Vlad Grinkevich, economic commentator for RIA Novosti.

Exactly 825 years ago, the troops of Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich and his brother Vsevolod set out on a campaign against the Polovtsian prince Konchak. The unsuccessful campaign of the brothers was not particularly significant from a military-political point of view, and could have remained an ordinary episode of numerous Russian-Polovtsian wars. But the name of Igor was immortalized by an unknown author, who described the prince’s campaign in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”

Polovtsian steppe

At the beginning of the 11th century, Turkic tribes, called Polovtsians in Russian sources (they did not have a single self-name), invaded the Black Sea steppes, displacing the Pechenegs, exhausted by a long confrontation with Russia and Byzantium. Soon the new people spread throughout the Great Steppe - from the Danube to the Irtysh, and this territory began to be called the Polovtsian steppe.

In the middle of the 11th century, the Polovtsians appeared at the Russian borders. From this moment the history of the Russian-Polovtsian wars begins, stretching over a century and a half. The balance of power between Rus' and the steppe in the 11th century was clearly not in favor of the latter. The population of the Russian state exceeded 5 million people. What forces did the enemy have? Historians talk about several hundred thousand nomads. And these hundreds of thousands were scattered throughout the Great Steppe. Contrary to popular belief, the concentration of nomads in a limited area is very problematic.

The economy of nomadic peoples was only partially reproducing, and largely depended on finished products of nature - pastures and water sources. In modern horse breeding, it is believed that one horse requires an average of 1 hectare of pasture. It is not difficult to calculate that the long-term concentration in a limited territory of even several thousand nomads (each had several horses at his disposal, not counting other livestock) was a very difficult matter. Things were not going well with military technology either.

Metallurgy and metalworking have never been strengths nomads, because to process metals you need to master the technology of burning charcoal, building fire-resistant furnaces and have sufficiently developed soil science. All this has little to do with the nomadic way of life. It is no coincidence that even in the 18th century, the peoples of nomadic states, for example, the Dzungars, exchanged not only iron but also copper products with the Chinese and Russians.

However, several thousand, and sometimes several hundred, albeit poorly armed, but battle-hardened steppe inhabitants were enough to carry out lightning raids and dashing robberies, from which the weakly protected village settlements of the southern Russian principalities suffered.

Quite quickly it became clear that the nomads were not able to resist a numerically superior and, most importantly, better equipped enemy. On November 1, 1068, the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, with only three thousand soldiers on the Snova River, defeated a twelve thousand Polovtsian army and captured Khan Shurkan. Subsequently, Russian troops repeatedly inflicted crushing defeats on the steppes, capturing or destroying their leaders.

Politics is dirtier than war

There is a saying - its authorship is attributed to various famous military leaders: “a fortress is strong not by its walls, but by the firmness of its defenders.” World history shows quite clearly that nomads managed to capture sedentary states only when they were in a state of decline, or when the aggressors found support in the enemy camp.

From the middle of the 11th century, Rus' entered a period of fragmentation and civil strife. The Russian princes at war with each other were not averse to resorting to the help of the Polovtsian hordes to settle scores with political rivals. The central government became a pioneer in this not very noble cause: in the winter of 1076, Vladimir Monomakh hired nomads for a campaign against Vseslav of Polotsk. Monomakh's example turned out to be contagious, and the Russian princes willingly used Polovtsian detachments to ruin the estates of their competitors. The Polovtsians themselves benefited most from this; they became so strong that they began to represent real threat for the entire Russian state. Only after this did the contradictions between the princes fade into the background.

In 1097, the Lyubechsky Congress of Princes decided: “let everyone keep his own patrimony.” The Russian state was legally divided into appanages, but this did not prevent the appanage princes from joining forces to strike a blow at the common enemy. At the beginning of the 1100s, Vladimir Monomakh began a large-scale campaign against the nomads, which lasted more than 10 years and ended with the almost complete destruction of the Polovtsian state. The Polovtsians were forced out of the Great Steppe into the foothills of the Caucasus.

Who knows, maybe this is where the history of the people called the Polovtsians would have ended. But after the death of Monomakh, the warring princes again needed the services of the nomads. Revered as the founder of Moscow, Prince Yuri Dolgoruky leads the Polovtsian hordes to the walls of Kyiv five times. Others followed his example. History repeated itself: brought and armed by the Russian princes, the nomadic tribes became so strong that they began to pose a threat to the state.

Fate's grin

Once again, leaving behind their differences, the princes united to jointly push back their enemy allies into the steppe. In 1183, the allied army led by the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich defeated the Polovtsian army, capturing Khan Kobyak. In the spring of 1185, Khan Konchak was defeated. Svyatoslav went to the Chernigov lands to gather an army for the summer campaign, but the ambitious Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor and his brother, the Chernigov prince Vsevolod, wanted military glory, and therefore at the end of April they began a new separate campaign against Konchak. This time, military luck was on the side of the nomads. For the whole day, the brothers' squads held back the pressure of a numerically superior enemy. “Ardent Tour” Vsevolod single-handedly fought with a whole detachment of enemies. But the bravery of the Russians was in vain: the princely troops were defeated, the wounded Igor and his son Vladimir were captured. However, having escaped from captivity, Igor took revenge on his offenders by carrying out a series of victorious campaigns against the Polovtsian khans.

The tragedy of the Russian-Polovtsian wars lies elsewhere. After 1185, the Polovtsians were weakened and no longer dared to independent actions against Rus'. However, the steppe people regularly invaded Russian lands as mercenary troops of Russian princes. And soon the Polovtsians will have a new master: they first became prey, and soon the main striking force of the Tatar-Mongol army. And again, Rus' will have to pay dearly for the ambitions of its rulers, who rely on foreigners in the name of selfish goals.

In the 10th century Polovtsians (Kimaks, Kipchaks, Cumans) wandered from the Irtysh to the Caspian Sea. With the beginning of the Seljuk movement, their hordes moved, following the Guz-Torks, to the west. In the 11th century in the Black Sea region, the Polovtsians consolidated the hordes of Bulgarians who had left the Volga, the Pechenegs and Torques into unions subject to them, and developed the lands that became the Polovtsian steppe - Dasht-i-Kipchak.

The Polovtsy who lived along the Dnieper are usually divided into two associations - the left bank and the right bank. Both of them consisted of scattered independent hordes that had their own nomadic territory. At the head of the horde was the ruling clan - the kuren. The family of the main khan (kosh) stood out in the clan. Their greatest influence and power were enjoyed by strong khans - military leaders, for example Bonyak or Sharukan. The Polovtsians raided their neighbors: Rus', Bulgaria, Byzantium. They took part in the civil strife of Russian princes.

The Polovtsian army had the traditional tactics of warfare for nomads - horse attacks with “lavas”, deliberate flight to lure the enemy into attack from an ambush, and in case of defeat they “scattered” across the steppe. Polovtsian troops successfully fought at night (1061, 1171, 1185, 1215). The Polovtsian army, as a rule, consisted of light and heavy cavalry.

Rus''s first acquaintance with the Polovtsians occurred in 1055 in the political field. The reason is the creation of the Pereyaslav principality in 1054 and an attempt to armedly expel the Torci from its territory. The Polovtsians, who were interested in settling the Torci, came to Rus' in peace and solved the problem of their resettlement through diplomatic means.

In 1061, the Polovtsians made their first invasion of Rus' and defeated Prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich of Pereyaslavl. The invasion was caused by a new offensive of Rus' against the Pereyaslav Torci, which violated the Russian-Polovtsian peace treaty.

As part of the Russian army, the armed formations of the Polovtsians took part both as allies (XI-XIII centuries), and as “federates” (XII-XIII centuries), that is, living on the territory of the principality and subordinate current laws this principality. The Polovtsy, Torques and other “pacified” Turks settled on the territory of Rus' were called “black hoods”. The onslaught of the Polovtsians on Rus' intensified with the change of princely power. Rus' was forced to strengthen the southern border with fortresses in Porosye, Posemye and other regions. Russian-Polovtsian relations were also strengthened by dynastic marriages. Many Russian princes took as wives the daughters of Polovtsian khans. However, the threat of Polovtsian raids on Rus' was constant.

Rus' responded to the raids with campaigns in the Polovtsian steppe. The most effective campaigns of the Russian army were in 1103, 1107, 1111, 1128, 1152, 1170, 1184–1187, 1190, 1192, 1202. More than once the Polovtsians came to Rus' to support one of the disgruntled Russian princes. In alliance with the Russian army, in 1223, the Cumans were defeated by the Mongol-Tatars (Kalka). As an independent political force (Polovtsian steppe) Polovtsians last time attacked Rus': in the east - in 1219 (Ryazan Principality), and in the west - in 1228 and 1235. (Principality of Galicia). After the Mongol-Tatar conquests of the 13th century. Some of the Polovtsy joined the Mongol-Tatar hordes, others settled in Rus', and others went to the Danube region, Hungary, Lithuania, Transcaucasia and the Middle East.

Campaign of the Russian army against the Polovtsians (1103)

In 1103, the Cumans once again violated the peace. Grand Duke Svyatopolk II Izyaslavich of Kiev (8.9.1050–16.4.1113) and Prince of Pereyaslav Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1053–19.5.1125) with their senior squads gathered in Dolobsk for a princely congress - to hold advice on a campaign against the Polovtsians. By the will of the senior princes in Rus', in order to solve a number of foreign policy and internal problems, the druzhina troops of individual lands united under the leadership of the Grand Duke of Rus' and formed an all-Russian druzhina army. At the Dolob Congress it was decided to go to the Polovtsian steppe. The troops of the Chernigov-Seversk land of Oleg (?–18.8.1115) and Davyd (?–1123) Svyatoslavich were invited to the campaign. Vladimir Monomakh left the congress and went to Pereyaslavl to gather his army. Svyatopolk II, taking a retinue army from Kyiv, followed him. In addition to the above-mentioned princes, in the campaign against the Polovtsians, they attracted the squadron troops of Prince Davyd Svyatoslavich of Novgorod-Seversky, as well as princes of the 8th generation: Davyd Vseslavich of Polotsk (?–1129), Vyacheslav Yaropolchich of Vladimir-Volynsky (?–13.4.1105), Yaropolk Vladimirovich of Smolensk (?–18.2.1133) and Mstislav Vsevolodich Gorodetsky (?–1114). Citing illness, only Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich did not go on the campaign. Thus, the all-Russian army in the campaign of 1103 was formed from seven princely troops different regions Rus'. And the Russian army went on a campaign. Having passed the boats below the rapids, the troops went ashore near the island of Khortitsa. Then, on horseback and on foot, we went across the field. Four days later they approached Suteni. The Polovtsians knew about the Russian campaign and gathered an army. They decided to kill the Russian princes and take possession of their cities. Only the oldest, Urusoba, was against fighting Russia.

Moving towards the Russian troops, the Polovtsians sent Khan Altunopa at the head of the vanguard. However, the Russian vanguard ambushed Altunopa’s detachment and, surrounding it, killed all the soldiers. Altunopa himself died in the battle. This allowed the Russian regiments to suddenly stand in the way of the Polovtsians on April 4 at Suteni. In the face of the Russian warriors, the Polovtsians “became confused, and fear attacked them, and they themselves became numb, and their horses had no speed in their legs.” As the chronicler writes, “the Russian army attacked the enemy with joy on horseback and on foot.” The Polovtsians could not withstand the onslaught and fled. In battle and pursuit, the Russians killed 20 Polotsk princes: Urusoba, Kochia, Yaroslanopa, Kitanopa, Kunama, Asup, Kurtyk, Chenegrepa, Surbar and others, and captured Beldyuz. After the victory, Beldyuz was brought to Svyatopolk. Svyatopolk did not take the ransom in gold, silver, horses and cattle, but handed the khan over to Vladimir for trial. For breaking the oath, Monomakh ordered the khan to be killed, and he was cut into pieces. Then the prince-brothers gathered, took Polovtsian cattle, sheep, horses, camels, vezhs with booty and servants, captured the Pechenegs and Torques with their vezhs, “and returned to Rus' with glory and great victory.”

Campaign of the Russian army against the Polovtsians (1111)

After the successful campaign of Rus' against the Polovtsians in 1103, the Polovtsians did not abandon raids on the Russian principalities and continued to torment the Russian lands with their devastating raids both in 1106 in the Kiev region near Zarechsk, and in 1107 near Pereyaslavl and Lubna (Polovtsian khans Bonyak, Sharukan in Posulye). In 1107, in the Pereyaslavl principality near Lubno, the troops of the Russian princes of Kyiv, Pereyaslavl, Chernigov, Smolensk and Novgorod principalities gave a worthy rebuff to the enemy on August 19, when at six o’clock in the afternoon they crossed the river. Sulu and attacked the Cumans. The sudden attack of the Russians terrified the Polovtsians and they “could not set up the banner for fear and ran: some clutching their horses, others on foot... chased them to Khorol. They killed Taz, Bonyakov's brother, captured Sugr and his brother, and Sharukan barely escaped. The Polovtsians abandoned their convoy, which was captured by Russian soldiers...” However, the raids continued.

In 1111, “Having thought, the princes of Russia went to Polovets,” i.e. The Russian princes again had a military council and decided to organize a new campaign against the Polovtsians. The united Russian army this time already consisted of 11 squadron troops of the Russian princes Svyatopolk II, Yaroslav, Vladimir, Svyatoslav, Yaropolk and Mstislav Vladimirovich, Davyd Svyatoslavich, Rostislav Davydovich, Davyd Igorevich, Vsevolod Olgovich, Yaroslav Svyatopolchich, i.e. The military power of the Kyiv, Pereyaslavl, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky, Novgorod, Smolensk, Vladimir-Volyn and Buzh Russian principalities moved to the Polovtsian steppe. The commanders of the Russian army in this campaign were: Svyatopolk Izyaslavich (Grand Duke of Kiev); Vladimir Vsevoldovich (Prince of Pereyaslavl); Davyd Svyatoslavich (prince of Chernigov) with his son Rostislav Davydovich (appanage prince of Chernigov); Davyd Igorevich (Prince of Buzh, Ostrog, Chertory and Dorogobuzh); Vsevolod Olgovich (Vsevolod-Kirill Olgovich Prince of Chernigov); Svyatoslav Olgovich (appanage prince of Chernigov); Yaroslav Svyatopolchich (Yaroslav (Yaroslavets) - Ivan Svyatopolkovich, Prince of Vladimir-Volynsky); Mstislav Vladimirovich (Prince of Novgorod); Yaropolk Vladimirovich (Prince of Smolensk).

The united Russian army, as a rule, on the battlefield before the battle by the senior commander - the Grand Duke, was divided into three parts: a large regiment - the center, a regiment of the right hand and a regiment of the left hand - the flanks. The balance of forces in the campaign against the Polovtsians was as follows: the eldest among equals in Rus', Prince Svyatopolk II led the regiments of a large regiment, and Vladimir and Davyd, respectively, led the regiments of the right and left hands. In terms of subordination, the subordination of the princes' troops is as follows.

Svyatopolk's army consisted of three regiments, which were headed by: Svyatopolk Izyaslavich (Grand Duke of Kiev); Yaroslav Svyatopolchich; Davyd Igorevich.

Vladimir's army consisted of three regiments, which were headed by: Vladimir Vsevoldovich (Prince of Pereyaslavl); Mstislav Vladimirovich; Yaropolk Vladimirovich.

Davyd's army consisted of three regiments, which were headed by: Davyd Svyatoslavich (Prince of Chernigov) with his son Rostislav; Vsevolod Olgovich; Svyatoslav Olgovich.

In the second week of Lent, the Russian army set out on a campaign against the Polovtsians. In the fifth week of Lent it came to Don. On Tuesday, March 21, having donned protective weapons (armor) and dispatched the regiments, the troops went to the city of Sharuknya, whose residents hospitably greeted them. On the morning of the next day (March 22), the troops moved to the city of Sugrob, the inhabitants of which did not want to submit to their will, and the city was burned.

The Polovtsy gathered an army and, having dispatched their regiments, went out to battle. The battle took place on March 24 on the Degeya stream (“on the Salne Retse field” - in the Salsky steppes). And Rus' won. The chronicle testifies that after the victory on the Degeya stream, the next week - March 27, the Polovtsians with an army of “a thousand thousand” surrounded the Russian troops and began a fierce battle. The picture of the battle is drawn as follows. The large regiment of Svyatoslav II, consisting of several regiments, was the first to engage in battle with the Polovtsian army. And when there were already many killed on both sides, the Russian army appeared before the enemy in full glory - the combined regiments of Prince Vladimir and the regiments of Prince Davyd hit the Polovtsians on the flanks. It should be noted that Russian troops, in the fight against the Polovtsians, usually fight near rivers. This is due to the fact that the nomads used methods specific to them to fight the enemy. Being, by the type of weapons and way of life, light cavalry, their warriors tried to surround the enemy’s army in the steppe and, at full gallop, fired at the enemy in a circular manner from bows, finishing the job they started with sabers, pikes, and whips. By placing regiments near rivers, Russian commanders, using the natural river barrier, deprived the nomads of maneuver, and heavy defensive weapons and the possibility of flanking attacks on the enemy from left- and right-handed regiments already qualitatively changed the picture of the battle.

As a result of the campaign, the Russian soldiers “... and took all their wealth, and killed many with their hands... on Monday of Holy Week, and many of them were beaten.” The battle on the Salnitsa River ended with the complete defeat of the Polovtsian army, which crowned the half-century struggle of Rus' with the Polovtsians with a military triumph, and until 1128 the Polovtsians did not make major raids.

Starting from the second half of the 11th century, Rus' had to wage a long and intense struggle with the Polovtsians, who were constantly attacking the Russian land.

The main occupation of the Cumans was cattle breeding. From childhood they rode horses and wielded a bow. The Polovtsian army consisted of light cavalry and was distinguished by its speed and dexterity of action. The Polovtsians were armed with bows and sabers. Every Polovtsian knew how to use a lasso. Since the unification of the Polovtsian hordes under the rule of Khan Konchak (XII century), large throwing machines have appeared in the Polovtsian army. We have also received information that the Polovtsians used Greek “living” fire.

We can judge the tactical techniques of the nomads from the reports of Byzantine writers and our chronicles. Byzantine Eustathius

Solunsky (12th century) spoke about the Polovtsians: “In one moment the Polovtsian is close, and now he is no longer there. Will make a collision and, headlong, with with full hands, grabs the reins, urges the horse with his feet and whip, and rushes on like a whirlwind, as if wanting to overtake a fast bird. They haven’t had time to see him yet, but he’s already disappeared from sight.”

Anna Komnenos says that the Polovtsian battle formation consisted of separate detachments and that they placed their reserves behind in the battle position.

Our chroniclers also note the speed of their actions and the surprise of their attacks. The Polovtsians quite often used ambushes. To this end, they first rushed to the attack, and then quickly turned their horses and rushed back, showering the enemy with arrows. The enemy rushed in pursuit, while his ranks were disrupted, and at that moment, as Anna Komneno reports, fresh Polovtsian detachments attacked him from the flanks and rear. When the Polovtsians were threatened by the enemy, they built fortifications from carts around the camp. Through special passages between the carts, the Polovtsians made quick sorties, struck the enemy in one direction or another, and returned again to their fortified camp.

The fight against a strong and numerous enemy - the nomadic Polovtsians - had to be waged under new conditions, during the period of the beginning of the collapse of Kievan Rus.

If united military forces opposed the Pechenegs and Turks, then only the military forces of individual or several southern Russian principalities acted against the Polovtsians. The organization of joint campaigns of feudal princes, engulfed in internecine struggle, required exceptionally great efforts. Vladimir Monomakh coped brilliantly with this task, on the solution of which the outcome of the fight against the Polovtsians depended. In the fight against the Polovtsians, the great military skill of Vladimir Mono-

Maha. Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1053-1125) - an outstanding statesman and commander. His activities took place in the conditions of internal feudal wars, princely strife, and in the fight against the nomadic Polovtsians. Vladimir Monomakh was a strong supporter of the state unity of Rus'. Having become the prince of Kyiv in 1113, he made a last attempt to unite Rus' around a single center - Kyiv; this attempt of his was not destined to come true, but nevertheless, the efforts he made made it possible to gather significant military forces to fight the external enemies of Rus'.

The Kyiv princes more than once crushed the enemy in the territory they occupied. But this was in the previous period, when the Kiev prince himself personally controlled all military forces. The fight against the Polovtsians came down to passive defense. The only form of struggle that sometimes led to positive results was an attack on the Polovtsian escape route after raids in order to recapture the prisoners. But this form of struggle did not pursue decisive goals, since it was used only for defense and mainly against individual small groups of nomads.

The strategy of Vladimir Monomakh, skillfully applied by him in the campaigns of 1103 and 1111, was distinguished by its offensive nature. The merit of Vladimir Monomakh as a commander lies in changing the forms of struggle, in the transition from passive defense to offensive actions, to transferring the war deep into the Polovtsian steppes. The leadership abilities of Vladimir Monomakh were also manifested in the organization of fast marches, in understanding the role of the military branches and the importance of their clear interaction on the battlefield, in the skillful conduct of battle, in ensuring the interaction of regiments, each of which was headed by the prince of one or another Russian region. Vladimir Monomakh,

Unlike, for example, the Kyiv prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, who disdained the foot army, the “warriors,” widely attracted the militia of the “warriors” and paid tribute to the infantry. He strengthens the cavalry, especially the light cavalry, which successfully competed with the Polovtsians in speed, agility and ability to wield a bow and saber (or light spear).

During this historical period, the success of war and battle depended primarily on the coordination of the actions of the feudal princes. Having achieved this, Monomakh was able to fight two large battles in 1111, with an interval of two days between them.

The Russian commander skillfully lined up his troops in battle formation - in two lines by regiments - and brought their individual units into battle at the right time.

Vladimir Monomakh wrote a “Teaching” for his children, which, together with his letter to Prince Oleg of Chernigov, was placed in the “Tale of Bygone Years” under the year 1096. “Instruction” contains actual instructions to his sons and a description of the life and work of the author himself. Monomakh, describing his numerous military campaigns and battles, touches on a number of general issues military affairs. The “Instruction” strongly condemns the internecine struggle of the Russian princes. To act against enemies not separately, but with the united forces of the Russian principalities - this is the main requirement of the Instruction. Much attention is paid to drawing up well-thought-out campaign plans, delivering surprise attacks, vigilance and courage in battle. Vladimir Monomakh demanded that during campaigns soldiers should not be allowed to “cause harm either to their own or to others, either in villages or in fields.”

Under Vladimir Monomakh and his son Mstislav, Kyiv seemed to once again acquire the significance of a capital city, and this time on the basis of more developed feudal relations. However, this period was short-lived. Feudal Rus' steadily followed the path of fragmentation into

Separate areas. The further development of Russian military art is already associated with the period of feudal fragmentation.

In the second half of the 12th century, the Polovtsians intensified their attack on Rus'. The Polovtsian Khan Konchak raided in 1184 and devastated large areas. This forced many Russian princes to unite again. In the same year 1184, the Kiev prince Svyatoslav, and with him up to 12 princes of Southern Rus' (Pereyaslavl, Smolensk, Turov, Galician, Volyn and others) set out on a campaign against the Polovtsians. After five marches, the Russian army on the banks of the Ugra River met a strong advanced

A number of Polovtsians defeated it. Rich booty fell into the hands of the victors, 7 thousand Polovtsians and 417 of their princes were captured.

Khan Konchak with the main forces walked towards the Russian army. The Polovtsians had crossbows that could barely pull 50 warriors. They had unknown guns that fired “living fire” (maybe “Greek fire”). Near the Khorol River on March 1, 1185, the Polovtsian army was defeated. This victory inspired the Seversk princes to fight, led by Igor Svyatoslavich, the prince of Novgorod-Seversky.

The path of Igor Seversky’s army to the Polovtsian steppe in 1185 (professor Kudryashov’s version)

Bringing to her along the way her allies: the squad of her son Vladimir, the squad of her nephew from Rylsk, the squad of the Prince of Putivl, the forces of the Chernigov prince and her brother Vsevolod. Having crossed the Donets, the Russian army concentrated on the banks of the Oskol River, and then moved to the Don and Sale rivers.

Konchak and five other Polovtsian khans with a large army headed towards the Russians. Between Oskol and Don, on the banks of the Syurli (Sula) River, the Russian princes met the advanced units of the Polovtsians.

Russian pre-revolutionary and Soviet historians and archaeologists studied the question of the location of the battle between the Russian regiments and the Polovtsians. It was established that the battle took place in the direction Izyum - Slavyansk. The defeat of the advanced units of the Polovtsians was inflicted at Golaya Dolina; the Russians spent the night on the banks of the Makatikha River, which had steep banks (the entire length of the river is 7-8 km). In the battle of the main forces, the Polovtsians pushed the Russians to the Slavic (Salty) Lake. In 1894, during construction railway Many skeletons were found between the salt lakes Weisov and Rai.

And weapons. This made it possible to clarify the location of the battlefield, which is located 250-300 km northwest of the previously assumed point.

In the chronicle about the campaign of Prince Igor Seversky we find the following description of the battle order of the Russian regiments:

“And you ordered 6 regiments: Igorev’s regiment in the middle, and I will trample down his brother Vsevolozh, and his son Svyatoslavl in the field, in front of him is his son Volodimir and another regiment Yaroslavl, like him with Olstin Koueve, and the third regiment in front is the archers, who are like him from all princes removed; and thus you have cleared out your regiments.”

Consequently, the battle formation of the Russian army was dispersed along the front and in depth. The first line consisted of archers allocated from all regiments; in the second line there were two regiments, in the third line - three regiments, which made up the main forces. This formation of the Russian army ensured stability in battle.

Approaching the Syurli River, the Russian regiments saw the Polovtsians. Archers separated from the Polovtsian detachments, galloped up to the river, fired at the Russians and rushed off into the steppe along with those who stood far from the river. The advanced Russian regiments began to pursue the Polovtsians, and Igor with the main forces moved behind the advanced regiments in battle formation to the Kayala River. By evening, the Russians captured the Polovtsian camp and took prisoners.

Igor decided to pursue the enemy at night, but the horses of the leading regiments were very tired and had to spend the night. At dawn on Saturday, the Cumans concentrated all their forces against the Russians. The enemy, having a large numerical superiority in forces, surrounded the Russian army.

In the created unfavorable situation, the Russian princes decided to make their way to the Donets River, dismounting mounted soldiers and fighting on foot. The princes said: “If we run, we will run away ourselves, but ordinary people let us leave, then we will sin,

That they were handed over to their enemies, or we will die, or we will live together.” Consequently, not only the squads of the princes, but also the “warriors” took part in the campaign.

On Saturday the Russians fought successfully. But at dawn on Sunday, “Koueva got agitated in the regiment and ran away.” Igor on horseback rushed to the retreating people to return them to the line, but to no avail. When the prince was returning to his regiments, the Polovtsians captured him. The battle continued even after Igor was captured. The warriors fought on foot.

This bloody battle is described in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”: “From early to evening, from evening to light, red-hot arrows fly, sabers are lashed from their helmets, spears of kharaluzhny crack in the unknown field, across the Polovtsian lands. The black earth under the hooves was sown with bones, and the clearing was cleared with blood: a tight climb was made across the Russian land.

Fight one day, fight another; On the third day, at noon, the fall of Igor’s struggles. My brother is separated from me on the breeze of fast Kayala; there is not enough bloody wine; tu piya dokanchasha brave rusichi; They searched for matchmakers, but they themselves fought for the Russian land. The grass was stricken with stings, and the tree bowed down to the ground."

The Polovtsians suppressed the Russians with their numbers and destroyed their army. The wounded Prince Igor subsequently escaped from captivity with great difficulty. In the campaigns of 1187 and 1191, he brutally took revenge on the Cumans for his defeat in 1185.

The author of “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign” points out the reasons for the defeat of Prince Igor. He writes: “Already, brothers, a sad time has arisen, the desert has already covered its strength. A resentment arose in the forces of Dazhbozh's grandson... The strife between the princes and his filthy death, the brother shouted to his brother: "This is mine, otherwise that is mine." And the princes began to talk about small “beyond all that is great”, and began to commit sedition on themselves. And from all sides, people are coming with victories to the Russian land.” The author of the ancient poem called on Russians to

Uniting to fight external enemies.

Feudal fragmentation was the reason for the weakening of the military power of the Russian principalities. Instead of fighting the Polovtsians, some Russian princes, during civil strife, themselves criminally called Polovtsians to Russian soil, putting their feudal interests above all-Russian interests. However external danger more than once forced the princes to join forces in order to repel the enemy. The Russian principalities waged a heroic struggle against the nomads, and Rus' was a barrier that protected Western Europe from the barbarians.

“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” glorified the bravery and courage of the Russians

The path of Igor Seversky's troops from

Salnitsa to Kayala and the battlefields near the rivers Syurlin and Kayala

Voinov. The author of the Lay emphasizes that the high morale of the troops is the key to their military success; he attacks the princes who, disobeying the leaders of the campaign, disrupted the successful completion of combat missions and allowed “the filthy with victories to raid the Russian land.” There must be one commander on a campaign - this is the conviction of the author of the Lay.

From the chronicle description of Igor’s campaign, we have the first data about the battle formation of the Russian army dissected along the front and in depth,

Ensuring maneuvering, increasing efforts and stamina in battle. It should also be noted one technical point. It can be assumed that the heat reduced the elasticity of Russian bows and bowstrings, which significantly reduced the effectiveness of their use.

A series of military conflicts that lasted for about a century and a half between Kievan Rus and the Polovtsian tribes. It was another clash of interests between the ancient Russian state and the nomads of the Black Sea steppes. Another side of this war was the strengthening of contradictions between the fragmented Russian principalities, whose rulers often made the Polovtsians their allies.

As a rule, three stages of military operations are distinguished: the initial (second half of the 11th century), the second period associated with the activities of the famous political and military figure Vladimir Monomakh (the first quarter of the 12th century), and the final period (until the middle of the 13th century) (part of which was the famous campaign of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich, described in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”).

The situation in Rus' and in the steppes of the northern Black Sea region at the beginning of the clashes

By the middle of the 11th century. A number of important changes have occurred in the region under consideration. The Pechenegs and Torques, who ruled the “Wild Steppe” for a century, weakened by the struggle with their neighbors - Russia and Byzantium, were unable to stop the invasion of the Black Sea lands by newcomers from the Altai foothills - the Polovtsians, also called Cumans. The new owners of the steppes defeated their enemies and occupied their nomadic camps. However, they had to take upon themselves all the consequences of their proximity to neighboring countries. Long years clashes between the Eastern Slavs and the steppe nomads developed a certain model of relations into which the Polovtsians were forced to fit into.

Meanwhile, the process of disintegration began in Rus' - the princes began to wage an active and ruthless struggle for inheritance and at the same time resort to the help of strong Polovtsian hordes to fight competitors. Therefore, the emergence of a new force in the Black Sea region became a difficult test for the inhabitants of Rus'.

Balance of forces and military organization of the parties

Not much is known about the Polovtsian warriors, but their military organization was considered by contemporaries to be quite high for their time. The main force of the nomads, like any steppe inhabitants, was light cavalry units armed with bows. Polovtsian warriors, in addition to bows, also had sabers, lassos and spears. Rich warriors wore chain mail. Apparently, the Polovtsian khans also had their own squads with heavy weapons. It is also known (since the second half of the 12th century) that the Polovtsians used heavy crossbows and “liquid fire,” borrowed, perhaps, from China from the time they lived in the Altai region, or in later times from the Byzantines (see Greek fire). The Polovtsians used the tactics of surprise attacks. They acted mainly against weakly defended villages, but rarely attacked fortified fortresses. In field battles, the Polovtsian khans competently divided their forces, using flying detachments in the vanguard to start the battle, which were then reinforced by an attack from the main forces. Thus, in the person of the Cumans, the Russian princes faced an experienced and skillful enemy. It was not for nothing that the longtime enemy of Rus', the Pechenegs, were completely defeated by Polovtsian troops and scattered, practically ceasing to exist.

Nevertheless, Rus' had a huge superiority over its steppe neighbors - according to historians, the population of the ancient Russian state in the 11th century already amounted to over 5 million inhabitants, while there were several hundred thousand nomads. The successes of the Polovtsians were due, first of all, to disunity and contradictions in the camp of their opponents.

The structure of the Old Russian army in the era of fragmentation changed significantly compared to more early period. Now it consisted of three main parts - the princely squad, personal detachments of aristocratic boyars and city militias. Russian military art was at a fairly high level.

First period of wars (second half of the 11th century)

Immediately after the death of Yaroslav the Wise (1054), the Polovtsians invaded the Pereyaslavl principality, but made peace with Vsevolod Yaroslavich. In 1059, Vsevolod, and in 1060, all three senior Yaroslavichs, in alliance with Vseslav of Polotsk, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Torks in the steppes. The first clash between Russians and Cumans dates back to 1061. The Principality of Pereyaslavl became a victim of the nomads. From then on, the nomads began to make frequent raids within the borders of Rus'.

One of the largest Polovtsian invasions of Rus' occurred in 1068. The forces of Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod Yaroslavich, who together owned all of Russia at that time, acted against the Polovtsians. However, this army suffered a crushing defeat on the Alta River. Izyaslav Yaroslavich refused to give the Kievans horses and weapons from his arsenal a second time in order to fight the Polovtsians, and on the left side of the Dnieper, the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich on November 1, with 3,000 soldiers, was able to stop the advance of 12,000 Polovtsians in the battle on the Snova River, and the First Novgorod Chronicle reports the capture Sharukana is captured. An uprising occurred in Kyiv, forcing Izyaslav to flee to Poland.

For the first time, the Polovtsians were used in Russian civil strife not against the central government, but by the central government:

After the death of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich during the reign of Kiev in 1076, Izyaslav Yaroslavich returned to Kyiv, and Vsevolod Yaroslavich kept Chernigov. The Svyatoslavichs Roman and Oleg, in alliance with the Polovtsians, began to fight for the former possessions of their father, which led to the death in 1078 in the Battle of Nezhatinnaya Niva of Izyaslav Yaroslavich and Oleg’s ally Boris Vyacheslavich. In 1079, Roman Svyatoslavich was also killed by the Polovtsians.

In 1078, Vsevolod Yaroslavich became prince in Kyiv and left his son Vladimir as governor in Chernigov. A new powerful attack on the Russian lands, led by the khans Bonyak and Tugorkan, was timed to coincide with the illness of Vsevolod of Kyiv in 1092. The following year, Vsevolod died, and Tugorkan besieged the city of Torchesk. The united Kiev-Chernigov-Pereyaslavl army, headed by Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, Vladimir and Rostislav Vsevolodovich, respectively, came to the aid of the defenders, as 25 years before, but in the battle on the Stugna River it was defeated, and Rostislav died during the retreat in stormy from the rains in the waters of the river. Torchesk fell, and Svyatopolk was forced to make peace with Tugorkan by marrying his daughter.

In 1094, Oleg Svyatoslavich and the Polovtsians besieged Vladimir Vsevolodovich in Chernigov. After a long siege, Vladimir openly left the city ( don't boast about something bad), passing between enemy forces without a fight, but the strife continued in the northeastern lands - Rostov and Murom, during which Monomakh’s son Izyaslav died (1096). Taking advantage of the absence of the forces of Svyatopolk and Monomakh in southern Rus', two Polovtsian armies attacked the Russian principalities on both banks of the Dnieper. Khan Bonyak appeared near Kiev itself, and Tugorkan and Khan Kurya besieged Pereyaslavl. The first awaited the last ones major defeat from the Russians. On July 19, 1096, on the Trubezh River, the army of princes Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and Vladimir Monomakh defeated the enemy. Having learned about the defeat of Tugorkan, Bonyak, who had already managed to plunder the outskirts of Kyiv and burned the Pechersky Monastery, hastily went to the steppe. A year earlier, Monomakh killed two khans, Itlar and Kitan, during negotiations in Pereyaslavl.

Second period of wars (first quarter of the 12th century)

The blow dealt to the Polovtsians at Trubezh was very painful for the nomads. The largest Polovtsian commander Tugorkan died in the battle. But the strength of the steppe people was still great. In 1097, at the Lyubech Congress of Princes, a decision was made let everyone keep his fatherland(The Svyatoslavichs received their father's inheritance), and Monomakh managed to convince the Russian princes of the need for retaliatory campaigns against the Polovtsians and to move the fight against them deep into the steppes.

In 1103, in the early spring, the allied army of the Russian princes moved to the steppes. The calculation was made to weaken the Polovtsian cavalry. After a long winter, the horses had not yet had time to gain strength, but the Russian army included, in addition to the princely squads and large forces"footmen" - infantrymen. The foot army moved along the Dnieper on boats, the cavalry marched in parallel. Then the army turned deeper into the steppes. The decisive battle of the campaign took place on April 4 near the town of Suten. Monomakh and Svyatopolk defeated the Polovtsians, Khan Urusoba and 19 other princes were killed in this battle.

Four years later, the nomads went on the offensive again. In May, Khan Bonyak and his horsemen invaded the Pereyaslavl principality and besieged the city of Luben. Monomakh was again forced to defend his patrimony. Together with Svyatopolk, he came to the aid of the besieged and attacked the Polovtsians. This time Bonyak and his warriors did not resist for long: they fled, abandoning their baggage and booty. Once again, peace was concluded, sealed by two dynastic marriages: Vladimir’s son Yuri and Oleg Svyatoslavich’s son Svyatoslav married the daughters of Khan Aepa.

The truce did not last long. The Polovtsians were preparing a new attack on Rus', but this time Monomakh forestalled them. Thanks to the foray into the steppe of the army under the command of the governor Dmitr, having found out that several Polovtsian khans were gathering soldiers for a large campaign against Russian lands, the Pereyaslavl prince invited the allies to attack the enemy themselves. This time we performed in winter. On February 26, 1111, Vladimir Monomakh and Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, at the head of a large army, moved deep into the Polovtsian nomads. The army of the princes penetrated as far into the steppes as never before - all the way to the Don. The Polovtsian cities of Sharukan and Sugrov were captured. But Khan Sharukan brought the main forces out of the attack. On March 26, hoping that the Russian soldiers were tired after a long campaign, the Polovtsians attacked the allied army on the banks of the Salnitsa River. In a bloody and fierce battle, victory again went to the Russians. The enemy fled, the prince's army returned home without hindrance.

After Vladimir Monomakh became the Grand Duke of Kyiv, Russian troops made another major campaign in the steppe (led by Yaropolk Vladimirovich and Vsevolod Davydovich) and captured 3 cities from the Polovtsians (1116). IN last years Monomakh sent Yaropolk with an army across the Don against the Polovtsians, but he did not find them there. The Polovtsians migrated away from the borders of Rus', to the Caucasian foothills.

The third period of wars (until the middle of the 13th century)

With the death of Monomakh's heir Mstislav, the Russian princes returned to the practice of using the Polovtsians in civil strife. One after another, the Polovtsian khans returned to the Don nomads. Thus, Yuri Dolgoruky brought the Polovtsians under the walls of Kyiv five times during the wars with Prince Izyaslav Mstislavich. Other princes did this too.

The resumption of campaigns of Russian princes in the steppes (to ensure the security of trade) is associated with the great reign of Kyiv Mstislav Izyaslavich (1167-1169).

In the 70s of the 12th century, in the steppe expanses from the Don to the southern borderlands of Rus', a large association of Polovtsian tribes arose, headed by Khan Konchak. The outskirts of Kyiv, Chernigov, and Pereyaslavl again became victims of increasingly frequent raids by aliens from the steppes. In 1177, the Cumans defeated Russian troops at Rostovets.

In 1183, the forces of a coalition of southern Russian princes, led by Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich of Kyiv, moved into the nomadic Polovtsians. A strong Russian army was defeated near the river. They attacked a large detachment of Polovtsian horsemen, capturing 7 thousand people, including Khan Kobyak, who then died in a Kyiv prison. On March 1, 1185, Konchak itself was defeated on the Khorol River. After this, Svyatoslav left for the northeastern lands of the Chernigov principality, preparing go to the Don against the Polovtsians for the whole summer, and the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich undertook a separate campaign in the steppes (this time unsuccessful, unlike the campaign of the previous year).

The army of the Seversky prince set out on a campaign on April 23, 1185. On the way, Igor was joined with his squads by his son Vladimir Putivlsky, nephew Svyatoslav Rylsky, Igor’s brother, Chernigov prince Vsevolod and Chernigov kovui: a total of 5 regiments. Also in this campaign, the sixth regiment was mentioned for the first time, consisting of archers from all regiments. The first meeting with the Polovtsy took place on the banks of the river. Syurli was successful for the Russians. Rich booty was captured, and part of the Russian forces (except for the regiments of Igor and Vsevolod) took part in the pursuit of the defeated enemy. The next day, the princely regiments clashed with the main forces of Khan Konchak. On the banks of the river A bloody battle broke out in Kayala. The horse squads could have escaped, but chose not to abandon black people, dismounted and began to make their way to the Donets. Having been wounded, Igor mounted his horse again. All day long, Igor’s warriors held back the onslaught of superior enemy forces, but at dawn the next day they faltered. The princely army was defeated, Igor himself and his son Vladimir were captured.

The Polovtsians invaded Rus', besieged Pereyaslavl, and took Rimov. Svyatoslav of Kyiv and his co-ruler Rurik Rostislavich managed to build a defense, and with the news of their crossing the Dnieper, Konchak lifted the siege of Pereyaslavl and went to the steppe. The Novgorod-Seversk prince, who later escaped from Polovtsian captivity, managed to take revenge on his enemies: he made several victorious campaigns against the nomads. After 1185, the Cumans invaded Rus' only as allies of one of the coalitions of Russian princes fighting each other. At the same time, the largest campaigns in the steppes were undertaken by Vsevolod the Big Nest in 1198 (the Cumans migrated south to avoid conflict), Roman Mstislavich in 1202 (for which the chronicler earned comparison with his great ancestor Monomakh) and 1203.

In the first half of the 13th century, both the Russians and the Cumans became victims of the Mongol conquests. When the Mongols first appeared in Europe in 1222-1223, the Russian princes joined forces with the Polovtsian khans, although the Mongol ambassadors suggested that the Russian princes act together against the Polovtsians. The Battle of the Kalka River ended unsuccessfully for the Allies, but the Mongols were forced to postpone the conquest of Eastern Europe for 13 years. Western campaign Mongols 1236-1242, also called in eastern sources Kipchak, that is, Polovtsian, did not meet the joint resistance of the Russian princes and Polovtsian khans.

Results of the wars

The results of the Russian-Polovtsian wars were the loss of control by the Russian princes over the Tmutarakan principality and the White Vezha, as well as the cessation of Polovtsian invasions of Rus' outside the framework of alliances with some Russian princes against others. At the same time, the strongest Russian princes began to undertake campaigns deep into the steppes, but even in these cases the Polovtsians preferred to retreat, avoiding a collision.

The Rurikovichs became related to many Polovtsian khans. They were married to Polovtsy women in different time Yuri Dolgoruky, Svyatoslav Olgovich (Prince of Chernigov), Rurik Rostislavich, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (Prince of Vladimir). Christianity became widespread among the Polovtsian elite: for example, from those mentioned in Russian chronicles under 1223 four years old Two of the Polovtsian khans bore Orthodox names, and the third was baptized before a joint campaign against the Mongols.

The struggle of Rus' with the Polovtsians. Civil strife.

By the middle of the 11th century. The Kipchak tribes, coming from Central Asia, conquered all the steppe spaces from the Yaik (Ural River) to the Danube, including the north of Crimea and the North Caucasus.

Individual clans, or “tribes,” of the Kipchaks united into powerful tribal unions, the centers of which became primitive wintering cities. The khans who headed such associations could raise tens of thousands of warriors on a campaign, welded together by tribal discipline and posing a terrible threat to neighboring agricultural peoples. Russian name Kipchaks - “Polovtsians” - is believed to have come from the ancient Russian word “polova” - straw, because the hair of these nomads was light, straw-colored.

The first appearance of the Polovtsians in Rus'

In 1061, the Polovtsians first attacked Russian lands and defeated the army of the Pereyaslavl prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich. From that time on, for more than a century and a half, they continuously threatened the borders of Rus'. This struggle, unprecedented in its scale, duration and ferocity, occupied an entire period of Russian history. It unfolded along the entire border of forest and steppe - from Ryazan to the foothills of the Carpathians. After spending the winter near the sea coasts (in the Azov region), the Polovtsians began to migrate north in the spring and appeared in the forest-steppe regions in May. They attacked more often in the fall to profit from the fruits of the harvest, but the Polovtsian leaders, trying to take the farmers by surprise, constantly changed tactics, and a raid could be expected at any time of the year, in any principality of the steppe borderland. It was very difficult to repel the attacks of their flying squads: they appeared and disappeared suddenly, before they were on the spot princely squads or the militia of nearby cities. Usually the Polovtsians did not besiege fortresses and preferred to plunder villages, but even the troops of an entire principality often found themselves powerless before the large hordes of these nomads.

Until the 90s. XI century The chronicles report almost nothing about the Polovtsians. However, judging by the memories of Vladimir Monomakh about his youth, given in his “Teachings”, then throughout the 70s and 80s. XI century a “small war” continued on the border: endless raids, pursuits and skirmishes, sometimes with very large forces of nomads.

Cuman offensive

In the early 90s. XI century The Polovtsians, who roamed along both banks of the Dnieper, united for a new attack on Rus'. In 1092, “the army was great from the Polovtsians and from everywhere.” The nomads captured three cities - Pesochen, Perevoloka and Priluk, and destroyed many villages on both banks of the Dnieper. The chronicler is eloquently silent about whether any resistance was given to the steppe inhabitants.

The next year, the new Kiev prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich recklessly ordered the arrest of the Polovtsian ambassadors, which gave rise to a new invasion. The Russian army, which came out to meet the Polovtsians, was defeated at Trepol. During the retreat, crossing in a hurry across the Stugna River, which had swollen from the rains, many Russian soldiers drowned, including the Pereyaslavl prince Rostislav Vsevolodovich. Svyatopolk fled to Kyiv, and huge forces of the Polovtsians besieged the city of the Torci, who had settled since the 50s. XI century along the Rosi River, - Torchesk. The Kiev prince, having gathered a new army, tried to help the Torques, but was again defeated, suffering even greater losses. Torchesk defended itself heroically, but in the end the city's water supplies ran out, it was taken by the steppe inhabitants and burned. Its entire population was driven into slavery. The Polovtsians again ravaged the outskirts of Kyiv, capturing thousands of prisoners, but they apparently failed to plunder the left bank of the Dnieper; he was protected by Vladimir Monomakh, who reigned in Chernigov.

In 1094, Svyatopolk, not having the strength to fight the enemy and hoping to get at least a temporary respite, tried to make peace with the Polovtsians by marrying the daughter of Khan Tugorkan - the one whose name the creators of epics over the centuries changed into “Snake Tugarin” or “Tugarin Zmeevich” . In the same year, Oleg Svyatoslavich from the family of Chernigov princes, with the help of the Polovtsians, expelled Monomakh from Chernigov to Pereyaslavl, giving the surroundings of his native city to the allies for plunder.

In the winter of 1095, near Pereyaslavl, the warriors of Vladimir Monomakh destroyed the detachments of two Polovtsian khans, and in February the troops of the Pereyaslav and Kyiv princes, who have since become permanent allies, made their first trip to the steppe. Chernigov Prince Oleg evaded joint action and chose to make peace with the enemies of Rus'.

In the summer the war resumed. The Polovtsians besieged the town of Yuryev on the Rosi River for a long time and forced the inhabitants to flee from it. The city was burned. Monomakh successfully defended himself on the eastern bank, winning several victories, but his forces were clearly not enough. The Polovtsians struck in the most unexpected places, and the Chernigov prince established a very special relationship with them, hoping to strengthen his own independence and protect his subjects by ruining his neighbors.

In 1096, Svyatopolk and Vladimir, completely enraged by Oleg’s treacherous behavior and his “majestic” (i.e., proud) answers, drove him out of Chernigov and besieged him in Starodub, but at that time large forces of the steppe inhabitants began an offensive on both banks of the Dnieper and immediately broke through to the capitals of the principalities. Khan Bonyak, who led the Azov Polovtsians, attacked Kyiv, and Kurya and Tugorkan besieged Pereyaslavl. The troops of the allied princes, having nevertheless forced Oleg to beg for mercy, set off in an accelerated march towards Kyiv, but, not finding Bonyak there, who left, avoiding a collision, crossed the Dnieper at Zarub and on July 19, unexpectedly for the Polovtsians, appeared near Pereyaslavl. Without giving the enemy the opportunity to form up for battle, the Russian soldiers, fording the Trubezh River, struck the Polovtsians. They, without waiting for the fight, ran, dying under the swords of their pursuers. The defeat was complete. Among those killed was Svyatopolk’s father-in-law, Tugorkan.

But on these same days, the Polovtsy almost captured Kyiv: Bonyak, making sure that the troops of the Russian princes had gone to the left bank of the Dnieper, approached Kyiv a second time and at dawn tried to suddenly break into the city. For a long time later, the Polovtsians remembered how the annoyed Khan used a saber to cut the gate doors that had slammed shut in front of his very nose. This time the Polovtsians burned the prince's country residence and destroyed the Pechersky Monastery - the most important Cultural Center countries. Svyatopolk and Vladimir, who urgently returned to the right bank, pursued Bonyak beyond Ros, all the way to the Southern Bug.

The nomads felt the power of the Russians. From this time on, Torci and other tribes, as well as individual Polovtsian clans, began to come to Monomakh to serve from the steppe. In such a situation, it was necessary to quickly unite the efforts of all Russian lands in the fight against the steppe nomads, as was the case under Vladimir Svyatoslavich and Yaroslav the Wise, but different times were coming - an era of inter-princely wars and political fragmentation. The Lyubech Congress of Princes in 1097 did not lead to agreement; The Polovtsians also took part in the strife that began after him.

The unification of Russian princes to repel the Polovtsians

Only in 1101 did the princes of the southern Russian lands make peace with each other and the very next year they “thought of daring against the Polovtsy and going to their lands.” In the spring of 1103, Vladimir Monomakh came to Svyatopolk in Dolobsk and convinced him to go on a campaign before the start of field work, when the Polovtsian horses, after wintering, had not yet had time to gain strength and were not able to escape pursuit.

The united army of seven Russian princes in boats and on horses along the banks of the Dnieper moved to the rapids, from where they turned deeper into the steppe. Having learned about the enemy’s movement, the Polovtsians sent a patrol - a “watchman”, but Russian intelligence “guarded” it and destroyed it, which allowed the Russian commanders to take full advantage of surprise. The Polovtsy, not ready for battle, fled at the sight of the Russians, despite their enormous numerical superiority. During the pursuit, twenty khans died under Russian swords. Huge booty fell into the hands of the victors: captives, herds, wagons, weapons. Many Russian prisoners were released. One of the two main Polovtsian groups was dealt a heavy blow.

But in 1107 Bonyak, who retained his strength, besieged Luben. The troops of other khans also came here. The Russian army, which this time included the Chernigovites, again managed to take the enemy by surprise. On August 12, suddenly appearing in front of the Polovtsian camp, the Russians rushed to the attack with a battle cry. Without trying to resist, the Polovtsians fled.

After such a defeat, the war moved to enemy territory - to the steppe, but first a split was introduced into its ranks. In winter, Vladimir Monomakh and Oleg Svyatoslavich went to Khan Aepa and, having made peace with him, became related, marrying their sons Yuri and Svyatoslav to his daughters. At the beginning of the winter of 1109, the governor of Monomakha, Dmitry Ivorovich, reached the Don itself and there captured “a thousand vezhas” - Polovtsian tents, which upset the Polovtsian military plans for the summer.

The second big campaign against the Polovtsians, the soul and organizer of which was again Vladimir Monomakh, was undertaken in the spring of 1111. The warriors set out in the snow. The infantry traveled to the Khorol River in sleighs. Then they walked to the southeast, “passing many rivers.” Four weeks later, the Russian army reached the Donets, donned armor and served a prayer service, after which it headed to the capital of the Polovtsians - Sharukan. Residents of the city did not dare to resist and came out with gifts. The Russian prisoners who were here were freed. A day later, the Polovtsian city of Sugrov was burned, after which the Russian army moved back, surrounded on all sides by strengthening Polovtsian detachments. On March 24, the Polovtsians blocked the way for the Russians, but were repulsed. The decisive battle took place in March on the banks of the small Salnitsa River. In a difficult battle, Monomakh’s regiments broke through the Polovtsian encirclement, allowing the Russian army to escape safely. Prisoners were captured. The Polovtsians did not pursue the Russians, admitting their failure. Vladimir Vsevolodovich attracted many clergy to participate in this campaign, the most significant of all those undertaken by him, giving it the character of a crusade, and achieved his goal. The glory of Monomakh's victory reached “even Rome.”

However, the forces of the Polovtsy were still far from broken. In 1113, having learned about the death of Svyatopolk, Aepa and Bonyak immediately tried to test the strength of the Russian border by besieging the Vyr fortress, but, having received information about the approach of the Pereyaslavl army, they immediately fled - this was reflected in the psychological turning point in the war, achieved during the campaign of 1111.

In 1113-1125, when Vladimir Monomakh reigned in Kyiv, the fight against the Cumans took place exclusively on their territory. The victorious campaigns that followed one after another finally broke the resistance of the nomads. In 1116, an army under the command of Yaropolk Vladimirovich - a constant participant in his father’s campaigns and a recognized military leader - defeated the nomadic camps of the Don Polovtsians, taking three of their cities and bringing many prisoners.

Polovtsian rule in the steppes collapsed. An uprising of tribes subject to the Kipchaks began. For two days and two nights, the Torquis and Pechenegs brutally fought with them near the Don, after which, having fought off, they retreated. In 1120, Yaropolk walked with his army far beyond the Don, but did not meet anyone. The steppes were empty. The Polovtsians migrated to the North Caucasus, Abkhazia, and the Caspian Sea.

The Russian plowman lived a quiet life in those years. The Russian border moved south. Therefore, the chronicler considered one of the main merits of Vladimir Monomakh to be that he was “most fearless of the filthy” - the pagan Polovtsians were afraid of him more than any of the Russian princes.

Resumption of Polovtsian raids

With the death of Monomakh, the Polovtsians perked up and immediately tried to capture the Torci and plunder the Russian border lands, but were defeated by Yaropolk. However, after the death of Yaropolk, the Monomashichi (descendants of Vladimir Monomakh) were removed from power by Vsevolod Olgovich, a friend of the Polovtsy, who knew how to keep them in his hands. Peace was concluded, and news of Polovtsian raids disappeared from the pages of chronicles for some time. Now the Polovtsians appeared as allies of Vsevolod. Ruining everything in their path, they went with him on campaigns against the Galician prince and even against the Poles.

After Vsevolod, the Kiev throne (reign) went to Izyaslav Mstislavich, the grandson of Monomakh, but now his uncle, Yuri Dolgoruky, began to actively play the “Polovtsian card”. Deciding to get Kyiv at any cost, this prince, the son-in-law of Khan Aepa, brought the Polovtsians to Kyiv five times, plundering even the environs of his native Pereyaslavl. In this he was actively helped by his son Gleb and brother-in-law Svyatoslav Olgovich, Aepa’s second son-in-law. In the end, Yuri Vladimirovich established himself in Kyiv, but he did not have to reign for long. Less than three years later, the people of Kiev poisoned him.

The conclusion of an alliance with some Cuman tribes did not at all mean the end of the raids of their brothers. Of course, the scale of these raids could not be compared with the attacks of the second half of the 11th century, but the Russian princes, more and more preoccupied with strife, could not organize a reliable unified defense of their steppe borders. In such a situation, the Torci and other small nomadic tribes settled along the Rosi River, who were dependent on Kyiv and bore the common name “black hoods” (i.e., hats), turned out to be indispensable. With their help, the warlike Cumans were defeated in 1159 and 1160, and in 1162, when the “many Cumans” arrived at Yuryev and captured many Torki tents there, the Torki themselves, without waiting for the Russian squads, began to pursue the raiders and, having caught up, They recaptured the prisoners and also captured more than 500 Polovtsians.

Constant strife practically negated the results of the victorious campaigns of Vladimir Monomakh. The power of the nomadic hordes weakened, but the Russian military force was also fragmented - this equalized both sides. However, the cessation of offensive actions against the Kipchaks allowed them to again accumulate forces for the onslaught on Rus'. By the 70s. XII century In the Don steppe, a large state entity headed by Khan Konchak again formed. The emboldened Polovtsians began to rob merchants on the steppe roads (paths) and along the Dnieper. The activity of the Cumans also increased on the borders. One of their troops was defeated by the Novgorod-Seversk prince Oleg Svyatoslavich, but near Pereyaslavl they defeated the detachment of the governor Shvarn.

In 1166, the Kiev prince Rostislav sent a detachment of the governor Volodislav Lyakh to accompany the merchant caravans. Soon Rostislav mobilized the forces of ten princes to protect trade routes.

After the death of Rostislav, Mstislav Izyaslavich became the prince of Kyiv, and already under his leadership in 1168 a new large campaign was organized in the steppe. In early spring, 12 influential princes, including the Olgovichi (descendants of Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich), who had temporarily quarreled with their steppe relatives, responded to Mstislav’s call to “search for their fathers and grandfathers, their paths, and their honor.” The Polovtsians were warned by a defector slave nicknamed Koschey, and they fled, abandoning the “vezhi” with their families. Having learned about this, the Russian princes rushed in pursuit and captured the nomadic camps at the mouth of the Orelya River and along the Samara River, and the Polovtsians themselves, having caught up with the Black Forest, were pressed against it and killed, suffering almost no losses.

In 1169, two hordes of Polovtsy simultaneously on both banks of the Dnieper approached Korsun on the Ros River and Pesochen near Pereyaslavl, and each demanded the Kyiv prince to conclude a peace treaty. Without thinking twice, Prince Gleb Yuryevich rushed to Pereyaslavl, where his 12-year-old son then ruled. The Azov Polovtsians of Khan Togly, who were stationed near Korsun, as soon as they learned that Gleb had crossed to the left bank of the Dnieper, immediately rushed into a raid. Having bypassed the fortified line on the Rosi River, they ravaged the surroundings of the towns of Polonnoye, Semych and Desyatinnoye in the upper reaches of the Sluch, where the population felt safe. The steppe inhabitants, who fell out of the blue, plundered the villages and drove the captives into the steppe.

Having made peace at Pesochen, Gleb, on the way to Korsun, learned that there was no one there anymore. There were few troops with him, and some of the soldiers had to be sent to intercept the treacherous nomads. Gleb sent to recapture the prisoners younger brother Mikhalko and governor Volodislav with one and a half thousand serving nomadic Berendeys and a hundred Pereyaslavl residents.

Having found the trace of the Polovtsian raid, Mikhalko and Volodislav, showing amazing military leadership, in three successive battles not only recaptured the prisoners, but also defeated the enemy, who outnumbered them at least ten times. Success was also ensured by the skillful actions of the Berendey reconnaissance, which famously destroyed the Polovtsian patrol. As a result, a horde of more than 15 thousand horsemen was defeated. One and a half thousand Polovtsians were captured.

Two years later, Mikhalko and Volodislav, acting in similar conditions according to the same scheme, again defeated the Polovtsians and saved 400 captives from captivity, but these lessons were of no use to the Polovtsians: new ones appeared to replace the dead seekers of easy gain from the steppe. Rarely a year passed without a major raid noted in the chronicles.

In 1174, the young Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich distinguished himself for the first time. He managed to intercept the khans Konchak and Kobyak returning from the raid at the crossing of the Vorskla. Attacking from an ambush, he defeated their horde, capturing the prisoners.

In 1179, the Polovtsians, who were brought by Konchak - the “evil chief” - ravaged the outskirts of Pereyaslavl. The chronicle noted that especially many children died during this raid. However, the enemy was able to escape with impunity. And the next year, by order of his relative, the new Kyiv prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, Igor himself led the Polovtsians Konchak and Kobyak on a campaign against Polotsk. Even earlier, Svyatoslav used the Polovtsians in a short war with the Suzdal prince Vsevolod. With their help, he also hoped to knock out Rurik Rostislavich, his co-ruler and rival, from Kyiv, but suffered a severe defeat, and Igor and Konchak fled from the battlefield along the river in the same boat.

In 1184 the Cumans attacked Kyiv in unusual time- at the end of winter. The Kyiv co-rulers sent their vassals in pursuit of them. Svyatoslav sent the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich, and Rurik sent the Pereyaslavl prince Vladimir Glebovich. The Torks were led by their leaders - Kuntuvdy and Kuldur. The thaw confused the plans of the Polovtsians. The overflowing Khiria River cut off the nomads from the steppe. Here Igor overtook them, who the day before had refused the help of the Kyiv princes so as not to share the spoils, and, as the eldest, forced Vladimir to turn home. The Polovtsians were defeated, and many of them drowned while trying to cross the raging river.

In the summer of the same year, the Kyiv co-rulers organized a large campaign into the steppe, gathering ten princes under their banners, but no one from the Olgovichi joined them. Only Igor hunted somewhere on his own with his brother and nephew. The senior princes descended with the main army along the Dnieper in nasads (ships), and a detachment of squads of six young princes under the command of the Pereyaslavl prince Vladimir, reinforced by two thousand Berendeys, moved along the left bank. Kobyak, mistaking this vanguard for the entire Russian army, attacked it and found himself in a trap. On July 30, he was surrounded, captured and later executed in Kyiv for his numerous perjuries. The execution of a noble prisoner was unheard of. This strained relations between Rus' and the nomads. The khans swore revenge.

In February of the following year, 1185, Konchak approached the borders of Rus'. The seriousness of the khan's intentions was evidenced by the presence in his army of a powerful throwing machine for storming large cities. Khan hoped to take advantage of the split among the Russian princes and entered into negotiations with the Chernigov prince Yaroslav, but at that time he was discovered by Pereyaslavl intelligence. Quickly gathering their army, Svyatoslav and Rurik suddenly attacked Konchak’s camp and scattered his army, capturing the stone thrower that the Polovtsians had, but Konchak managed to escape.

Svyatoslav was not satisfied with the results of the victory. The main goal was not achieved: Konchak survived and, in freedom, continued to hatch plans for revenge. The Grand Duke planned to go to the Don in the summer and therefore, as soon as the roads dried up, he went to gather troops in Korachev, and to the steppe - for cover or reconnaissance - he sent a detachment under the command of the governor Roman Nezdilovich, who was supposed to divert the attention of the Polovtsians and thereby help Svyatoslav will gain time. After the defeat of Kobyak, it was extremely important to consolidate last year's success. An opportunity arose for a long time, as under Monomakh, to secure the southern border, defeating the second, main group of Polovtsians (the first was headed by Kobyak), but these plans were disrupted by an impatient relative.

Igor, having learned about the spring campaign, expressed an ardent desire to take part in it, but was unable to do this due to severe mud. Last year, he, his brother, nephew and eldest son went out into the steppe at the same time as the Kyiv princes and, taking advantage of the fact that the Polovtsian forces were diverted to the Dnieper, captured some booty. Now he could not come to terms with the fact that the main events would take place without him, and, knowing about the raid of the Kyiv governor, he hoped to repeat last year’s experience. But it turned out differently.

The army of the Novgorod-Seversk princes who intervened in the issues grand strategy, it turned out to be one on one with all the forces of the Steppe, where no worse than the Russians they understood the importance of the coming moment. It was prudently lured by the Polovtsians into a trap, surrounded and, after heroic resistance, on the third day of the battle almost completely destroyed. All the princes survived, but were captured, and the Polovtsians expected to receive a large ransom for them.

The Polovtsians were not slow to take advantage of their success. Khan Gza (Gzak) attacked the cities located along the banks of the Seim; he managed to break through the outer fortifications of Putivl. Konchak, wanting to avenge Kobyak, went west and besieged Pereyaslavl, which found itself in a very difficult situation. The city was saved by Kyiv aid. Konchak released the spoils, but, retreating, captured the town of Rimov. Khan Gza was defeated by Svyatoslav's son Oleg.

Polovtsian raids, mainly on Porosye (the region along the banks of the Ros River), alternated with Russian campaigns, but due to heavy snow and frost, the winter campaign of 1187 failed. Only in March, voivode Roman Nezdilovich with the “black hoods” made a successful raid beyond the Lower Dnieper and captured the “vezhi” at a time when the Polovtsy went on a raid on the Danube.

The decline of Polovtsian power

By the beginning of the last decade of the 12th century. The war between the Polovtsians and the Russians began to subside. Only the Tor khan Kuntuvdy, offended by Svyatoslav, defected to the Polovtsians and was able to cause several small raids. In response to this, Rostislav Rurikovich, who ruled in Torchesk, twice made, albeit successful, but unauthorized campaigns against the Polovtsians, which violated the barely established and still fragile peace. The elderly Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich had to correct the situation and “close the gates” again. Thanks to this, the Polovtsian revenge failed.

And after the death of the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav, which followed in 1194, the Polovtsians were drawn into a new series of Russian strife. They took part in the war for the Vladimir inheritance after the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky and robbed the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl; repeatedly attacked the Ryazan lands, although they were often beaten by the Ryazan prince Gleb and his sons. In 1199, the Vladimir-Suzdal prince Vsevolod Yuryevich the Big Nest took part in the war with the Polovtsians for the first and last time, going with an army to the upper reaches of the Don. However, his campaign was more like a demonstration of Vladimir’s strength to the obstinate residents of Ryazan.

At the beginning of the 13th century. The Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich, grandson of Izyaslav Mstislavich, distinguished himself in actions against the Polovtsians. In 1202, he overthrew his father-in-law Rurik Rostislavich and, as soon as he became the Grand Duke, organized a successful winter campaign in the steppe, freeing many Russian prisoners captured earlier during strife.

In April 1206, the Ryazan prince Roman “with his brethren” carried out a successful raid against the Polovtsians. He captured large herds and freed hundreds of captives. This was the last campaign of the Russian princes against the Polovtsians. In 1210, they again plundered the outskirts of Pereyaslavl, taking “a lot of stuff,” but also for the last time.

The loudest event of that time on the southern border was the capture by the Polovtsians of the Pereyaslavl prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich, who had previously reigned in Moscow. Having learned that the Polovtsian army was approaching the city, Vladimir came out to meet him and was defeated in a stubborn and difficult battle, but still prevented the raid. The chronicles do not mention any military actions between the Russians and the Polovtsians, except for the continued participation of the latter in Russian strife.

The significance of the struggle between Rus' and the Polovtsians

As a result of a century and a half of armed confrontation between Rus' and the Kipchaks, the Russian defense crushed the military resources of this nomadic people, who were in the middle of the 11th century. no less dangerous than the Huns, Avars or Hungarians. This deprived the Cumans of the opportunity to invade the Balkans, in Central Europe or within the Byzantine Empire.

At the beginning of the 20th century. Ukrainian historian V.G. Lyaskoronsky wrote: “Russian campaigns in the steppe were carried out mainly due to the long-standing, through long experience of the realized need for active actions against the steppe inhabitants.” He also noted the differences in the campaigns of the Monomashichs and Olgovichs. If the princes of Kyiv and Pereyaslavl acted in the general Russian interests, then the campaigns of the Chernigov-Seversk princes were carried out only for the sake of profit and fleeting glory. The Olgovichs had their own special relationship with the Donetsk Polovtsians, and they even preferred to fight with them “in their own way,” so as not to fall under Kiev influence in any way.

Of great importance was the fact that small tribes and individual clans of nomads were recruited into Russian service. They received the common name “black hoods” and usually served Rus' faithfully, protecting its borders from their warlike relatives. According to some historians, their service was also reflected in some later epics, and the fighting techniques of these nomads enriched Russian military art.

The fight against the Polovtsians cost Rus' many victims. Vast areas of fertile forest-steppe outskirts were depopulated by constant raids. In some places, even in the cities, only the same service nomads remained - “hunters and Polovtsians.” According to historian P.V. Golubovsky, from 1061 to 1210 the Kipchaks made 46 significant campaigns against Rus', 19 of them against the Pereyaslavl principality, 12 against Porosye, 7 against the Seversk land, 4 each against Kyiv and Ryazan. The number of small attacks cannot be counted. The Polovtsians seriously undermined Russian trade with Byzantium and the countries of the East. However, without creating a real state, they were unable to conquer Rus' and only plundered it.

The struggle with these nomads, which lasted a century and a half, had a significant impact on the history of medieval Rus'. The famous modern historian V.V. Kargalov believes that many phenomena and periods of the Russian Middle Ages cannot be considered without taking into account the “Polovtsian factor.” The mass exodus of the population from the Dnieper region and all of Southern Rus' to the north largely predetermined the future division of the Old Russian people into Russians and Ukrainians.

The fight against the nomads preserved the unity of the Kyiv state for a long time, “revitalizing” it under Monomakh. Even the progress of the isolation of Russian lands largely depended on how protected they were from the threat from the south.

The fate of the Polovtsians, who from the 13th century. began to lead a sedentary life and accept Christianity, similar to the fate of other nomads who invaded the Black Sea steppes. A new wave of conquerors - the Mongol-Tatars - swallowed them up. They tried to resist the common enemy together with the Russians, but were defeated. The surviving Cumans became part of the Mongol-Tatar hordes, and everyone who resisted was exterminated.

Internecine wars of Russian princes of the 11th-13th centuries

Rus' was great and powerful during the time of Vladimir the Holy and Yaroslav the Wise, but inner world, established under Vladimir and not without difficulty preserved by his successor, did not last, alas, for long. Prince Yaroslav gained the paternal throne in a fierce internecine struggle. With this in mind, he prudently drew up a will, in which he clearly and clearly defined the inheritance rights of his sons, so that the troubled times of the first years of his reign would not be repeated. The Grand Duke handed over the entire Russian land to his five sons, dividing it into “destinies” and determining which of the brothers would reign over which. The eldest son Izyaslav received the Kyiv and Novgorod lands with both capitals of Rus'. The next in seniority, Svyatoslav, reigned in the lands of Chernigov and Murom, which stretched from the Dnieper to the Volga along the Desna and Oka rivers; distant Tmutarakan, which has long been associated with Chernigov, went to him. Vsevolod Yaroslavich inherited the Pereyaslavl land bordering the steppe - the “golden mantle of Kyiv”, as well as the distant Rostov-Suzdal land. Vyacheslav Yaroslavich was content with a modest throne in Smolensk. Igor began to rule in Volyn and Carpathian Rus'. In the Polotsk land, as during Yaroslav’s life, the Yaroslavichs’ cousin, Vseslav Bryachislavich, remained to reign.

According to the plan of Yaroslav the Wise, this division did not at all mean the disintegration of Rus' into separate possessions. The brothers received their reigns rather as governorships, for a while, and were supposed to honor their elder brother Izyaslav, who inherited the great reign, “in his father’s place.” Nevertheless, the brothers together had to maintain the unity of the Russian land, protect it from alien enemies and suppress attempts at internecine strife. Rus' was then conceived by the Rurikovichs as their common clan domain, where the eldest in the clan, being the Grand Duke, acted as the supreme administrator.

To their credit, the Yaroslavich brothers lived for almost two decades, guided by their father’s will, preserving the unity of the Russian land and defending its borders. In 1072, the Yaroslavichs continued the legislative activities of their father. A number of laws under the general title “Pravda Yaroslavichi” supplemented and developed the articles of “Russian Truth” of Yaroslav the Wise. Blood feud was prohibited; To death penalty sentenced only for particularly serious crimes.

Russian laws of that time did not know either corporal punishment or torture, which distinguished them favorably from the practices in other countries of the Christian world. However, joint lawmaking turned out to be the last common endeavor of the three Yaroslavichs. A year later, Svyatoslav, burdened by his position as the ruler of an inheritance, albeit a considerable one, and having lost respect for his elder brother, forcibly took away the great reign from Izyaslav. The ill-fated Izyaslav left Rus' and embarked on joyless wanderings around Europe in a vain search for support. He asked for help from both the German emperor and the Pope, lost his treasury in the lands of the Polish king, and only after the death of Svyatoslav in 1076 was he able to return to Rus'. The kind-hearted Vsevolod Yaroslavich generously returned to his elder brother his rightful great reign, making amends for his previous guilt before him: after all, he did not prevent Svyatoslav from trampling on his father’s will. But Izyaslav Yaroslavich did not gain a great reign for long. There was no previous peace in the Russian land: the nephews, princes Oleg Svyatoslavich and Boris Vyacheslavich, raised their swords against their uncle and the Grand Duke. In 1078, in the battle on Nezhatina Niva near Chernigov, Izyaslav defeated the rebels, but he himself fell in the battle. Vsevolod became the Grand Duke, but all 15 years of his reign (1078-1093) were spent in constant internecine warfare, the main culprit of which was the energetic and cruel prince Oleg Svyatoslavich, who received the nickname Gorislavich.

But is it really only the evil will of the son of Svyatoslav and similar seditious people that became the cause of bloody unrest in Rus'? Of course not. The trouble nested in the Yaroslav appanage system itself, which could no longer satisfy the expanded Rurik family. There was no clear, precise order either in the distribution of inheritances or in their inheritance. Each branch of the clan - Izyaslavichs, Svyatoslavichs, Igoreviches, etc. - could consider itself disadvantaged and demand the redistribution of reigns in its favor. Inheritance law was no less confusing. According to the ancient custom, the eldest in the clan was supposed to inherit the reign, but along with Christianity, Byzantine law came to Rus', recognizing the inheritance of power only by direct descendants: the son must inherit from his father, bypassing other relatives, even older ones. The contradictory nature of inheritance rights, the uncertainty and confusion of inheritances - this is the natural breeding ground that nurtured Oleg Gorislavich and many like him.

The bloody misfortunes of the Russian land, resulting from civil strife, were aggravated by the incessant raids of the Polovtsians, who skillfully exploited the feuds of the Russian princes to their advantage. Other princes themselves, taking the Polovtsians as allies, brought them to Rus'.

Gradually, many princes came to their senses and began to look for a way to end the strife. A particularly noticeable role in this belonged to the son of Vsevolod Yaroslavich, Vladimir Monomakh. At his suggestion, in 1097 the princes gathered in Lyubech for the first princely congress. This congress was considered by Monomakh and other princes as a means that would allow reaching general agreement and finding a way to prevent further civil strife. It was accepted there major decision, which read: “Let everyone keep his fatherland.” These simple words carried great meaning. "Otchina" is a hereditary possession passed from father to son. Thus, each prince turned from a governor, always ready to leave his inheritance for the sake of a more honorable reign, into its permanent and hereditary owner. The consolidation of appanages as direct patrimony was intended to satisfy all the warring branches of the vast Rurik family and to introduce proper order into the appanage system. From now on, being confident in their rights to hereditary possessions, the princes should have ceased their previous hostility. This is what the organizers of the Lyubech princely congress were counting on.

It truly became a turning point in Russian history, for it marked a turning point in the distribution of land ownership in Rus'. If earlier the Russian land was the common clan possession of all the Rurikovichs, which was under the control of the Grand Duke, now Rus' was turning into a collection of hereditary princely possessions. From this time on, the princes in their principalities are no longer governors by the will of the Grand Duke, as has been the custom since the time of Vladimir the Saint, but sovereign masters-rulers. The power of the Kyiv prince, who had thus lost his former right to distribute fiefs and governorships throughout the Russian land, inevitably lost its all-Russian significance. Thus, Rus' entered a historical period, the most important feature of which was political fragmentation. Many countries in Europe and Asia went through this period to one degree or another.

But Rus' did not find itself in a state of fragmentation immediately after the Lyubech Congress. The need to unite all forces against the Polovtsian danger and the powerful will of Vladimir Monomakh postponed the inevitable for a while. In the first decades of the 12th century. Rus' goes on the offensive against the Polovtsians, inflicting crushing defeats on them. During the reign of Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) and his son Mstislav the Great (1125-1132) in Kyiv, it seemed that the times of Vladimir the Saint and Yaroslav the Wise had returned. Once again, united and powerful Rus' victoriously crushes its enemies, and the Grand Duke from Kyiv vigilantly monitors order in the Russian land, mercilessly punishing the rebellious princes... But Monomakh passed away, Mstislav passed away, and from 1132, as it is said in the chronicle, “annoyed the whole Russian land." The former appanages, having become hereditary “fatherlands”, gradually turn into independent principalities, almost independent states, the rulers of which, in order to elevate themselves to the same level as the princes of Kyiv, also begin to be called “grand princes”.

In the middle of the 12th century. civil strife reached unprecedented severity, and the number of participants increased many times as a result of the fragmentation of the princely possessions. At that time in Rus' there were 15 principalities and separate lands; in the next century, on the eve of Batu’s invasion, there were already 50, and during the reign of Ivan Kalita, the number of principalities of various ranks exceeded two and a half hundred. Over time, they became smaller, split up between heirs and weakened. No wonder it was said that “in Rostov land Seven princes have one warrior, and in each village there is a prince.” The growing male generation demanded separate estates from their fathers and grandfathers. And the smaller the principalities became, the more ambition and claims appeared among the owners of new appanages: every “ruling” prince sought to seize a fatter “piece”, claiming all conceivable and inconceivable rights to the lands of his neighbors. As a rule, civil strife was fought over a larger territory or, in extreme cases, a more “prestigious” principality. A burning desire to rise and pride, stemming from the consciousness of their own political independence, pushed the princes into a fratricidal struggle, during which continuous military actions divided and devastated the Russian lands.

after the death of Mstislav the Great, one principality after another fell away from Kyiv. In 1135, many years of strife began in Southern Rus': then from the distant Rostov-Suzdal land a

Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky and captures the Pereyaslavl principality, then the Chernigov prince Vsevolod Olgovich will appear with the Polovtsians who are kind to him, “villages and cities at war... and people cutting each other.”

The year 1136 was marked by a real political revolution in Novgorod the Great: Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich was accused by the “men of Novgorod” of cowardice, a careless attitude towards the defense of the city, and also that a year earlier he wanted to change Novgorod to the more honorable Pereyaslavl. The prince, his children, wife and mother-in-law were kept in custody for two months, after which they were expelled. From that time on, the Novgorod boyars themselves began to invite princes to themselves and finally freed themselves from the power of Kyiv.

The main opponent of the Rostov-Suzdal prince at that time, the Volyn prince Izyaslav Mstislavich, in one of his letters to the Hungarian king gave a vivid political characterization of Dolgoruky: “Prince Yuri is strong, and the Davydovichs and Olgovichs (strong princely branches of the house of Rurikovich. - Note ed.) with him, the wild Polovtsians are also with him, and he brings them with gold.” Beginning in 1149, Dolgoruky occupied the Kyiv throne. In turn, Prince Izyaslav, who was in alliance with the Smolensk princes and often resorted to the help of mercenaries from Poland and Hungary, strove with no less tenacity to expel Yuri from Kyiv. The devastating war went on with varying success, Kyiv and Kursk, Pereyaslavl and Turov, Dorogobuzh, Pinsk and other cities passed from hand to hand. The Kievans, like the Novgorodians, tried to play on the contradictions between the princes, trying to preserve the rights of self-government and the independence of their city. However, they did not always succeed.

The denouement of the long-term drama came in 1154, when one after another the co-rulers of Kyiv and Kyiv land Izyaslav Mstislavich and his uncle Vyacheslav. The following year, Yuri Dolgoruky turned to Izyaslav Davydovich, who was crowned prince in Kyiv, with the words: “Kyiv is my fatherland, not yours.” According to the chronicle, Izyaslav wisely responded to his formidable rival, “begging him and bowing”: “Do not harm me, but here is Kyiv for you.” Dolgoruky occupied the city. Finally, he found himself on the coveted “table of his fathers and grandfathers, and the whole Russian land received him with joy,” the chronicler claimed. Judging by the way the people of Kiev reacted to the unexpected death of Yuri after a feast at the Kyiv boyar Petrila (the townspeople left no stone unturned from the prince’s country and city estates), we can safely conclude that the chronicler was disingenuous, convincing the reader that Yuri was greeted “with joy.” great and honor."

Yuri's son and successor Andrei Bogolyubsky moved his capital to Vladimir-on-Klyazma and changed his political orientation. Civil strife flared up with new strength, but the main thing for the strongest Russian prince was not the possession of Kiev, but the strengthening of his own principality; Southern Russian interests fade into the background for him, which turned out to be disastrous for Kyiv politically.

In 1167-1169 Volyn prince Mstislav Izyaslavich reigned in Kyiv. Andrei Bogolyubsky started a war with him and, at the head of eleven princes, approached the city. Mstislav Izyaslavich fled to Volyn, to Vladimir, and the victors plundered Kyiv for two days - “Podolia and the Mountain, and the monasteries, and Sophia, and the Virgin Mary of the Tithes (i.e., the districts and main shrines of the city. - Note edit.). And there was no mercy for anyone or anywhere. Churches burned, Christians were killed and others were bound, women were taken into captivity, separated by force from their husbands, babies wept, looking at their mothers. And they seized a lot of property, and plundered icons, books, robes, and bells from churches. And among all the people in Kyiv there was groaning and pain, inconsolable sorrow, and incessant tears.” The ancient capital, “the mother of the city (cities. - Note ed.) Russian”, has finally lost its former greatness and power. In the coming years, Kyiv was ravaged twice more: first by the Chernigovites, and then by the Volyn princes.

In the 80s During the turbulent 12th century, the feuds between the Russian princes subsided somewhat. It’s not that the rulers of Rus' came to their senses, they were just busy with the continuous struggle with the Polovtsians. However, already at the very beginning of the new, XIII century, a great atrocity occurred again in Rus'. Prince Rurik Rostislavich, together with his Polovtsian allies, captured Kyiv and caused a horrific defeat there. The strife in Rus' continued until Batu’s attack. Many princes and their governors were replaced in Kyiv, a lot of blood was shed in internecine wars. Thus, in fratricidal wars, busy with princely intrigues and strife, Rus' did not notice the danger of a terrible foreign force that rolled in from the East, when the tornado of Batu’s invasion almost wiped out Russian statehood from the face of the earth.