Borrowing words in modern English. Start in science

Learning English vocabulary is one of the main stages in learning a language. This is what many linguists say, i.e., putting vocabulary on one side of the scale and grammar on the other, they believe that the first will outweigh. Where is the truth?.. Let's figure it out! Perhaps it is not for nothing that “in the beginning was the Word...”, and even if not in the most theological sense. And if you use logic, you can build a deductive chain: for interpersonal communication and designation of objects, a person needed a tool - a word (lexeme) - this is the basic unit of vocabulary. But when the need arose to give an invisible series of sounds (the spoken word) a physical, visible form, then writing was born, and then grammar. This is exactly what needed to be proven.

Analysis of English vocabulary by language sources

Now it is clear why linguist teachers always devote more time to studying vocabulary. We will help you independently study and understand the basics of vocabulary, and then choose the language category that best suits your goals and needs. In the Germanic group of languages, English has settled in a dominant position due to its increased popularity and high degree of distribution throughout the territory globe. It is a very progressive, ever-changing language. English vocabulary is very colorful and multifaceted, so it is important to approach its study from the right angle.

Two etymological groups of English vocabulary

Initially, it is necessary to indicate the differentiation of vocabulary into two etymological subgroups, i.e., according to its origin, it is divided into:

1. Native words - original (native) dictionary
2. Loanwords (borrowings) - borrowed (borrowed) dictionary

Native lexicon - native (original) vocabulary consists of terms that come to us from Ancient British - ancient British, as well as Anglo-Saxon - Anglo-Saxon languages, including those that contain suffixes and prefixes, in addition to the original root word.

These languages, in their geographical and temporal evolution, inevitably collided with Old Norse, hence the partial similarity of some words in seemingly different languages. The subgroup of native vocabulary is quite small and accounts for no more than 30% of the total vocabulary of the English vocabulary. However, this same 30% is also the most common and frequently used in common English speech. In addition, native words have the greatest valency (connective force) and range of use, and are more polysemantic (polysemantic), so they often form set phrases and phrases.

Examples of words belonging to the original vocabulary

Loanwords - borrowed words- these are words that came from any foreign language (source or primary source) and were adjusted to the model of the original words of the recipient’s language. Very often, without a thorough etymological analysis, it is almost impossible to identify a “foreign” word, especially if it was borrowed a long time ago. The most effective methods Borrowing words from another language is interaction, communication with representatives of other nations. It is important to note that a borrowed word is not always native to the source language. Here it is important not to confuse the source of borrowing (the source of the loan) and the origin of borrowing (the original source of the loan): the word originates in the original source, and the word is borrowed from the source (i.e. the source also borrowed this lexeme at one time). And yet, the more similar the structure of two interacting languages, the more simpler words from one to penetrate into another.

Methods of borrowing in English vocabulary

The stock of borrowed terminology is formed in three possible ways:

1. Borrowing proper - direct borrowing
2. Loan translation (calque) - literal translation of a phrase or expression from the source language into English
3. Semantic loan - semantic borrowing, i.e. an already existing word in the English language is assigned the meaning of the word from the source language

Over the 16 centuries of its formation, the English language has undergone enormous changes. He was influenced by the warlike barbarian tribes of the Scandinavians, “running nearby”, cunning Roman merchants, French neighbors - conquerors and fashionistas, highly developed German friends and, of course, the first Greek philosophers and scientists. Greek borrowings and Latin (Latinisms) are closely intertwined, since these two languages ​​are considered the ancestors of most European languages. However, Latin is still considered the main “donor” in in this case.

The first wave of English Latinisms

The first adstrate (layer) reflects the trade and merchant relations that existed between the ancestors of the Anglo-Saxons (from central Europe) and Roman businessmen. These were mainly terms denoting goods, products, currency and related units of measurement.

Later, words used in construction, marine terminology, and units of length were added to the first layer.

*chester is also included in the names of other cities - Rochester, Manchester, Cholchester, etc.

Second wave of English Latinisms

The second adstrate of Latinisms was formed during the emergence of Christianity as the main religion among the English (VI-VII centuries AD). The language of church services and lessons in monastic schools was Latin, as a result of which many church and scientific terms migrated to English.

The third wave of English Latinisms

The third and final wave of Latinisms stretched from the Renaissance to the times of the Scientific and Revolutionary Revolution ( scientific and technological revolution) and embraced all areas of science, culture and everyday life, as well as literature, politics, philosophy and religion. Many words penetrated through literary (book) means, others through oral communication. The volume of the third layer is very large and partly consists of internationalisms Latin origin, so we will consider only its most widely used elements (tokens).

Below are examples of internationalisms:

Greek borrowings from English vocabulary

Initially, Greek lexemes penetrated into English through intermediary languages: Latin (bishop, abbot, angel, tragedy, devil) or French (fancy, idea, chronicle, catalogue). However, during the Renaissance, after mass culturalization, when Greek literature became more popular, many words from the sphere of art and culture migrated to English.

Gallicisms (French loanwords)

In the 11th century and for the next three centuries, northern England was under Norman occupation, which led to a massive "invasion" of Old French words into the English language - these were mainly administrative, legislative and military terms. Many everyday terms were also used. It must be remembered, as we noted earlier, that a significant part of the French vocabulary consisted of Latin borrowings. So the French language served not only as a primary source, but also as an intermediary (source) between Latin, Old Germanic and English.
It is clear that some words undergo so-called assimilation (change in form, meaning, adjustment to the English template), while others retain their original form. French vocabulary and to this day influences English through many fashion trends. Next we present a table of the most common Gallicisms:

Modified words:

Spanish loanwords

The Spanish adstrate of borrowings began to take shape in the 16th century thanks to colonization and trade relations, and later due to the military conflict that arose. Some lexemes passed from Spanish to English via French. Spanish also became the source of some early borrowed Arabic terms. As a result, English has a very diverse source of new words. A few examples follow:

We looked at the types of the most widespread borrowings, although in reality the English language is much more diverse, and we still have to learn many words that came from Persian, Arabic, Indian, Dutch, Portuguese, Italian, Russian and other languages. But despite all the many non-native words, English does not lose its originality, it develops and becomes even more interesting every day and successfully continues to adopt the words it likes from its “relatives”, “neighbors”, etc.

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XVI city research conference for schoolchildren “First steps into science”

Borrowings in English

8 B class MOBU secondary school No. 13, Sochi.

Head: Belyaeva Irina Aleksandrovna,

Teacher in English

MOBU secondary school No. 13

Sochi, 2016

Introduction

The history of borrowings, more than any other area of ​​vocabulary, is connected with the history of a people in its relations with other peoples.

If we consider the vocabulary of the English language, then all the words included in it should be considered English, with the exception of those words that, by their form, betray their foreign origin.

But there are relatively few such words in the English language. The overwhelming majority of words are perceived in the modern language as English words, whatever their actual origin. In fact, the original English words are those that have been known since the Old English period. They make up less than half of the English vocabulary. The rest vocabulary language- words of foreign origin that came from Latin, Greek, French, Scandinavian and other languages. Words of foreign origin are called borrowings.

Borrowing lexical elements from one language to another is a very ancient phenomenon and is already known to the languages ​​of the ancient world. For the fate of borrowed words in a new language, the path by which they penetrated into this language has a certain significance. There can be two such ways. Firstly, the oral route, that is, through live communication between two multilingual peoples or the assimilation of the names of objects of material culture. In this case, words are more quickly fully assimilated into the language. Secondly, the book or written way, i.e. borrowing foreign words from foreign language texts when translating these texts into the native language. In this case, words retain their phonetic, spelling and grammatical features longer.

When borrowing, the word is adapted to the phonological system of the borrowing language, i.e. sounds missing from it are replaced with the closest ones. This adaptation, i.e. assimilation can occur gradually: sometimes foreign words for some time retain in their pronunciation sounds that are absent in a given language. In addition to phonetic, the borrowed word also undergoes grammatical (morphological) assimilation. The nature of this assimilation depends on how well the external appearance of the borrowed word corresponds to the morphological models of the borrowing language.

Borrowings in different languages ​​had different effects on the enrichment of vocabulary. In some languages ​​they did not have such an influence that could significantly affect the vocabulary of the language. In other languages, borrowings in different historical eras had such a significant impact on the vocabulary of the language that even function words, such as pronouns and prepositions borrowed from other languages, replaced the original function words.

This is exactly what happened with the English language. During the long history of its development, the English language has absorbed a significant number of foreign words, which in one way or another entered the dictionary.

However, despite the fact that in English a large number of words are words borrowed from other languages, this language has not lost its originality. It remained the language of the Germanic group with all the characteristic features inherent in it throughout its development, and the changes that it underwent in connection with borrowings only enriched its vocabulary.

Even in the early Middle Ages, the English language accepted a large number of borrowings from Scandinavian languages ​​(including such basic words as skin “skin”, ill “sick” and even she “she”. The most massive flow of borrowings is medieval, after the Norman Conquest, fromOld French ; as a result, almost half of the English vocabulary has Romance roots. In modern times, a large number of scientists entered the languageLatinisms and new borrowings from continental languages.English language contains a large number of very high-frequency primordialGermanic words : such as, articles , prepositions, conjunctions, numerals, auxiliariesVerbs , as well as words denoting objects and concepts of everyday life (child, water, come, good, bad). Moreover, the grammatical structure, essentially Germanic, remained untouched by foreign influence.

When learning English, there is a need to understand the origin of words for the best pronunciation and perception of words that came into the English language from outside. In the process of working on this topic, I tried to create a selection for schoolchildren, in the form of a dictionary of borrowings. This is the relevance of this topic.

Purpose of the study: to explore and analyze borrowings of the English language.

Research objectives:

1) Explore borrowings and their classifications.

2) Analyze the classification of borrowings in English.

3) Systematize classifications.

4) Compile a mini-dictionary for use in foreign language lessons.

Object of study: borrowings in English.

Subject of research: analysis of classifications of borrowings in the English language.

The work consists of an introduction, two sections, conclusions to the sections, a conclusion, and a list of sources used.

1. Theoretical foundations of the concept of borrowing in English

1.1 Borrowings in English

Borrowings constitute a special layer of vocabulary both in terms of nomination processes and in terms of motivation. Being one of the possible answers to the needs of nomination arising as a result of language contacts and expansion under the influence of other linguistic societies, they represent a certain economy of linguistic effort when generating speech, since ready-made units of a foreign language are used to fill the nominative gaps that have arisen in a given language . At the same time, the loss of the previous associative connections that existed in the language from which they were borrowed entails the loss of a source of motivation that may be inherent in the borrowed words in the language. This causes significant difficulties in recognizing their meaning in the process of speech perception.
Borrowing as a process of using elements of one language in another is due to the contradictory nature of a linguistic sign: its arbitrariness as a force allowing borrowing and involuntariness as a factor preventing borrowing. This, apparently, explains the fact that the process of borrowing in modern English, as well as in the Russian language, according to available data, is very unproductive. In quantitative terms, it is significantly inferior to such processes of nomination as word formation and semantic derivation (word formation). The above, however, does not mean that the share of borrowings in modern English is not so large. Borrowed from approximately 50 languages ​​of the world, lexical units make up almost 75% of the vocabulary of the English language and include layers of vocabulary borrowed in various historical eras and under the influence of various conditions of development and existence. Among them
– historical, geographical, social, economic, cultural and other conditions. Being the result of a long historical interaction of languages, borrowing as a process and borrowing as a result of this process are of significant interest for the history of language, within which not only the reasons for borrowings, but also their source languages ​​receive detailed coverage. Also noteworthy are the ways, forms and types of borrowings, as well as the transformations that a borrowed word undergoes in a new linguistic environment. Borrowings are interesting, first of all, for the impact they have on the systemic structure of the vocabulary of a particular language, as well as for their special status in the language that borrowed them, if a number of genetic characteristics are preserved.
This influence is most obvious when the process of borrowing involves not only individual units, but entire groups of words between which certain relationships existed in the source language.
A significant number of borrowings from the English language (e.g. `rural`
(`rural`) – from the Latin `ruralis`, `rus`, `ruris` (`village`, `arable land`,
`field`); `cardiac` (`heart`) – from the Greek `kardiakos`, `kardia`
(“heart”), etc.) turn out to be genetically derivative in the source language and are characterized by structural-semantic dependence and deducibility. Provided that both members of such word-formation pairs are borrowed, the derivational relations between them are preserved in the borrowing language.
E.g., gloss – `gloss`, `marginal note`, `interpretation`; glossary
`glossary`, `dictionary`; dynasty – `dynasty`, dynastic – `dynastic`, etc. Given the group nature of borrowings in the English language, there is not only a replenishment of the subsystem of simple and derivative words. A significant number of morphologically distinct units arise, whose complexity is well felt by native English speakers. As a result, new word-formation models are formed. Thus, both the composition of morphemes in the English language and its word formation are significantly expanded.
(derivative) possibilities.

The life of borrowed words in a new language is especially interesting.
Many borrowings, under the influence of the system into which they entered, undergo significant phonetic, grammatical and even semantic changes, adapting, respectively, to the phonetic, grammatical and semantic laws of this system.
The process of assimilation can be so deep that the foreign origin of such words is not felt by native English speakers and is discovered only through etymological analysis[v].

This is most true, for example, for Scandinavian and early Latin borrowings such as get - `receive`, skill - `skill`, sky - `sky`, - skirt `skirt`, skin - `skin`, they - `they`, street – `street` and others.

In contrast to fully assimilated and assimilated borrowings, partially assimilated foreign language units retain traces of their foreign origin in the form of phonetic, (e.g. garage, chaise-longue, chic), grammatical (e.g. singular - datum, nucleus, antenna, plural - datd, nuclei, antennae) and semantic features (e.g. taiga, tundra, borsch, shchi, pelmeni, vodka, valenki, samovar, matrioshka, kopeck, rouble, knout and other borrowings from the Russian language, denoting realities and concepts alien to the English).

In order to adequately describe them in explanatory dictionaries of the English language, lexicographers widely use encyclopedic information informing about places of distribution, forms of existence, methods of using designated objects and phenomena.

Thus, when interpreting the words taiga and tundra, along with indicating the generic characteristics and differential features that make it possible to see the specificity and difference of these realities from the realities that are closest and known to native speakers of English, instructions are given climate zone, geographic range: taiga – swampy coniferous forest of Siberia, beginning where the tundra ends; tundra–treeless plain characteristic of arctic and subarctic regions.

The description of the borrowed names of monetary units such as rouble also implies an indication of both the fact that this is a monetary unit that occupies a certain place in the general system of monetary units, and the country in which it is in circulation: rouble – see money table: 100 kopecks, Russia .

1.2.Main methods of borrowing in English

Borrowing vocabulary can occur orally and in writing. In the case of oral borrowing, words are quickly assimilated into the language.
Words borrowed in writing retain their phonetic, spelling and grammatical features longer.

Borrowing can be direct, and also occurs with the help of an intermediary language. Intermediary languages ​​were, for example, Latin (many Greek words came into English through Latin) and French (from which many Latin words were borrowed).

Among the main ways of borrowing vocabulary are transcription, transliteration, tracing and semantic borrowing.

Transcription (phonetic method) is a borrowing of a vocabulary unit in which its sound form is preserved (sometimes slightly modified in accordance with the phonetic features of the language into which the word is borrowed).

Transcription (phonetic method) - borrowing a vocabulary unit, which preserves its sound form.

In English from French: ballet, bouquet, from English: football, trailer

In this way, the words football, trailer, jeans sport, labor, travel, people, castle, fortress and others were borrowed from the English language. In English, regime, ballet, bouquet and many others are borrowed from French. Such words are characterized by the fact that their general sound complex turns out to be new for the borrowing language, although each of their constituent sounds, with rare exceptions, is replaced by the sound of the language into which they fall.

Transliteration is a method of borrowing in which the spelling of a foreign word is borrowed: the letters of the borrowed word are replaced with letters of the native language. When transliterating, the word is read according to the rules of reading the native language. The words cruise, motel, club were borrowed from English into Russian using the method of transliteration.Transliteration - a method of borrowing in which the way of writing a foreign word is borrowed, the letters of the borrowed word are replaced with letters of the native language. When transliterating, the word is read according to the rules of the native language.

audio lat. listen - audience, audible

demos Greek people – demography, democracy

Many proper names are also transliterated when borrowed from English: Washington
(Washington), Texas (Texas), London (London). In the English language there are many words of Greek, Latin and French origin, which have retained their graphic features, although they are read according to the rules of the English language.

Tracing is a method of borrowing in which the associative meaning and structural model of a word or phrase are borrowed.
Calques are borrowings in the form of a literal translation of a foreign word or expression, i.e., its exact reproduction by means of the receiving language while preserving the morphological structure and motivation.

Tracing – a method of borrowing in which the components of a borrowed word or phrase are translated separately and combined according to the model of a foreign word or phrase.

Many words based on Latin and French have been created in English using the tracing method:

masterpiece - fr. masterpiece
When tracing, the components of a borrowed word or phrase are translated separately and combined according to the model of a foreign word or phrase. For example, the German noun Vaterland, translated in parts, gave the English tracing paper Fatherland; Russian noun
“suicide” is a calque of the Latin suicide (sui – `oneself, cide – `murder); The English noun self-service, borrowed into the Russian language by tracing, has the form `self-service`.

Such tracings are, for example, many borrowings from the Indian language that have become international: pale-face, pipe of peace
`peace pipe`. There are many cripples among borrowings from Russian: palace of culture, house of rest.

A large number of words and phraseological units based on Latin and French have been created in English using the tracing method.
Calques are, for example, the following vocabulary units: below one`s dignity – `below one’s dignity (from Latin infra dignitatem); under consideration – `discussed’ (from Latin sub juice); vicious circle –
“vicious circle” (from Latin circulus vitiosus); masterpiece – `masterpiece’ (from French chef d`oeuvre) still life – `still life (from French nature mort); pen name – `pseudonym’ (from French nom de plume) and others.

Semantic borrowing is the borrowing of a new meaning, often figurative, to a word already existing in the language. The words pioneer and brigade existed in the English language even before the penetration of “Sovietism” into it, but they received the meanings: “member of a children’s communist organization” and “work collective” under the influence of the Russian language of the post-October period.

Semantic borrowings occur especially easily in closely related languages. A number of examples can be found among Scandinavian borrowings. For example, the Old English verb dwellan, “to wander, linger,” under the influence of the Old Norse dveljawun, developed in modern English into dwell, “to live.” Thus, in terms of sound, dwell goes back to English, and in terms of semantics to the Scandinavian verb.

There are more cases of semantic borrowing among nouns than among verbs. The noun gift in Old English did not mean a gift, but “a ransom for a wife” and then, as a result of association by contiguity -
`wedding`. The Scandinavian word gift meant “gift, gift,” and this was reflected in the meaning of the original word. We got ours from Scandinavian modern meanings words: bread (in Old English “piece of bread”), dream (in Old English “joy”), holm (in Old English “ocean, sea”), plough (in Old English “ocean, sea”) English
`measure of land`).

Tracing, transcription, transliteration, semantic borrowing as methods of borrowing should be distinguished from translation methods of the same name. Without differing in their mechanism, they differ in their final results: when translating, the vocabulary does not increase, whereas when borrowing, new vocabulary units appear in the “piggy bank”.

Since the process of assimilation of foreign language elements begins from the moment they are introduced into the language by translators, it is appropriate to say a few words about the technique of translating specific foreign names. When translating words and expressions with an unclear associative meaning, as well as when translating names of realities, transcription, less often transliteration, tracing and explanatory translation can be used (transferring the meaning of a foreign word or phrase using native means, it is sometimes necessary to resort to comments (for example, “eggheads” V
The USA mockingly calls intellectuals and intellectuals).

A technique that is a type of explanatory translation and tracing can also be used - replacing associative meaning.
However, this does not exclude the need for comment. The abuse of transcription and tracing as translation methods clogs the language. If the motivation is unclear, transcription and tracing without commentary are unacceptable, since translation in the proper sense of the word in this case is absent.

2. Classification of borrowings in English

2.1 classification of borrowings

The words available in the vocabulary of a language can be classified: by the source of borrowing, by what aspect of the word is borrowed and by the degree of assimilation.

I. According to the source and era of borrowing in the vocabulary of the English language, the following are distinguished:

Celtic, Latin, Scandinavian, French, as well as borrowings from Greek, Italian, Dutch, Spanish, Russian, German and other languages, due to economic, political, cultural and other ties with the respective peoples.

The classification by source of borrowing has been most fully developed, but is not the only possible one.

II. Borrowings can also be classified according to which aspect of the word is new to the receiving language. According to this principle, borrowings are divided into phonetic, calques, semantic and borrowings of word-forming elements.

The first of the named types, i.e. phonetic borrowings constitute the main and most numerous group. They are characterized by the fact that their overall sound complex turns out to be new for the borrowing language, although each of their constituent sounds, with rare exceptions, is replaced by the sound of the language into which they fall. Sport, labour, travel, people, castle, fortress, etc. are precisely phonetic borrowings.

Calques are borrowings in the form of a literal translation of a foreign word or expression, i.e. its accurate reproduction by means of the receiving language while preserving the morphological structure. Such tracings are, for example, many borrowings from the Indian language that have become international: pale-face, pipe of peace. There are many cripples among Sovietisms: collective farm.

There are more cases of semantic borrowing among nouns than among verbs. The noun gift in Old English did not mean a gift, but a ransom for a wife and, then, as a result of association by contiguity, a wedding. The Scandinavian word gift meant gift, present, and this was reflected in the meaning of the original word. From Scandinavian the words received their modern meanings: bread (in Old English a piece of bread), dream (in Old English joy).

Not only a word, but also individual meaningful parts of a word can be borrowed. Morphemes are borrowed, of course, not in isolation, but in words: if some foreign language morphemes are included in a larger number of borrowed words, then the morphological structure of these words begins to be realized, and the morphemes themselves are included in the number of word-forming means of the receiving language.

Many Greek and Latin words have become international prefixes. For example, anti-, inter-, sub-, ultra-, etc. The Greek suffixes are widely used in all languages: -ist, -ism.

III. According to the degree of their assimilation, borrowings can be divided into:

Fully assimilated, i.e. corresponding to all morphological, phonetic and spelling norms of the borrowing language and perceived by speakers as English and not foreign words. Some of them can be attributed to the main vocabulary: travel, street.

Partially assimilated, i.e. remaining foreign in their pronunciation, spelling or grammatical forms: Analysis, pl analyses, restaurant, canal. These words are often characterized by instability in pronunciation.

Partially assimilated and denoting concepts associated with other countries and having no English equivalent. For example: from Russian: steppe, rouble, verst. This group of words includes the names of concepts associated with foreign national culture, for example, the names of various national clothes, homes, musical instruments, titles, professions, utensils, etc., and with foreign nature: i.e. names of animals and plants.

Some borrowings were also subject to conversion, for example, the adjective Soviet, formed from the corresponding noun, as well as the adjective kolkhoz in the phrase kolkhoz member. In all cases, the same type of conversion is observed: the formation of an adjective from a noun.

International words. It often happens that when denoting an important new concept, a word is borrowed not into one language, but into many languages. This creates international fund vocabulary, which includes international terminology of various fields of human activity: politics, philosophy, science, technology, art, as well as many abstract words.

International, or international words, borrowed from one source, have graphic and sound similarities and, coinciding to some extent in meaning, constitute, as it were, the common property of a number of languages. Most of them are the result of the parallel enrichment of new languages ​​at the expense of the vocabulary of the ancients, i.e. Latin and Greek. Another part of them comes from modern languages, for example from Russian: soviet, sputnik, perestroika. International words do not include related correspondences, i.e. words whose presence in a number of languages ​​is a consequence of the relationship of these languages ​​and their origin from one language - the stem:

Russian English German

mother mother mother

nose nose

goose goose Hans

A large number of Sovietisms are widely used in English and other Western European languages.

Many of them have become international words in their direct Russian form or through their calques:

Russian English

Leninism Leninism

Bolshevik bolshevik

Komsomol Komsomol

collective farm kolkhoz

Borrowings from Latin. In England, as in other countries of Western Europe, the Latin language occupied a very unique position. For many centuries after the introduction of Christianity in the country, this language was used as the language of worship.

Another area of ​​its application during the middle period was scientific treatises, for the writing of which medieval scientists had to have a good knowledge of the Latin language. Scientists who wrote their works in the national English language, which at that time began to gradually displace Latin from scientific use, also widely used Latin words.

Gradually, a significant layer of Latin words was deposited in the English language of the 16th-17th centuries, gleaned not through oral communication, as was the case with borrowings from the Latin language in the Old English period, but by extracting them from books.

Legal lat. Legalis - legal

Manual lat. Manualis - manual

Neutral lat. Neutralis - neutral

Solar lat. Solaris - sunny

Major lat major, compare. Art. from magnus - big

Minor Latin minor, compare. Art. from minus - small

Absent from lat. verb abesse - to be absent

To decorate from lat. verb decorare - to decorate

To indicate from Lat. verb indicare - to indicate

Borrowings from French. Business and cultural ties between England and France did not stop. These relationships contributed to the appearance of a number of French words in English, and in French a number of English words.

Characteristic features of borrowings from this period are the preservation of French pronunciation and spelling. So, the ending -ice, -in(e) is pronounced like , , for example:

Machine - machine

Magazine - magazine

Police - police

The ending -et is pronounced like, i.e. close to French, for example:

Ballet - ballet

Bouquet - bouquet

The ending -que is pronounced as [k], for example:

Grotesque - grotesque

Picturesque - picturesque

Borrowings from Italian. In the 14th century in Italy there was a trading bourgeoisie with significant in cash. Along with the growth of the commercial bourgeoisie, an intelligentsia appeared in the country, which included doctors, artists, architects, and teachers, who created a high culture.

During the development of capitalism in England, especially in the 14th century, representatives of the upper strata of English society showed great interest in Italy. Numerous visits by the British to Italian cities and direct acquaintance with Italian culture had a great influence on the spread of this culture in England, which was accompanied by the study of the Italian language. During this period, the English language was replenished with a number of words borrowed from the Italian language.

Among them are words related to trade, financial transactions and management. accounting who received at one time in

Italy has undergone significant development. One of these words is the word bank. It comes from the Italian word banca, which means bench, shelf.

To understand this etymology, we should remember that in the 13th-14th centuries, usury flourished in the northern Italian republics, the essence of which was that moneylenders lent money to merchants at a certain interest rate. They usually sat in the squares at low tables called banco, named after the similarity of the tables to the banca bench. Soon, the bank institution that arose on the basis of these operations also began to bear the name banco. The word bank entered the English language in the 16th century.

In the field of architecture, nouns were borrowed: balcony - balcony, fresco - fresco.

Especially many words were borrowed from the field of music and musical culture. This should include:

A) the name of musical instruments, for example: piano - grand piano, violoin - violin;

C) names of musical works, such as: opera - opera, sonata - sonata, aria - aria.

The familiarity with Italian culture and way of life that the British received from visiting this country led to the borrowing of a number of words denoting concepts not associated with any specific profession or occupation. Here they can be called casino - casino, umbrella - umbrella, volcano - volcano, to manage - to manage, to manage, to isolate - to isolate.

Somewhat later, in the 17th-18th centuries, words such as macaroni - pasta, medico - doctor were borrowed.

Borrowings from Spanish.

The development of English foreign trade in the 16th century inevitably led to a clash of economic interests of both states, which was accompanied by a long and persistent struggle on land and at sea between Spain and England.

These factors, as well as the British visiting Spain and becoming acquainted with Spanish literature, which reached its dawn in the 15th-17th centuries, influenced the assimilation of a number of Spanish words by the English language.

First of all, we should name words related to trade. Here we can note a group of words denoting trade items exported from colonial countries, for example:

Banana Spanish Banana - banana

Cocao Spanish cocao - cocao

Chocolate is used chocolate - chocolate

Cigar Spanish cigarro - cigar

Potato Spanish patata - potato

Tobacco Spanish tabaco - tobacco

Tomato Spanish tomate - tomato

From what has been said above about Italian and Spanish borrowings in English, it is clear that the number of words borrowed from these languages ​​is relatively small. The fact that these words appeared in English only in the New English period may serve as an explanation for the fact that to this day these words still continue to retain their unstressed final vowel.

Borrowings from the Russian language.

In the memoirs that have reached us there are a number of Russian words that reflect the peculiarities of Russian life and government.

16TH CENTURY

Boyar – large landowner belonged to the upper stratum of the ruling class

Copeck – small coin, hundredth of a ruble

Kremlin – city fortress

Muzhik - ill-mannered, uneducated peasant

Rouble is the main monetary unit in Russia, equal to 100 kopecks

Tsar is the only sovereign and also the title of monarch

Verst – a measure of length equal to 1.06 km

17TH CENTURY

sarafan – women's peasant clothing, a type of sleeveless dress worn over a long-sleeved shirt

Telega - a four-wheel horse-drawn cart for transporting goods

Tsaritsa – wife of the king

18 CENTURY

balalaika – plucked string musical instrument with a triangular soundboard

isba – wooden peasant house

shuba – winter outerwear with fur

tsarevich – son of the king

19TH CENTURY

Borshch – soup with beets and other vegetables

Kasha – a dish made from cooked cereals

Shchee – cabbage soup

Vodka is a strong alcoholic drink

20TH CENTURY

Bolshevik – member of the Bolshevik Party

Commissar – a leading person with socio-political, administrative functions; political leader of a military unit, responsible along with the commander for its combat effectiveness and political condition

pelmeny - food - a type of small pies made from unleavened dough with meat, eaten boiled

Perestroika – reconstruction of the Soviet economic and political system

Sovkhoz is a socialist state agricultural enterprise (from the abbreviated expression “Soviet economy”)

Sputnik – spacecraft, using rocket devices launched into orbit into outer space

tvorog – condensed particles sour milk, pressed from whey

German borrowings. In English there are many words of German origin or scientific and technical terms created in Germany from classical roots.

The names of individual minerals and metals were borrowed from the German language, for example. bismuth, zink, nickel "nickel".

There are also Arabic borrowings in English.

Words of Arabic origin arsenal, caliber, cotton, zero, etc. have become widely known in the English language.

The following words were borrowed from the Persian language: magic, chess, lemon, lilac, bazar, caravan, divan, orange, check, checkmate (Persian shahmat “the king is dead”).

Many words of Persian origin have penetrated into European languages ​​and express widespread concepts (cf. in Russian: pajamas, chess, shawl, tulip, bazaar, caravan, sofa, check, orange, etc.).

The number of borrowings of Turkish origin is small. They relate mainly to the peculiarities of life and everyday life in Turkey, although some words have acquired more wide application in English and other European languages. Among the Turkish borrowings one can name bosh “nonsense”, turkey “turkey”, caftan, kiosk, effendi, ottoman “founder of the Turkish Empire”, aga “Turkish military leader”.

2.2 analysis of the main classifications of borrowed words

As a result of the influence of other languages ​​on the English language, some changes have occurred in its vocabulary.changes, the most notable of which are the following:

1) Many foreign vocabulary units appeared in the English language, especially words borrowed from French, Latin and Greek (Greek words were borrowed through Latin). Knowing the meanings of the most common roots of Greek and Latin origin helps to reveal the motivation of borrowed words and understand their meaning. Familiarity with the semantics of the most common Greek and Latin roots is also necessary for the correct pronunciation and spelling of common terms and common words.

Some Greek and Latin roots in modern English words.

E.g. Audio, lat. `listen` /auditorum, audience/;
Bios, Greek `life` /biology, biography/;
Centum, lat. `hundred` /cent, century, centenary/;
Demos - `people` /democracy, demography/;
Grapho, Greek `write` /graphic, phonograph/;
Homos, Greek `same` /homonym, homophone/;
Lexis, Greek `word`; lexicon, Greek `dictionary` /lexicology, lexicography/;
Onoma, Greek `name`/synonym, antonim, pseudonym/;
Phone, Greek `sound` /phonetics, phoneme, phonology/;
Scribe, scriptum, lat. `write`, `written` /describe, subscribe, scriptwriter, inscription/;
Tele, Greek `far`, `far` /telescope, telegraph/;
Video, lat. `see`; visus lat. 1) `vision`; 2) `view`, `spectacle` /visible, vision, revise, television, evidence/;
Vita, lat. `life` /vital, vitality, vitamin/.

2) Foreign word-forming elements appeared in the English language. As a rule, affixes are not borrowed separately, but are isolated from the stream of borrowed words, then joining the original stems and creating new words with it. English has many Latin and French affixes: anti-, re-, pro-, counter-, -ism-, -age-, -able-,
-ous, etc.

3) Under the influence of borrowings, many original English words fell out of use or changed their meaning.
For example, instead of Old English words that respectively expressed the concepts
`river, battle, army, astronomy, arithmetic, poetry` appeared French or Latin and Greek words borrowed through French
`river, battle, army, astronomy, arithmetic, poetry`, Scandinavian pronouns they, them replaced Old English words with the same meaning; Under the influence of the Scandinavian words sky and anger, the English nouns heaven and wrath narrowed their meaning.

4) Many different-style, evaluatively inadequate synonyms have appeared
(mainly of Romanesque origin).

5) One of the consequences of borrowing was the emergence of etymological doublets. Etymological doublets are words that etymologically go back to the same base, but have different meanings, pronunciations and spellings in the language. For example: catch and chase, goal and jail, channel and canal.

The emergence of etymological doublets is explained by fairly specific reasons. The same word could be borrowed at different times or from different sources. For example, the Latin canalis “channel” came into English through a dialect of central France in the form channel and through a dialect of northern France in the form canal, and these forms were differentiated by meaning. The Latin quies, quietus 'rest', 'rest', borrowed directly into English has the form quiet, the same word, which came through French, exists in the language as quite. As a result of the penetration (in different periods) into the English language through French of the Latin noun corpus “body”, the etymological doublets corps “corps” and corpse “corpse” were created.

Most of the currently existing etymological doublets are of Romanesque origin. However, there are also English-Scandinavian doublets
(disk and disc, shirt and skirt) and native English (shade and shadow, scale and shell).
In modern English, etymological doublets can be synonyms or false synonyms (shade and shadow, frail and fragile) or have a similar form and be false homonyms (liquor and liqueur, through and thorough, corpse and corps). Differentiation of such words is important for practical language acquisition.

The historical commonality of many etymological doublets may not be felt at the present time. Such doublets differ in form and meaning, and their comparison is carried out only when studying the language from a historical perspective. In practical terms, such words do not present any difficulties, since they are not similar in modern consciousness either structurally or semantically. For example, host and guest, hotel and hostel, ounce and inch, prune and plum. Some etymological doublets have acquired directly opposite meanings, such as: ward - a person under guardianship and guard - guard; the one who protects.

6) As a result of borrowing, the English language was replenished with international words. International words are words that are found in many languages, but have minor phonetic differences associated with the pronunciation features of each language. For example: address, address (English), adresse (French), Adresse (German); Telegraph (German); socialism, socialism (English), socialisme (French), Sozialismus (German)
International words are etymological doublets, derived in most cases from Greek and Latin roots.

7) Many words have appeared whose pronunciation and spelling do not correspond to the norms of the English language. They exhibit some grammatical features. Features of borrowed words that have not been fully assimilated into the language include the following:

*In words borrowed from French in a later period, the letter g is read as [zh]: genre, prestige; the combination ch is read as [w]: machine, chauffeur; the final consonant is unreadable: corps, ballet.

*In words Greek origin the sound [k] is conveyed in writing by the letter combination ch: Christ, character; the letter p before s is not readable: psychology, psychiatry; the sound [f] is conveyed in writing by the letter combination ph: alphabet, emphasis; in the middle of the word, instead of i, y is written: sympathy, physics.

Social survey for schoolchildren “The origin of the word”

We conducted a survey among middle and high school students at MOBU Secondary School No. 13, about 50 people were interviewed, which will show us whether the students know the origin of English words.

We asked the following questions:

1) What borrowed words in English do you know?

2) What part of the words in English do you think came from outside?

3) What language do you think the words came from in English:

Banana, Caramel, Flotilla, Cigarette, Cotton, Alligator, Potato, Chocolate

from French or Spanish?

And we got the following results:

1. 80% of respondents do not know any borrowed words, 15% know some words, but do not know their origin, 5% know borrowings and know from which language they came into English
2. 90% of respondents do not know the percentage of borrowings in English, 5% guessed incorrectly, 5% know almost exactly percentage borrowings and native English words.

3) 85% did not guess from which language the words Banana, Caramel, Flotilla, Cigarette, Cotton, Alligator, Potato, Chocolate came into English;

10% unsure of French or Spanish;

5% guessed the origin of the words

We carried out an analysis this survey and he showed that the analysis showed that most students do not know the origin of words in English and did not think about it before the survey, so there is a problem in pronunciation and understanding of English words.

Annex 1

Dictionary of the most common borrowed words:

Conclusion:

So, due to historical development, the English language was penetrated whole line foreign language elements. The massive nature of foreign language borrowings was the reason for some of the peculiarities of the vocabulary of the English language. Borrowings affected the nature of word formation in modern English. First of all, thanks to numerous lexical borrowings, the system of morphemes in the English language has been enriched with a number of word-forming affixes, suffixes and prefixes. In this regard, so-called hybrid words appeared, that is, those in which the affix has a foreign meaning and the root is English. For example, re-read to re-read, re-tell to retell with the Romanesque (French) prefix re- with the meaning of repetition of an action and with English roots.

The borrowing of foreign language word-forming elements, which later became productive, often led to the displacement of old Germanic suffixes. So, for example, the suffix -ess (actress, etc.), Romance in origin, replaced the corresponding old suffix -ster (preserved in the word spinster).

The word-formation morphology of the English language is also characterized by the presence of a large number of semantic nests, including, along with English words, borrowings.

In connection with borrowings in the English language, for example, pairs of nouns and corresponding adjectives appear, formed from different roots: cf. for example, noun mouth mouth and adj. oral We have the same relationship between verb and noun: see see and vision vision, vision, etc. Thus, borrowing leads to the destruction of old semantic nests.

The massive nature of borrowings finally led to the obscuring of the morphological structure of the word. The fact is that, along with borrowed words, foreign word-formation means penetrated into the English language, often reflecting the word-formation norms of the language from which these words were borrowed. Therefore, in the English language there are many words that are difficult to morphologically analyze. It is not always easy to determine whether these words are morphologically indecomposable, or whether their stem consists of several morphemes. For example, motion, in which one can feel, on the one hand, the presence of the suffix -tion, which stands out, for example, in words such as demonsrtation, celebration (celebration). But it is impossible to indicate the involuntary basis from which a given word is formed. It is also difficult to distinguish morphemes in the words present present and present presence, the connection between which is beyond doubt, although the word-formation model here is unclear.

As a result of a large number of foreign language borrowings, long polysyllabic words began to appear in the English language, as opposed to the old Anglo-Saxon words, which in New English are represented mainly by monosyllabic or disyllabic word forms. Among them, there are very often words in which the stress, compared to French, has shifted to the beginning of the word, but does not fall on the first syllable. Wed. organi"zation organization, mobili"zation mobilization, demon"stration demonstration. Characteristic of these words is the development of secondary stress in them on the first syllable. In this regard, words with primary and secondary stress in modern English are fundamentally different from words with two stresses in Old English. In Old English, double stress appeared on the basis of the semantic division of the word, secondary stress occurs there, in difficult words. In modern language, the leading principle is the rhythmic principle: polysyllabic words are divided into beats, creating a rhythmic pattern. Despite the extensive influx of foreign words, the English language has subordinated them to the laws of not only sound structure and grammar, but also its lexical system.

Thus, thousands of foreign words were absorbed into the English language.

List of used literature

1. Ginzburg R.Z., Khidekel S.S., Knyazeva G.Yu., Sankin A.A.M., Higher School Publishing House, 1979. – 269 p.

2. Arnold I.V. Lexicology of modern English. M., Publishing house of literature in foreign languages, 1959.-352 p.

3. Galperin I.R. and Cherkasskaya E.B. Lexicology of the English language. M., 1956. -297 p.

4. Ginzburg R.Z. On replenishing the vocabulary. (Experience in analyzing the replenishment of the vocabulary of modern English). – “Foreign languages ​​at school”, 1954, No. 1, 19-31 p.

5. Sekirin V.P. Borrowings in English. Kyiv: Kyiv University Publishing House, 1964.-152

Any language contains not only native words, but also numerous borrowings from other languages. There are more of them in one language, less in another, but they are always there. In principle, borrowing is a positive process for a language. In this way it is enriched lexicon, new elements appear for , comes , belonging to the exact terminology. The number of borrowings in English is quite high compared to other languages. It was calculated that borrowings in English accounts for about 70 percent of the vocabulary, and the remainder is native English words. The reason for such “absorption” of foreign vocabulary by the English language lies in. Numerous foreign conquests of the British Isles, the development of trade, the influence of the culture of continental countries - all this contributed to the emergence and consolidation of borrowings in the English language.

What words are borrowed in English?

In English we can find words borrowed from Old French, Latin, Greek, Scandinavian and other languages. , are generally natively Germanic. Trade and Christianization gave rise to such borrowings from the Latin language as wine(wine), pepper(pepper), school(school), devil(devil), priest(priest), and in the sixteenth century the language was also enriched with Latin terminology - concept(concept, idea), access(access), commission(authority, power of attorney), complain(complaint), etc.

Scandinavian Viking raids from the late eighth century contributed to the introduction of Danish vocabulary into the English language. These are, for example, such words as we know: they(They), take(take), cut(cut), get(receive), ugly(ugly), husband(husband), shirt(shirt), wholesale(whole), wrong(wrong), leg(leg).

The most numerous group of borrowings in English is from Old French. The year 1066 is familiar to us as the year of the conquest of England by the Normans. It was they who brought the French language to the islands, from the Norman dialect of which the Anglo-Norman language was eventually formed, which later became the state language. This language survived until the end of the fourteenth century, although the indigenous population continued to speak English. It is believed that these borrowings in the English language make up a quarter of all the most commonly used words. Here are some French borrowings that the English language is rich in: entrance(entrance), goddess(goddess), admirable(wonderful, excellent) flexible(flexible), difficult(difficult), disappointment(disappointment), movement(movement), solitude(solitude, loneliness) court(court), government(government), battle(battle), city(city) and many others.

"Visitors from other languages," or loanwords, permeate the entire English language. Over the course of English history, thousands upon thousands of words have passed from one language to another, mostly through constant invasions by invaders.

How did it happen that a country whose original inhabitants were Celts gave way to the former language that we now know as English? This happened due to the fact that the British Isles were subjected to repeated raids. Each people who invaded from external lands brought their own language, dialects and customs to the country.

As the invaders settled into the territory, they influenced the written and spoken language of local residents, who, in turn, adapted to the new situation by adopting borrowed words into their lexicon.

Otto Jespersen, in his book The Development and Structure of the English Language, notes that the English language is a “chain of borrowings” that resulted from the conquest of Britain by numerous invaders. Foreigners brought their language to the country, but could not completely impose it on the British.

Instead of this foreign languages mixed, as in one cauldron, with the primordial speech. Thus, various groups influenced to varying degrees the development of written and spoken English as we know it today.

The first were the Romans - with them, part of the inhabitants of Britain encountered Latin. During the time that the Celts coexisted with the Romans and continental Germans, only a couple of hundred Latin words penetrated into Old English, which, according to Jespersen, was completely self-sufficient.

After the Germanic invasion in 450 AD. e. the Celtic language was driven into the misty confines of the island of Ireland. But the inhabitants of Britain needed to communicate with new neighbors, and the process of borrowing words began.

The Christianization of the country in the 6th century forced a much larger number of residents to accept Latin words and phrases. Yet Latin borrowings were used mainly by the upper strata of society.

In those days, “every educated Englishman spoke and wrote Latin as easily as his own tongue,” as James Bradstreet Greenough and George Lyman Kittredge write in their book Words and Their History in English Speech. Educated people could use borrowed words both in conversation and in writing.

When the Germanic tribes of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes invaded Britain and drove out the Celts, the language began to develop along with the settlement of new peoples. Celtic influence declined sharply, and “stronger” loanwords began to take hold in the language.

At first, the tribes spoke their own Germanic languages, but as they mixed with the indigenous people, their languages ​​began to lose their former appearance and also merge with each other.

Of course, the language of the period will be barely recognizable to most, if not all modern readers (except etymologists). And yet, although the Angles, Saxons and Jutes gave us the basis of the English language, its Germanic foundation was subject to strong French influence.

The history of the English language and its borrowings is based on three conquests: Germanic, Scandinavian (Viking) and - most important - Norman, which took place under the leadership of the Duke of Normandy in 1066.

The Germanic and Scandinavian invasions had a marked impact on the indigenous language, but it was the French-speaking Normans under William the Conqueror who introduced into English, as Jespersen writes, the widest and most firmly established range of loanwords.

The Norman occupation lasted much longer than the northern one, and unlike the Scandinavians, who coexisted with the conquered people, the Normans suppressed the British. The British status quo was disrupted when the Normans transformed all of England's structures, from the legal system to religion, becoming the rightful rulers of the island.

The Normans also, in a way, imposed linguistic class warfare on the British. When a foreign language is imposed on the inhabitants of conquered lands, it can be assumed that it will spread from top to bottom throughout all segments of the population. The “losing” language will thus disappear.

However, this did not happen after the arrival of the Normans. The aristocracy adopted the French model, but the peasants retained the Germanic language, creating a class and linguistic division that persisted until languages ​​and loanwords merged into a single Middle English language.

But the entry of French words and phrases into English was not simply a concession from the vanquished. Writers such as Chaucer, diplomats, members of the royal family, high military officials and major merchants familiar with French culture (facilitated by the proximity of the borders) readily adopted and adapted words from French. Often this was dictated by the simple need to communicate.

The Norman Conquest transformed every aspect of English life, influencing legislation, religion, medicine and the arts. Since French and Latin speakers were the dominant force, the British had to borrow words if only to understand the new rulers who had “eliminated” part of the local vocabulary.

Some new words were able to displace English analogues that had existed for several centuries and gained a foothold thanks to connections with the source. The Anglo-Saxon words king and queen escaped French influence, but with the Normans came titles such as duke and duchess. The British had to learn the meaning of these words and accept them, if not into everyday use, then into frequent use.

According to Jespersen, many Britons borrowed French words not only out of necessity, but also because it was considered "fashionable" to imitate the ruling classes.

It is understandable that the British borrowed words that were not in their native language, such as majesty and mayor. However, it may seem puzzling why they replaced the native swin (pig) with the French porc...

To understand this, you need to consider how English farmers and French aristocrats dealt with livestock. Of the two words, the Germanic swin was more down-to-earth, while the French porc was considered sophisticated.

Swin developed into modern swine, which was what English peasants raised, and porc or pork was what French aristocrats ate. This created a contrast between animal and food and, again, raised the social status of the English who used the French word.

Sometimes, as Greenough and Kittredge illustrate, a foreign word such as divide became more popular than the native cleave. Also, one word could supplant another, and the original one was discarded altogether, as happened with the word ey (egg), which was replaced by the Scandinavian egg.

The influence of the French language introduced other concepts that the British may have considered more abstract definitions of their native words. Examples include English child versus French infant or English freedom versus French liberty.

What is surprising about the transformation and evolution of the English language is how receptive the people of the country have been to foreign languages, especially French and Latin. It was as if the invaders sowed the seeds of language, and the British nurtured them.

But unlike the French, who were content with one linguistic “plant,” the British (perhaps because of their love of gardening) tried to grow as many synonyms as possible. Continuing the same gardening analogy, Jespersen notes that in many cases “English soil turned out to be more fertile than French” for foreign words.

Why be content with one original word, like the French, when you can take many borrowed ones and create synonyms from them, like the English do? Or, as University of Minnesota professor and author of The Origin of Words and What We Know About Them, Dr. Anatoly Lieberman, asks in his lecture: “Which is better - two nostrils or one?”

Having many similar words available, the English seem to have adopted the “two nostrils” theory, sometimes using both the original and the borrowed word equally.

Borrowings also influenced the size of English dictionaries. The impressive dictionaries of English, compared with those of French, German or Dutch, owe their volume to borrowed words. It could be said that the borrowings gave new meaning to the phrase "size matters" if the British cared about this issue in their language.

Although we have primarily looked at the Norman Conquest of 1066 and the seismic shift it caused in the linguistic world, there were other languages ​​that could have influenced loanwords in English if they had met in time.

Among them are Spanish and Italian, but, as Greenough and Kittredge note, "although their influence on English literature was great, these languages ​​did not have a significant effect on vocabulary." The fact is that the Normans reached their goal first, and the British by that time had borrowed all the words and phrases that they needed.

The rise of England as a superpower led, in a sense, to the expansion of linguistic boundaries. The emergence of colonies introduced people to something they had never seen before and for which they needed new words. The British could only borrow them, since the original words were not enough to describe what they encountered.

There were no kangaroos or boomerangs in England, so when the British encountered them, instead of inventing new words, they borrowed Australian ones. Elephants, leopards, and panthers were also not found in England, and again the British adopted their local names. Even tomatoes, which were unknown in the country before they were brought from the New World, had to be given a name. The British decided to use the Spanish tomate.

Although these words were new to the English and diversified their vocabulary, they did not affect the structure of their speech. They became "simply accepted names for specific things", according to Greenough and Kittredge.

The Renaissance brought many classical words, particularly French and Italian, increasing Latin influence on the English language. But Italy, like Spain, did not make many borrowings, since English was almost completely formed by that time.

New words and phrases have enriched the British language, but Jespersen believes this also has a side effect. Due to numerous invasions, the British eventually began to "move away from the conscious creation of new words from native materials." This thought brings us back to the “physical agility and mental laziness” aspect of borrowing.

Many once unusual words now roll easily off the tongues of English speakers. Everyone knows what kindergarten means, which comes from German. Most people are familiar with the French baguette (baguette) or croissant (croissant). And staying on the baking theme, bagel, which comes from Yiddish (originally beygl), is also familiar to many English speakers, especially New Yorkers.

But are all foreign and exotic words easy to borrow and introduce into the English language? In "The Lexicographer's Dilemma", Jack Lynch mentions the Arabic word "jihad" and asks whether it should be considered an English word. Before September 11, 2001, it’s unlikely that many people had heard of it, but in one day it became as understandable as the word “bread.”

Lieberman in one of his lectures gave examples of borrowed words such as sputnik and perestroika. At various periods of time they thundered all over the world. However, it is unlikely that today's English schoolchild knows what sputnik is and imagines how quickly this word entered the English language.

The same fate awaited “perestroika”. In the mid-80s, this word filled the pages of world newspapers. But there is hardly any mention of Gorbachev’s initiative in a modern English-language newspaper.

If we consider loanwords as “the result of the contact of languages ​​in a particular place at a particular time,” as Lieberman writes in “The Origin of Words,” these two Russian words fit this definition perfectly. But they were unable to gain a foothold, primarily because they did not form connections with other words. Like many borrowed words from the past that didn't last long, they may soon disappear from the English language altogether.

So, word borrowing illustrates that when two languages ​​compete for dominance over each other, adaptability and receptivity play a key role. The Celts did not understand this, and their language was supplanted. Read on:

12969

In contact with

The original core of vocabulary

nag, ombudsman, ski, skive, slalom, slam- words reflecting new realities for the English came from modern Scandinavian languages ​​in the 19th-20th centuries.

Scandinavian loanwords are difficult to distinguish from English words proper, since Danish and Old English were closely related languages. The characteristic difference is that in Danish words /k/, /g/, /sk/ were preserved, while in English they turned into sibilants: /k/ and /g/ - in certain conditions, /sk/ - always.

French loanwords

In 1066 the Normans conquered England. Normandy was a French duchy; it acquired its name after the French king Charles the Simple, being unable to cope with the Vikings, gave them this territory under the treaty of 912. By 1066, the Vikings had long since adopted the French language and assimilated into the local population. They came to England as speakers of the French language (Norman dialect), French culture and French feudal system. After the Norman Conquest, power was completely in the hands of the Normans; Duke William the Conqueror also removed the English priests and installed Norman ones in their place. The indigenous population continued to speak English, but from the Norman dialect the Anglo-Norman language was formed, which became state language and existed until the end of the 14th century. During this time, English acquired a huge number of French words. Of the 80,000 most common words in the English language, approximately 22,500 are French borrowings(all periods of history).

The borrowings especially clearly reflect the Norman influence in the field of government, in military affairs, in the organization of the church and in city life:

• court, servant, guard, prince, vassal, government, serf, village (court, servant, guard, prince, vassal, government, serf, village);
• army, battle, banner, victory (army, battle, banner, victory);
• religion, chapel, prayer, to confess (religion, chapel, prayer, confess);
• city, merchant (city, merchant).

The artisans who lived in the village kept English names, while the urban ones began to be called with French words: butcher “butcher”, mason “mason”, tailor “tailor”. Animals are named in English words, but their meat is called in French: beef “beef”, mutton “lamb”, pork “pork”, veal “veal”.

Norman borrowings: 11th-13th century A.D.

Parisian borrowings: the Renaissance period.

Third layer of Latin borrowings

Terminology, 16th century.

European borrowings of the 20th century

In the first half of the 20th century, a large number of words from the German language penetrated into the British natural science vocabulary, including individual morphemes, for example eigen-. The penetration of German vocabulary continues during World War II for military terms and virtually ceases after the war.

Purist tendencies

IN different times purists tried to cleanse the English language of foreign words, replacing them with Anglo-Saxon ones. One linguistic nationalist said: “Avoid Latin derivatives; use short, expressive Anglo-Saxon monosyllabic words.” (English) Avoid Latin derivatives; use brief, terse Anglo-Saxon monosyllables ). The irony is that the only Anglo-Saxon word in this saying is Anglo-Saxon.

Notes

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

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