The Eastern Question and the Problems of Colonial Expansion While the European political elite was comprehending the new realities that arose after the Franco-Prussian War, the unification of Germany and the formation in the center of Europe of a powerful and aggressive empire, clearly claiming leadership in

The Eastern Question is a so-called verbal designation for a number of international contradictions that arose at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 20th centuries. It was directly related to the attempts of the Balkan peoples to free themselves from the Ottoman yoke. The situation was aggravated by the impending collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Many great powers, including Russia, Great Britain, Prussia, and Austria-Hungary, sought to fight for the division of Turkish possessions.

Background

The Eastern Question initially arose due to the fact that the Ottoman Turks, who settled in Europe, formed a fairly powerful European state. As a result, the situation on the Balkan Peninsula changed dramatically, and confrontation emerged between Christians and Muslims.

As a result, it was the Ottoman state that became one of the key factors in international European political life. On the one hand, they were afraid of her, on the other, they were looking for an ally in her.

France was one of the first to establish diplomatic relations with the Ottoman Empire.

In 1528, the first alliance between France and the Ottoman Empire was concluded, which was based on mutual hostility towards the Austrian Empire, which at that time was personified by Charles V.

Over time, religious components were added to the political ones. King Francis I of France wanted one of the churches in Jerusalem to be returned to Christians. The Sultan was against it, but promised to support everyone Christian churches, which will be based in Turkey.

Since 1535, free visits to the Holy Places were allowed to the French and all other foreigners under the protection of France. Thus, for a long time, France remained the only Western European country in the Turkish world.

Decline of the Ottoman Empire

The decline in the Ottoman Empire began in the 17th century. Turkish army was defeated by the Poles and Austrians near Vienna in 1683. Thus, the advance of the Turks into Europe was stopped.

The leaders of the national liberation movement in the Balkans took advantage of the weakened empire. These were Bulgarians, Greeks, Serbs, Montenegrins, Vlachs, mostly Orthodox.

At the same time, in the 17th century, the economic and political positions of Great Britain and France were increasingly strengthened in the Ottoman Empire, who dreamed of maintaining their own influence, while trying to interfere with the territorial claims of other powers. Primarily Russia and Austria-Hungary.

The main enemy of the Ottoman Empire

In the middle of the 18th century, the main enemy of the Ottoman Empire changed. Austria-Hungary is being replaced by Russia. The situation in the Black Sea region changed radically after the victory in the war of 1768-1774.

Based on its results, the Kucuk-Kaynardzhi Treaty was concluded, which formalized Russia's first intervention in Turkish affairs.

At that time, Catherine II had a plan for the final expulsion of all Turks from Europe and the restoration of the Greek Empire, for the throne of which she intended her grandson Konstantin Pavlovich to take the throne. At the same time, the Ottoman government hoped to take revenge for the defeat in the Russian-Turkish War. Great Britain and France still played an important role in the Eastern Question; it was their support that the Turks counted on.

As a result, in 1787 Türkiye started another war against Russia. In 1788, the British and French, through diplomatic tricks, forced Sweden to join the war on their side, which attacked Russia. But within the coalition everything ended in failure. First, Sweden withdrew from the war, and then Turkey agreed to another peace treaty, which moved its border to the Dniester. The government of the Ottoman Empire renounced its claims to Georgia.

Aggravation of the situation

As a result, it was decided that the existence of the Turkish Empire would ultimately be more beneficial for Russia. At the same time, Russia’s sole protectorate over Turkish Christians was not supported by other European states. For example, in 1815, at a congress in Vienna, Emperor Alexander I believed that the Eastern Question deserved the attention of all world powers. Soon after this, the revolt of the Greeks broke out, followed by the terrible barbarities of the Turks, all this forced Russia, along with other powers, to intervene in this war.

After this, relations between Russia and Turkey remained tense. Noting the reasons for the aggravation of the Eastern Question, it is necessary to emphasize that Russian rulers regularly explored the possibility of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Thus, in 1829, Nicholas I ordered a study of the situation in Turkey in the event of collapse.

In particular, it was proposed to establish five secondary states instead of Turkey. Kingdom of Macedonia, Serbia, Epirus, Greek Kingdom and Principality of Dacia. Now you should understand the reasons for the aggravation of the Eastern Question.

Expulsion of the Turks from Europe

Nicholas I also tried to implement the plan to expel the Turks from Europe, conceived by Catherine II. But as a result, he abandoned this idea, deciding on the contrary to support and protect its existence.

For example, after the successful uprising of the Egyptian Pasha Megmet Ali, after which Turkey was almost completely crushed, Russia entered into a defensive alliance in 1833, sending its fleet to help the Sultan.

Feud in the East

Hostility continued not only with the Ottoman Empire, but also between Christians themselves. In the east, the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches competed. They competed for various benefits, advantages for visiting Holy places.

By 1740, France managed to achieve certain privileges for the Latin Church to the detriment of the Orthodox Church. Followers of the Greek religion obtained from the Sultan the restoration of ancient rights.

In understanding the causes of the Eastern Question, we need to turn to 1850, when French envoys sought the return of certain Holy Places located in Jerusalem to the French government. Russia was categorically against it. As a result, an entire coalition of European states came out against Russia in the Eastern Question.

Crimean War

Türkiye was in no hurry to accept a decree favorable to Russia. As a result, relations deteriorated again in 1853, and the solution to the Eastern Question was again postponed. Soon after this, relations with European states went wrong, all this led to the Crimean War, which ended only in 1856.

The essence of the Eastern Question was the struggle for influence in the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula. For several decades, he remained one of the key ones in Russian foreign policy, which she confirmed over and over again. Russia's policy in the Eastern Question was the need to establish its influence in this region; many European powers opposed it. All this resulted in the Crimean War, in which each of the participants pursued their own selfish interests. Now you understand what the Eastern Question was.

Massacre in Syria

In 1860, European powers again had to intervene in the Ottoman Empire after a terrible massacre of Christians in Syria. The French army went east.

Regular uprisings soon began. First in Herzegovina in 1875, and then in Serbia in 1876. Russia in Herzegovina immediately declared the need to alleviate the suffering of Christians and finally put an end to the bloodshed.

In 1877 it broke out new war, Russian troops reached Constantinople, Romania, Montenegro, Serbia and Bulgaria gained independence. At the same time, the Turkish government insisted on observing the principles of religious freedom. At the same time, the Russian military-political leadership and late XIX continued to develop plans for landing on the Bosphorus.

The situation at the beginning of the 20th century

By the beginning of the 20th century, the decomposition of Turkey continued to progress. This was largely facilitated by the rule of the reactionary Abdul Hamid. Italy, Austria and the Balkan states took advantage of the crisis in Turkey to seize their territories from it.

As a result, in 1908, Bosnia and Herzegovina went to Austria, the Tripoli region was annexed to Italy, and in 1912, four minor Balkan countries began a war with Turkey.

The situation was aggravated by the genocide of the Greek and Armenian people in 1915-1917. At the same time, the Entente allies made it clear to Russia that in the event of a triumph, the Black Sea straits and Constantinople could go to Russia. In 1918, Türkiye surrendered in the First World War. But the situation in the region changed dramatically once again, which was facilitated by the fall of the monarchy in Russia and the national-bourgeois revolution in Turkey.

In the war of 1919-1922, the Kemalists under the leadership of Ataturk won, and at the Lausanne Conference new borders of Turkey, as well as the countries of the former Entente, were approved. Atatürk himself became the first president of the Turkish Republic, the founder of the modern Turkish state as we know it.

The results of the Eastern Question were the establishment of borders in Europe close to modern ones. It was also possible to resolve many issues related, for example, to the exchange of populations. Ultimately, this led to the final legal elimination of the very concept of the Eastern Question in modern international relations.

Material from Uncyclopedia

The Eastern Question is a symbol for the Middle Eastern knot of international contradictions of the 18th - early 20th centuries, caused by the struggle of the great powers - Russia, England, France, Austria (from 1867 - Austria-Hungary), Prussia (from 1871 - Germany), Italy and the USA - for the “Turkish legacy”, for the division of the Ottoman Empire and the establishment of spheres of influence and control over all of Turkey or its national outskirts. This struggle intensified as a result of the decline of the Ottoman Empire, the growth of the national liberation movement of peoples enslaved by the Turks (Serbs, Montenegrins, Bulgarians, Romanians, Greeks, Armenians, Arabs), and the colonial expansion of the great powers that embarked on the capitalist path of development (see Colonialism, Capitalism).

The impetus for the emergence of the Eastern Question was the events of the late 17th century. - the 1st half of the 18th century, when, after the defeat at Vienna (1683), the Turks lost the opportunity to conquer foreign lands and the process of gradually ousting them from the occupied territories began. Until the middle of the 18th century. Austria was the inspirer of the anti-Turkish coalitions (Austria, Venice, Poland, Russia). At the Congress of Karlowitz (1698-1699) the first division of Turkish possessions in Europe took place. Austria received Hungary, Slavonia, Semigrad; Poland - Right Bank Ukraine; Venice - Morea; Russia - the city of Azov.

From the middle of the 18th century. before the Crimean War of 1853-1856. Russia's role in the Eastern question is increasing. Relying on its military and economic power, the support of the Christian population of the Ottoman Empire, which constantly rebelled against the Turks, using Anglo-French contradictions and an alliance with Austria and Prussia, Russia won victories in the wars with Turkey in 1768-1774 (Kuchuk-Kainardzhiysky world), 1787- 1791 (Treaty of Iasi), 1806-1812 (Treaty of Bucharest), 1828-1829. (Treaty of Adrianople). As a result, Southern Ukraine, Crimea, Bessarabia, the Caucasus, and Transcaucasia were annexed to Russia; Russian merchant ships received the right of passage through the Bosporus and Dardanelles; Türkiye was forced to grant independence to Greece, and autonomy to Serbia, Montenegro, Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1833, taking advantage of the military conflict between the Turkish Sultan and his vassal Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali (see Muhammad Ali's campaigns of conquest), Russia, under the Unkar-Iskelesi Treaty on mutual assistance and Russian guarantees of the integrity of the Ottoman Empire, attempted to establish a protectorate over Turkey.

European powers also pursued their own interests. In 1798-1801 Napoleon I tried to conquer Egypt, Palestine, Syria (see Napoleonic Wars). But after a series of military failures and the defeat of the French fleet at Abukir by the English squadron under the command of Admiral G. Nelson, he temporarily abandoned plans for the military conquest of the East. In the following decades, France tried to extend its influence into Egypt, supporting Muhammad Ali, and from 1830 began the conquest of Algeria, thus hoping to establish control over North Africa, which belonged to Turkey.

England sought to use its advantage as the most industrialized country and establish trade and economic dominance over Turkey, as well as secure the approaches to its main colony - India. Therefore, she advocated maintaining the status quo in the East to prevent French and Russian expansion in Turkey. In 1840-1841 British diplomacy managed to first weaken the influence of the French ally Muhammad Ali, and then, with the support of France, Austria, Prussia, and Turkey, to liquidate the Unkar-Iskelesi Treaty, “drowning” Russian influence on the Sultan in the powers’ collective guarantees of the integrity of Turkey.

The period from the Crimean War 1853-1856. until the end of the 19th century. was characterized by an intensification of the struggle for the “Turkish inheritance” and a weakening of Russia’s role in the eastern question. Having overestimated Russia's military and diplomatic capabilities, Nicholas I began a war against Turkey in 1853, wanting to put an end to what he called “the sick man of Europe.” However, England, France, and the Kingdom of Sardinia took the side of the Sultan, while Austria and Prussia took positions hostile towards Russia. This led to the latter's defeat in the Crimean War and, under the terms of the Treaty of Paris in 1856, deprived it of the right to have a navy in the Black Sea and to patronize the Christians of the Ottoman Empire.

The dominant positions in Turkey remained with England and France, who actively fought among themselves for markets, sources of raw materials, and spheres of influence in the East. In 1869, the Suez Canal opened, built under the leadership of the French engineer F. Lesseps. In 1881 the French captured Tunisia. They seemed to have established hegemony in North Africa. However, British bankers bought up the shares of the Suez Canal, and in 1882 British troops occupied Egypt, thereby putting an end to French influence there.

England's hegemony in the East also affected itself during the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. Despite the successes of the Russian army, which fought its way to the outskirts of Istanbul, where a victorious peace for Russia was signed in the town of San Stefano, England, with the support of Austria-Hungary, Germany, France, and Turkey, achieved a revision of the results of the war at the Berlin Congress in 1878. However, Bulgaria gained independence, the unified Romanian state was recognized, Russia annexed the mouth of the Danube, the regions of Batumi and Kars in Transcaucasia to its territory. At the same time, Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, and England annexed the island of Cyprus as compensation for supporting Turkey.

The next period in the history of the Eastern Question covers the time from the end of the 19th century. and until the First World War 1914-1918. Its peculiarity is the global aggravation of international contradictions and the struggle of world powers for the redivision of the world. At this time, Germany became the most active contender for the “Turkish inheritance.” She managed to bring the Turkish army, politics and economy under her control. German specialists built the strategically important Berlin-Istanbul-Baghdad-Basra railway. All this led to the aggravation of Russian-German and especially Anglo-German contradictions. Germany's ally was Austria-Hungary, which fought with Russia for influence in the Balkans. The Austro-German bloc was opposed by the Entente countries - England, France, Russia, which were forced to unite despite internal disagreements. Disputes between the powers escalated during the Bosnian crisis of 1908-1909, when Austria-Hungary announced the annexation of previously occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, which Russia did not agree with, and the two Balkan wars of 1912-1913. They led to the liberation of Macedonia, Albania, and the islands of the Aegean Sea from Turkey, but at the same time intensified territorial disputes between Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey, behind which stood the great powers and their struggle for influence.

The culminating phase of the Eastern Question is associated with Turkey's participation in the First World War on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire as a result of defeat in the war. Its Arab provinces were turned into trust territories of England (Iraq, Jordan, Palestine) and France (Syria, Lebanon). The question also arose about the division of the Turkish territories of Asia Minor. However, the national liberation war of the Turks under the leadership of Kemal Ataturk, supported Soviet Russia, made it possible to maintain the Turkish Republic within the borders that exist today (see Kemalist revolution in Turkey 1918-1923).

The essence of the Eastern Question. The Eastern Question is the name accepted in literature for a group of contradictions and problems in the history of international relations in the last third of the 18th century. - early 1920s. The formation of the Eastern Question as one of the main foreign policy problems of Russia dates back to the period of the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774.

The Eastern Question consisted of three main parts: Russia's relations with Turkey and the European powers (Great Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, etc.) regarding Turkish dominance in the Balkans and the Black Sea Straits; the status quo of the policy of Russia and other great powers in relation to the so-called contact zones (Greece, Serbia, Danube principalities), where Turkish possessions were in contact with the territorial or colonial possessions of the great powers; national and religious movements of non-Turkish peoples of the Ottoman Empire, who at various periods found support from Russia or other powers.

Russia's interest in resolving the Eastern Question was primarily due to the fact that it was a power with wide access to the Black Sea. The security of its southern borders and the economic development of its steppe outskirts, which played a steadily increasing role in economic life the whole country. At the same time, in the Eastern Question, the problem of the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits was increasingly intensified. On the one hand, Russia constantly and persistently sought free access for the Russian fleet from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, and on the other, the closure of the entrance to the Black Sea for the military fleets of other European powers. Both could be ensured only by a regime in the Black Sea straits that was beneficial for Russia. The establishment of such a regime was one of the urgent tasks of Russian diplomacy. The ideological basis for Russian policy in the Eastern Question was the idea of ​​patronage of the Christian subjects of the Turkish Sultan - the Balkan Slavs, Greeks, and Armenians. Patronage of these peoples was a constant trump card of Russian diplomacy in relations with Turkey.

Characteristic feature The Eastern question for Russia was marked by rather sharp political changes in the process of resolving it. Periods of peaceful, allied relations between Russia and Turkey were unexpectedly replaced by a tense situation, often turning into isolated military clashes, and then into real wars. Then, as is usually the case in international practice, another peace treaty between the powers followed; Well, then everything happened again.

A major role in such a zigzag development of the Eastern question for Russia was played by the great Western powers, and above all England and France, which, firstly, had their own economic and political interests in the Middle East, and secondly, tried with all their might to prevent the strengthening of influence Russia in the Balkans, Turkey in the Black Sea straits. The need to constantly confront this anti-Russian policy of the Western powers kept the entire diplomatic service of Russia, both in St. Petersburg and abroad, in constant tension.

The Eastern Question in the period under study is conventionally divided into two stages: the first - from the 1760s. before the Congress of Vienna of 1814-1815, the second - before the Peace of Paris in 1856.

Russian-Turkish relations at the beginning of the 19th century. The beginning of the first stage of resolving the Eastern Question took place under the sign of the Russian-Turkish union treaty, concluded in January 1799 in Constantinople, that is, during the reign of Paul I. The treaty opened a new page in the history of Russian foreign policy. If earlier, as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars of the second half of the 18th century. Petersburg provided its merchant fleet with permanent access to Chernoe and Mediterranean Sea, then Russia was now the first of the great powers to receive the right of passage for its warships through the straits. At the same time, Russia, having gained a foothold in the Ionian Islands, acquired bases for military operations in the Mediterranean Sea. All this led to a huge increase in Russian influence in the Eastern Mediterranean in subsequent years. In addition, Russia received and exercised the right to patronage the Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire, the right to patronize Serbia and the Danube principalities. Türkiye has de facto recognized Russia's interests in the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia.

In the first years of his reign, Alexander I supported the course of strengthening good neighborly relations with Turkey. In 1805, a new treaty of alliance was signed in Constantinople. He again proclaimed peace and good harmony between states. The parties guaranteed the integrity of their possessions and pledged to act together in all matters affecting security, as well as to provide each other with military assistance.

When creating anti-French coalitions, Turkey pledged to coordinate its actions with Russia and during the war to facilitate the passage of Russian military ships through the straits. Agreements were reached to close the straits to foreign military vessels and transport with military cargo. The duration of the agreement was nine years. These were very favorable conditions for Russia.

However, in reality the union turned out to be short-lived. The Serbian uprising of 1804 marked the beginning of a broad national liberation movement in the Balkans and led to a crisis in Russian-Turkish relations. The leaders of the Serbian rebels turned to Russia for help. And although the treaty of alliance did not allow the Russians to provide assistance to the rebels, in 1805, at the most difficult moment, Russian ships arrived in Galati and delivered weapons and ammunition to the Serbs.

Russo-Turkish War 1806-1812 Taking advantage of this fact, Napoleon managed to provoke a military conflict between Turkey and Russia. The Turkish Sultan ordered the straits to be closed to Russian ships. In December 1806, a new Russian-Turkish war broke out.

Starting it, Turkey hoped to return Crimea and Transcaucasia to its possession, as well as strengthen the power of the Sultan in the Balkans. These aspirations were strongly fueled by French diplomacy.

During the war, the Russian authorities established close cooperation with Serbia. Money, ammunition, and military instructors were sent to the Serbian rebels. Thanks to this, the Serbian army conducted military operations in the Turkish rear in cooperation with the plans of the Russian command.

At the first stage, the Russian-Turkish war became protracted. Military operations were carried out indecisively. The main forces were sent to capture and hold individual fortresses. Russian sailors were more active. Since the spring of 1807, the Mediterranean Sea has become the arena of major military operations of the Russian fleet. Vice Admiral D.N. Senyavin occupied the island of Genedos and blocked the Dardanelles. In the Dardanelles and Athos naval battles in July 1807, he defeated the Turkish fleet.

In March 1811, General M.I. Kutuzov was appointed commander of the Danube Army. In June, in a defensive battle near Ruschuk, he used a maneuver: he drove the Turkish army away from the fortress, after which he left it and took his army to the left bank of the Danube in order to lure the main enemy forces there and defeat them in the field. The Turkish commander Akhmet Bey succumbed to the military cunning of the Russian commander and transported up to 35 thousand of his soldiers to the left bank of the Danube, leaving about 25 thousand in the camp at Rushchuk. Kutuzov with 20 thousand Russian troops blocked the Turkish forces crossing the Danube at Slobodzeya, and the 7 thousand-strong mobile detachment of General Markov, meanwhile, moved secretly to the Rushchuk camp of the Turks. On the night of October 1, this detachment crossed the Danube and a day later suddenly attacked the Turkish camp from the rear. The main enemy forces were cut off from their bases and surrounded. Having suffered heavy losses from Russian artillery fire, the encircled group completely lost its combat effectiveness. Its remnants (numbering up to 12 thousand people) laid down their arms at the end of November. In October, a 35,000-strong group of Turks surrounded by Kutuzov on the left bank of the Danube was defeated, and in December, General Kotlyarevsky, having made an unprecedented winter crossing through the ridges of the Lesser Caucasus with a small detachment, stormed the Turkish fortress of Akhalkalaki. The Turkish Sultan realized that the war was lost.

Despite the harsh opposition of France, on May 16, 1812, a peace treaty was signed between Russia and Turkey in Bucharest. According to the Treaty of Bucharest, Bessarabia with the fortresses of Khotyn, Bendery, Akkerman, Kilia and Izmail went to Russia. The Russian-Turkish border was established along the Prut River until it connected with the Danube. Moldavia and Wallachia were returned to Turkey. Russia returned all the lands and fortresses taken from the battle in Asia. At the same time, for the first time it received naval bases on the Caucasian coast of the Black Sea. Russia ensured the autonomy of the Danube principalities, where it retained its influence. Serbia was granted autonomy in internal management. Russia received the right of commercial navigation along the entire course of the Danube, and military navigation up to the mouth of the Prut.

But Russia’s main gain from the Bucharest Peace, of course, was that it removed Turkey from the accounts as Russia’s enemy at the most critical moment - literally on the eve of Napoleon’s invasion and throughout the entire war of 1812. This allowed Alexander I to concentrate all his forces solely on repelling the invasion enemy from the west. No wonder, having learned about the conclusion of the Bucharest Peace, Napoleon became furious and brought down a hail of reproaches on the Sultan and his ministers.

In general, the first stage of resolving the Eastern Question for Russia, apparently, ended with a positive result. She managed to significantly strengthen her influence in the Balkans, achieve free passage of her ships through the Black Sea straits, and also secure her southern borders and steppe outskirts.

Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829 Peace of Adrianople. The second stage in resolving the Eastern Question for Russia (1816-1856), just like the first, was characterized by rather sharp changes in relations between Russia and Turkey: relatively peaceful, union times unexpectedly gave way to years of tension, crisis situation, which, as a rule, turns into armed conflicts and even wars.

The first crisis in relations between Russia and Turkey at the second stage of the Eastern Question arose in connection with the uprising in Greece in 1821 against Turkish rule. The Greeks, demanding autonomy from Turkey, turned to Russia for help as a Christian power. Alexander I hesitated. Being personally a convinced opponent of any uprisings and revolutions, he was also bound by the decision of the “Holy Alliance” to preserve the existing regimes. The Greeks were offended by the refusal of help. The advanced part of Russian society was disappointed. The Turkish government brutally suppressed the Greek uprising, and this made the Greek problem even worse. Türkiye believed that the events in Greece were provoked by Russian agents.

Nicholas I made an attempt to solve the Greek problem diplomatically, involving the leading European powers. In June 1827, Russia, England and France signed a convention in London on the formation of an autonomous Greek state. However, Türkiye categorically refused to accept it.

Turkey's refusal prompted the Allied powers to put military pressure on it. A united Anglo-Russian-French squadron was sent to the shores of the Peloponnese. On October 8, 1827, an incident occurred in Navarino Bay. naval battle. As a result, the Turkish-Egyptian fleet was destroyed. The Russian squadron of L.P. Heyden played a decisive role in the victory.

But even after the defeat in Navarino Bay, Türkiye did not make concessions to the allies. Then the envoys of Russia, England and France left Constantinople. The Porte declared Russia an irreconcilable enemy of Turkey and all Muslims. Russian subjects were expelled from Turkish possessions, and the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits were closed to Russian ships. In April 1828, the manifesto of Nicholas I on the beginning of the war with Turkey was published in St. Petersburg.

After concluding a peace treaty with Iran, the Russian government transferred some troops from the Caucasus to the Black Sea-Balkan section of the border. The Russian troops in this war were led by Adjutant General P.H. Wittgenstein, then General N.I. Dibich.

On April 25, 1828, the Russian army entered the Danube principalities and began fast promotion to Constantinople. But by the fall this progress had slowed down. The siege of Varna became protracted; the situation was complicated by poor food supplies and illness in the army.

Diebitsch's goal was to conquer Silistria. By the summer of 1829, this fortress finally surrendered. During the summer campaign, Russian troops crossed the Balkan ridge and took Adrianople, the second capital of the Ottoman Empire. These defeats forced Turkey to enter into peace negotiations. On September 2, 1829, a peace treaty between Russia and Turkey was signed in Adrianople.

According to the Peace of Adrianople, Greece received autonomy (a year later it declared its independence from Turkey). The rights of the Danube principalities (Moldova and Wallachia) in the sphere of self-government were confirmed and expanded. The autonomy of Serbia was also confirmed. Russian traders received the right of free commerce throughout the Ottoman Empire. The Black Sea straits were declared open to merchant ships. All territories occupied by Russian troops in the European theater of operations were returned to Turkey, with the exception of the mouth of the Danube with the islands. The border passed, as before, along the Prut River.

As a result of the Peace of Adrianople, Russia's influence in the Balkans increased significantly. This treaty, in the totality of its articles, was in force until the Peace of Paris in 1856. Individual articles of the Peace of Adrianople were developed in the Unkyar-Iskelesi Treaty of 1833 and the London Conventions of 1840 and 1841. on the international status of the Black Sea straits.

The Eastern Question in the 30s and 40s. The Unkyar-Iskelesi Union Treaty between Russia and Turkey on friendship and mutual assistance confirmed the inviolability of the terms of the Adrianople Peace and all previously concluded Russian-Turkish treaties. Russia pledged to provide Turkey with the necessary assistance with its naval and ground forces. According to a secret article, Türkiye was supposed to close the passage through the Dardanelles to all foreign warships. This was the main point of the agreement.

The closure of the Dardanelles to the military fleets of non-Black Sea powers ensured the security of Russia's southern borders, and the principle of joint defense of the Black Sea straits allowed it to reliably block enemy forces from accessing them even in the event of war.

The conclusion of the Unkyar-Iskelesi Treaty was major victory Russian diplomacy, the importance of which was also emphasized by the fact that it was achieved without firing a single shot. This served as proof of Russia's strength and influence in the Middle East.

However, subsequently Russia gradually began to lose its influence in the Eastern Question. According to the London Convention, signed in 1840 by England, Prussia, Austria and Russia, it was established that the principle of closing the Black Sea straits to foreign military vessels would be observed only as long as Turkey was at peace. Thus, any power hostile to Russia, having entered into an alliance with Turkey, could send its military fleet into the Black Sea. The Second London Convention, signed in 1841 by representatives of five powers (including France), confirmed the principle of neutralization of the straits. The Russian fleet found itself locked in the Black Sea.

With the conclusion of the London Conventions and fluctuations in the policy of “preserving a weak neighbor,” Russia sharply weakened its position in the Balkans and the Middle East. The fact that Russia lost its Black Sea privileges hurt the ambitions of the country's top leadership, forcing it to seek revenge.

Crimean War. Crimean War 1853-1856 was, as it were, the final chord in Russia’s attempts to resolve the Eastern Question at its second stage.

The reason for the war was the religious conflict between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy over holy places in Palestine. Such conflicts have arisen more than once. But in in this case The Turkish Sultan, who owned Palestine, under pressure from the French government, resolved the dispute in favor of the Catholics. Russia came out in defense of the local Orthodox clergy.

The religious dispute very soon escalated into a diplomatic conflict, which became an outward manifestation of the acute contradictions between European powers in the Middle East. This region found itself in the zone of economic and military-strategic interests, mainly of England, France and Russia.

The English and French bourgeoisie, taking advantage of the weakening of the Turkish Sultanate, intensively developed the Middle Eastern markets. Russia was their main competitor in this region. Western powers sought by any means to weaken Russia's influence in the Balkans and the Middle East, thereby strengthening their political, economic and military-strategic positions here.

The government of Nicholas I really faced the threat of international isolation, however, it was not realized in time. Prince A.S. Menshikov was sent to Constantinople as ambassador extraordinary. He demanded from the Sultan not only to restore the privileges Orthodox Church in Palestine, but also to recognize the Russian protectorate over the Orthodox subjects of Turkey. Nicholas I counted on the friendly neutrality of England and the support of Prussia and Austria.

These hopes were not realized. England and France intervened in the Russian-Turkish conflict on the side of the Sultan, and Austria and Prussia took neutrality, which was undesirable for Russia.

The Sultan agreed to satisfy Russian demands regarding the privileges of the Orthodox clergy in Palestine, but refused to recognize the protectorate of the Russian Emperor over the Orthodox subjects of Turkey. In June 1853, Nicholas I ordered the Russian army to cross the Prut and occupy the Danube principalities - Moldavia and Wallachia. After this, the squadrons of Turkey's allies, violating the 1841 convention on the neutrality of the Black Sea straits, entered the Sea of ​​Marmara. Four days later, the Sultan, prompted by Western diplomats, demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops in an ultimatum. Having not received the desired response from St. Petersburg, in October 1853 he began military operations on the Danube and in Transcaucasia. England and France declared Russia an aggressor.

The Crimean War had two stages: the first - the Russian-Turkish campaign on the Danube front (October 1853 - April 1854) and the second - the landing of British and French troops in Crimea and the defense of Sevastopol (April 1854 - February 1856) .

At the first stage, the Danube territories became the main theater of combat for the Turkish and Russian armies. Despite the numerical superiority of the Turks, Russian troops managed to win a number of battles - near the village of Chetati (January 1854) and a naval battle in Sinop Bay. The Russian squadron was commanded by Vice Admiral P.S. Nakhimov, a talented officer of the Black Sea Fleet who was loved by the sailors.

After Sinop and military operations on the Danube, the governments of England and France realized that Turkey could not withstand a single combat with Russia on its own. This prompted them to intervene in the course of hostilities.

This was preceded by an active propaganda campaign. In the press and in speeches, Russia was accused of an aggressive policy, and demands were made to speak out in defense of Turkey. In March 1854, the governments of the Western powers presented the Russian emperor with a demand for the withdrawal of Russian troops from Turkish territories. Queen Victoria of England and French Emperor Napoleon III declared war on Russia. True, it was not possible to create a coalition of the European countries of England and France. A year later, only the Sardinian kingdom joined them.

Fearing Austria's entry into the war, Nicholas I decided to withdraw troops from Wallachia and Moldavia. It would seem that the Allies' demand was satisfied, but the war continued. She has entered a new stage. Now it was not only Turkey that was against Russia, but the allied bloc of England-France-Türkiye.

A detailed plan for waging war was developed in Paris. It implied large-scale military operations on the Danube, in the Transcaucasus, in the Baltic and White Seas and in the Kamchatka region. But the main theater of war was Crimea.

Having not achieved serious successes in the Far East and the North, England and France in the fall of 1854 decided to strike at the main strategic base of the Black Sea Fleet - Sevastopol. To capture it on the Bulgarian coast, in the Varna region, the Allies concentrated a large expeditionary army, which they then landed in Crimea. English and French strategists were counting on a quick victory. But their landing operation resulted in a protracted, grueling struggle, which went down in history under the name “Defense of Sevastopol.”

The Allied landing included 360 different ships and a 62,000-strong army with siege weapons. From total number Western naval forces 31 ships made up a combat squadron, which significantly exceeded the entire fleet located in Sevastopol under the command of Admiral P.S. Nakhimov. The Sevastopol fortress had a fairly well fortified coastline, but was almost not fortified from land. And this was known to the opponents. Taking this information into account, a plan to capture the fortress was developed.

There were about 52 thousand Russian troops on the entire Crimean peninsula. However, some of them were stationed in the eastern part of Crimea. The Sevastopol army under the leadership of A.S. Menshikov numbered 33 thousand soldiers with 96 guns.

After the enemy landing, Menshikov made an attempt to stop him at the turn of the Alma River. Here, on September 8, the first battle of Russian troops with the interventionists took place. The Russian army was defeated and suffered heavy losses. The Russians lost 6 thousand people in this battle, the allies - 3 thousand. Russia's technical backwardness manifested itself in human losses. Menshikov led the army first to Sevastopol, and then, fearing to lose contact with the internal provinces, to Bakhchisarai.

However, impressed by the stubborn battle on Alma, the Anglo-French military leadership abandoned their intention to attack Sevastopol from the north. The Allies bypassed the Sevastopol Bay and began to prepare a naval base in Balaklava. From here their attack on the Sevastopol fortifications from the south began.

The defenders of Sevastopol received the necessary time to prepare the city for defense. Day and night, under the leadership of military engineer E.I. Totleben, the construction of ground bastions, trenches and other fortifications took place. On the hills around the city on the southern side, seven bastions arose, interconnected by redoubts, batteries or simply trenches.

The crews of sea vessels moved to land and took up defensive positions. During these days, 10 thousand sailors went ashore, and in total during the defense - 20 thousand. They were the decisive force in the defense of the city. Ship guns were brought ashore and installed on bastions. To block the enemy fleet from entering the bay, seven old sailing ships were sunk at its entrance. The enemy fleet could no longer fire at the city.

The main heroes and soul of the defense were the naval commanders - Vice Admiral V.A. Kornilov and Admiral P.S. Nakhimov.

On September 25, 1854, by order of the garrison, the city was declared in a state of siege. This date went down in history as the first day of heroic defense. In total, the siege of Sevastopol lasted 349 days.

She was incredibly heavy. The defenders were in dire need of food, ammunition, drinking water. The garrison carried huge losses. The first detachment of sisters of mercy in Russian history took part in the defense of Sevastopol. It was formed in St. Petersburg from female volunteers. Under the leadership of doctors and surgeon N.I. Pirogov, they carried out a grueling and noble watch in hospitals and at dressing stations.

The defense of Sevastopol throughout was distinguished by the high combat activity of its defenders. They became especially famous for their bold and daring night forays.

Fighting off enemy attacks, the city’s defenders continued to build new batteries and bastions, deepened ditches, and built new redoubts. By order of Nakhimov, a floating bridge was built across the Southern Bay. This helped speed up the transfer of reinforcements and the supply of ammunition.

However, over time, the enemy's superiority over the besieged became more and more noticeable. The ranks of the defenders of Sevastopol were melting. In August 1855, a floating bridge was built across the Big Bay to withdraw troops from the South side of the city to the North.

The Crimean campaign ended, but not as the governments of England and France would have liked. The defense of Sevastopol pinned down the enormous forces of the Allies and prolonged the war.

By the end of 1855, England and France began to lean toward peace negotiations. Both warring sides needed peace. The Paris Peace Congress opened in February 1856. Representatives from Russia, England, France, Turkey, Sardinia, Austria and Prussia took part in it. Russian diplomats, using the contradictions between the victors, and with some rapprochement with France, were able to achieve a softening of the peace conditions. But still, the Paris Peace Treaty was very difficult for Russia.

It proclaimed the restoration of peace between the participants in the war and provided for: the return by Russia of the city of Kars with a fortress to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol and other cities in Crimea occupied by Turkey’s allies; declaring the Black Sea neutral, that is, open to merchant ships of all nations, with the prohibition of Russia and Turkey from having military fleets and arsenals there; the abolition of Russia’s right to “speak in favor” of the principalities in Moldavia and Wallachia. Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia were placed under the protection of European states. It was a heavy and humiliating defeat for Russia.

The war revealed Russia's economic backwardness. The serfdom system hampered the country's industrial development and had a negative impact on its military potential. The recruiting system of army formation was long ago rejected in the West. Maintaining an army of more than a million people was costly for the state. Army units were dispersed throughout the empire. In the absence of a developed network railways in the Russian off-road conditions, their rapid transfer to solve military-strategic tasks was a difficult matter.

The serious lag of Russian industry was also evident in the field of armament of the army. Russian artillery, which had become so famous in the War of 1812, was now noticeably inferior to English and French. The Russian fleet continued to remain predominantly sailing. In the Black Sea squadron, out of 21 large warships, only 7 were steam-powered, while the Anglo-French fleet consisted almost entirely of steam ships with screw engines.

Defeat in the Crimean War and difficult conditions The Peace of Paris caused sharp criticism in Russia of the domestic and foreign policies of Nicholas I. It was felt that the country was on the threshold of important changes in socio-economic and socio-political life.

Class 8

Subject: "Eastern Question" and European politics.

Lesson type: learning new material.

Target: characterize the essence of the “eastern question” and ways to resolve it.

During the classes:

1. Organizing time
2. Updating students' knowledge on the topic ""
3. Learning new material.

Plan:

1. Attempts to divide Turkey's possessions.
2. Reforms of the 1840s in Turkey.
3. Crimean War 1853-1856

1. Please remember how the Ottoman Empire was formed?(the Ottoman Empire arose in1299 and existed until 1922of the year. It included: Asia Minor (Anatolia), the Middle East, North Africa, the Balkan Peninsula and the lands of Europe adjacent to it from the north) In Europe, the Ottoman Empire was called the Ottoman Empire, the Sublime (Brilliant) Porte.

During this period in Europe, the leading powers came into conflict with each other, when there was a danger of strengthening competitors, threatening to upset the balance in Europe.

Balance of Power - a policy principle followed by European powers. He assumed that they would unite against those countries that lay claim to dominance on the continent.

The most pressing issue in the mid-19th century was the “Eastern Question.”

"Eastern Question"– this is a complex international conflicts V XVII - beginning XX centuries, associated with control over the holy places in Palestine, as well as the struggle of the Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire to gain independence and the competition of the great powers for the division of the weakening Ottoman Empire.

Reasons for the aggravation of the “Eastern Question”

• The struggle for spheres of influence in Turkey.
• The struggle of the Slavic peoples for national liberation.
• Control of the Black Sea straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles.

In 1830 French troops invaded Algeria (formally a vassal of Turkey); French authorities confiscated the state lands of Muslims who did not recognize the power of the colonialists. These lands were transferred to settlers from Southern European countries. France paid increased attention to another vassal state of the Ottoman Empire - Egypt.

Pasha of Egypt Muhammad Ali (1769-1849) carried out reforms that strengthened his power.

In 1831 year, encouraged by France, Muhammad Ali began a war against the Turkish Sultan. Egyptian troops occupied Syria and Libya, which caused discontent among the European powers.

Russia, at the request of Sultan Muhmud II, sent a fleet and troops to Turkey, which landed in the Bosporus area. England was puzzled by this turn of events. She was not satisfied with Russia’s consolidation at the straits; nor the establishment of French control over Egypt.

On the initiative of England 1833 A truce was signed between Egypt and Turkey.

However, in 1839 the war began again. The Turkish army was defeated.

1. Independent work with the textbook text p. 114.

Exercise: write down the reforms that were carried out in Turkey in the 40s. XIX century.

Reforms:

• Introduction of centralized administrative management.
• Recognition of private property rights to land, its purchase and sale is permitted.
• Development of a secular education system.
• Guarantee of inviolability of life and property, regardless of religious affiliation.
• Attempts have been made to curb abuses in tax collection.
• The creation of a European-style regular army began.

!!! However, the reforms did not meet with support in the country. The Muslim clergy was irritated by the concessions to the “infidels.” The local nobility believed that the reforms infringed on their privileges. The peasantry was not happy with the buying up of land by moneylenders and traders.

The reforms did not provide conditions for the development of domestic production.

1. Crimean War 1853-1856

Causes of the war:

• Contradictions between Russia and Turkey and European states over the straits.
• Help from Russia nationally liberation movements Balkan peoples in the fight against the Ottoman Empire.
• The policy of England and France aimed at weakening Russia's influence on the Balkan Peninsula and the Middle East.

Results of the war:

• Return of Sevastopol to Russia in exchange for the Turkish fortress of Kars.
• Declaration of the Black Sea as neutral, which deprived Russia and Turkey of the opportunity to have a navy and coastal fortifications here.

Thus, the “Eastern Question” was partly deprived.

1. Homework.

• Read paragraph 13.

1. Summing up the lesson. Grading.