pious” people belonging to various dissident sects were compiled in the counties, and from among them 155 deputies were elected: 139 from England, 6 from Wallis, 6 from Ireland and 4 from Scotland. In his opening speech, Cromwell, transferring supreme power to parliament, pointed out the significance of the civil war: pious people freed the people from the monarchical yoke, and now they are called to rule the people. Cromwell hoped that these selected representatives of Puritanism would establish the system of life that he most desired, but he soon had to be disappointed in them. The Small or "Burbon" Parliament revealed such decisive desires for the most radical reforms in all parts of the social and political system that it caused Cromwell, who never lost sight of practical side affairs, serious concerns; the occupation of parliament came to an end in December 1653. Following this, Cromwell, not wanting to single-handedly bear the burden of power and its responsibility, convened a military council, with the participation of several other persons. This council drew up a draft constitution called the Instrument of Government. Organs senior management in the three United Kingdoms there are the communities of England, Scotland and Ireland, convened in parliament for three years consisting of 400 members, then the Lord Protector and the Council of State, consisting of no less than 13 and no more than 21 persons. The Protector exercises his power with the assistance and control of the State Council; he has the highest command of land and naval forces, the right to declare war and make peace. When Parliament is not in session, the Protector and the Council of State may issue ordinances that have the force of law. The protector is elected by the states. advice for life. The title of protector was offered to Cromwell, who on December 16. 1653 and assumed supreme power. By virtue of the Instrument of Government, the first Parliament was to be convened on September 3, 1654, so that for nine months the government of the country was entirely in the hands of Cromwell. During this time, he showed extraordinary energy and legislative creativity, issuing 82 ordinances concerning the most important subjects (and subsequently approved by Parliament) - strengthening the connection between Scotland and Ireland with England, regulating church governance in England, with the provision equal rights three main religious groups (Presbyterians, Baptists and Independents), reform of the court, in order to make it more accessible to the population, revision of criminal laws, etc. In the field of domestic policy, Cromwell soon had to face great difficulties. Among the assembled new parliament, a desire was revealed to radically change the regulations of the Instrument of Government and, in particular, to limit the rights of the protector. Cromwell insisted on the inviolability of the most important foundations of the established order; when parliament passed regulations that violated religious freedom, rebelled against taxes established for the maintenance of troops, and postponed, in order to prolong the session, the voting of funds for the army and navy, Cromwell dissolved parliament in January 1655 and within one year and eight months did not convene a new one. The Instrument of Government gave the Protector the right to levy, without the consent of Parliament, fees sufficient to cover the costs of government, and after the dissolution of Parliament Cromwell exercised this right. Many, however, refused to pay, citing the fact that the Instrument's regulations, not approved by Parliament, were not binding. Some judges agreed with this; Cromwell removed them from office. At the same time, discontent began to emerge sharply both among the leading Republicans and and especially among the royalists. In February 1655, a general uprising was planned; an attack was made on the judges who arrived at the session. Then Cromwell divided England into ten military districts and appointed a general (major-general) in each of them. powers to maintain order, and for the maintenance of troops and police, he established a 10% tax on royalist estates. Cromwell’s foreign policy was very successful, thanks to which England took a powerful position among European states, especially as a maritime power. Even before the establishment of the protectorate, the struggle between England and England began. Holland; the English fleet, under the command of the Puritan Black (q.v.), won brilliant victories; a peace treaty with Holland (April 15. 1654) strengthened England's dominance at sea. Treaties beneficial for England's maritime trade were concluded with Portugal, France, Denmark and Sweden. Cromwell's struggle with Spain also had significant success. In general, Cromwell's political art marked the beginning of England's influence on the course of world politics. The need for subsidies for the war with Spain prompted Cromwell to convene a new parliament (in September 1656). ). The opposition had great success in the elections; to weaken it, Cromwell took advantage of the right granted to the State Council to verify elections and achieved the removal of about a hundred of his opponents from parliament. In this way a favorable majority was secured, which voted for a military subsidy of 400,000 pounds. erased Parliament refused to legalize the exclusive powers of the generals placed at the head of the military districts, but, in view of the royalist conspiracies against Cromwell's life, it took some measures to protect the protector's safety: special tribunals were established to try the conspirators. In January 1657, an attempt was made on Cromwell's life, and his deliverance from danger was celebrated with great celebrations. On March 25, 1657, by a majority of 123 votes to 62, it was decided to ask Cromwell to accept the title of King of England, Scotland and Ireland. Cromwell hesitated to answer, knowing that the army was not sympathetic to the restoration of the monarchy. General Lambert and one hundred officers asked Cromwell to renounce the crown, and on May 8 a similar petition from many officers was presented to Parliament. On the same day, Cromwell announced that he was renouncing the crown. Meanwhile, parliament developed a new constitution in a monarchical spirit, which was voted on, replacing only the word “king” with the word “protector”. On May 25, Cromwell approved this new constitution, which gave him more extensive rights, and, among other things, the right to appoint a successor. At the same time, the upper house was restored, the members of which were appointed by the protector. After the publication of the new constitution, Cromwell was again proclaimed Lord Protector in the Church of Westminster on June 26, 1657; this was arranged with special solemnity, and Cromwell was no longer in civilian dress, as the first time, but in a purple robe and with a scepter. With the opening, in January 1658, of a new session of parliament, the strengthening of the opposition became noticeable, partly due to the transition of some of Cromwell’s adherents to the upper house, partly due to the return of the deputies removed in 1656. Without attacking the protector himself, the opposition fought with the upper house and tried to change the new constitution. Twice Cromwell appealed to Parliament with an exhortation to conduct peaceful legislative work, but his appeals remained without result; then Cromwell, on February 4, 1658, dissolved parliament. The continuous struggle tired Cromwell and broke his strength: on September 3, 1658, he died. He was buried with extraordinary pomp (80,000 pounds were spent on his funeral. erased), in Westminster Abbey. Shortly before his death, Cromwell appointed his son as his successor. Richard Cromwell(1626-1712), who was proclaimed protector, but, being an insignificant and insignificant person, could not cope with the difficulties of the situation and already in May 1659 was forced to renounce his title (see Great Britain).
The literature on Cromwell is extremely extensive; For a detailed list of it, see the article on Cromwell in the Dictionary of National Biography (vol. XIII). Major monographs: Forster, "Life of Cromwell" (1839); Carlyle, "Oliver Cromwell, his Letters and Speeches" (1845); Andrews, "Life of O.C." (1868); Harrison, "Oliver Cromwell" (1888); Church, "Life of O.C." (1894); Guizot, "Histoire de la république d"Angleterre et de Cromwell"; M. Bosch, "O. C. und die protestanische Revolution" (1885); Hoenig, "Oliver Cromwell" (1887-1889). See also bibliographical notes for the article The Long Parliament.