Types of ethical knowledge. Main directions of ethical research. Types of ethical attitudes and actions

Man is a social being, therefore, willy-nilly, he has to constantly communicate with other people. And given the fact that all people are different, certain rules were formed to regulate our relationships. These rules are nothing more than centuries-old concepts of good and evil, right and wrong actions, justice and injustice of actions. And every person spontaneously or consciously tries to adhere to them. Depending on what concepts are included in moral norms and ethical rules, and whether they are taken into account at all, each of us can make it difficult or easier to communicate with our own kind. And, therefore, the speed of achieving your goals, the quality of communication and life will depend on this. Therefore, every citizen needs to know at least the basics of ethics. Rules good manners no one has been harmed yet.

What is ethics

The word “ethics” was first used by Aristotle. Translated from Greek, it means “concerning morality” or “expressing certain moral beliefs.” Ethics is the doctrine of the rules of communication between people, the norms of human behavior, as well as the responsibilities of everyone towards other people. And most of us, even those who have not specifically studied the code of etiquette, are aware of the main rule on a subconscious level interpersonal relationships: “Treat others the way you would like to be treated.” One of the main aspects of ethics is morality. What is morality? This is nothing more than a system of values ​​recognized by man. This the most important way regulating relationships in different areas of our lives: in everyday life, family, work, science, etc. In addition to moral foundations, ethics also studies the rules of ethics - etiquette.

Etiquette - a system of signs

Our actions carry some information: when we meet, we can pat a friend on the shoulder, nod our head, kiss, hug someone by the shoulders, or throw ourselves into a hug. A pat on the shoulder indicates familiarity; when a man stands up, if a woman enters the room, this indicates his respect for her. The postures taken by a person, the movement of the head - all this also has etiquette significance. In phraseological units one can also observe forms of etiquette: hitting with the forehead, bowing one’s head, kneeling, turning one’s back, throwing down a glove, putting one’s hand on one’s heart, stroking the head, bowing, a beautiful gesture, etc.

Etiquette is not only a historical, but also a geographical phenomenon: not all signs of etiquette that are perceived positively in the West will be approved in the East. And some gestures that are acceptable today were categorically condemned in the old days.

Rules of good manners

Every person should know what ethics is and what rules it includes. Below we will present the basic concepts of good manners.

The communication that we allow ourselves at home with loved ones is not always acceptable in society. And remembering the statement that you will not have a second chance to make a first impression, we try to adhere to generally accepted rules of behavior in society when meeting strangers. Here are some of them:

• in a company or at an official meeting, it is necessary to introduce strangers to each other;
• try to remember the names of the people introduced to you;
• when a man and a woman meet, a representative of the fairer sex is never introduced first, the exception being the situation if the man is the president or the meeting is of a purely business nature;
• the younger ones are presented as the older ones;
• when presenting, you must stand up if you are sitting;
• after an acquaintance, the conversation begins with someone older in position or age, with the exception of the case when an awkward pause occurs;
• finding yourself with strangers at the same table, before you start eating, you need to get to know your neighbors;
• When shaking hands, look into the face of the person you are greeting;
• the palm should be extended strictly vertically, edge down - this means “communication as equals”;
• remember that anyone nonverbal gesture means no less than the spoken word;
• when shaking hands on the street, be sure to take off your gloves, with the exception of women;
• When meeting, the first question after greeting should be “How are you?” or “How are you?”;
• during a conversation, do not raise questions that may be unpleasant to the interlocutor;
• do not discuss anything that concerns opinions and tastes;
• don't praise yourself;
• watch the tone of the conversation, remember that neither work, nor family relationships, nor your mood give you the right to be impolite with others;
• It is not customary to whisper in a company;
• if, when saying goodbye, you know that you will meet soon, you should say: “Goodbye!”, “See you!”;
• when saying goodbye forever or for a long time, say: “Goodbye!”;
• on official event it is necessary to say: “Allow me to say goodbye!”, “Let me say goodbye!”.

Teaching children secular ethics

In order for a child to grow into a worthy member of society, he must know what ethics is. The child must not only be told about the rules of behavior in society, at the table, at school, but also demonstrate and confirm these rules by his own example. No matter how much you tell your child that it is necessary to give up your seat to older people in public transport, without setting an example for him, you will never teach him to do this. Not every child is taught the basics of secular ethics at home. Therefore, the school is trying to fill this gap. Recently, the school curriculum has included the subject “Fundamentals of Secular Ethics.” During lessons, children are taught about the rules and norms of behavior in various places, teach culinary etiquette, proper table setting and much more. Teachers also talk about moral principles and discuss what is good and bad. This item is extremely necessary for the child. After all, knowing how to behave correctly in society will make life easier and more interesting for him.

What's happened

There is such a thing as a code of professional ethics. These are the rules governing professional activities. Each profession has its own code. So, doctors have a rule of non-disclosure of medical confidentiality, lawyers, businessmen - everyone adheres to a code of ethics. Every self-respecting company has its own corporate code. Such enterprises value their reputation more than their finances.

Conclusion

A man without etiquette is a savage, a barbarian. It is the rules of morality that give a person the right to consider himself the crown of creation. By teaching your child what ethics is from an early age, you increase his chances of growing up to be a full-fledged member of society.

Topic: Professional ethics of behavior of organization personnel.

Introduction

Ethics- philosophical science, the object of study of which is morality and ethics. She studies not only the origin and essence of morality, but also how a person should act. And this reveals the practical orientation of ethics. The practical significance of ethics is manifested primarily in the sphere of human communication, an important component of which is the communication of people in the process of joint activity. The joint activity of people cannot be neutral in relation to morality. Historically, morality, and not law, was the first form of regulation of relations between people. Consequently, ethics is also the science of the relationships that exist between people and the responsibilities arising from these relationships.

Modern etiquette inherits the customs of almost all nations from hoary antiquity to the present day. Fundamentally, these rules of conduct are universal, since they are observed not only by representatives of a given society, but also by representatives of the most diverse socio-political systems existing in the modern world.

Etiquette requirements are not absolute: compliance with them depends on place, time and circumstances.

The norms of etiquette, in contrast to the norms of morality, are conditional; they have the nature of an unwritten agreement about what is generally accepted in people’s behavior and what is not. Every cultured person must not only know and observe the basic norms of etiquette, but also understand the need for certain rules and relationships.

Modern etiquette regulates the behavior of people in everyday life, at work, in public places and on the street, at a party and at various kinds of official events - receptions, ceremonies, negotiations.

It should be noted that a tactful and well-mannered person behaves in accordance with the norms of etiquette not only at official ceremonies, at work, but also at home. Such a person will never violate public order, will not offend another by word or deed, will not insult his dignity.

So, etiquette is a very large and important part of universal human culture, morality, morality, developed over many centuries of life by all peoples in accordance with their ideas about goodness, justice, humanity - in the field of moral culture and about beauty, order, improvement, everyday expediency - in the field of material culture.

Manners- this is an external form of behavior, a way of holding oneself, communicating with other people, which manifests itself in the expressions used in speech, tone, intonation, in the nature of a person’s gait, his gestures and even facial expressions. Manners are regulated by etiquette.

Manners largely reflect a person’s internal culture, his moral and intellectual qualities. In society, good manners are considered to be a person’s modesty and restraint, the ability to control one’s actions, and to communicate carefully and tactfully with other people. Bad manners are considered to be the habit of speaking loudly, without hesitation in expressions, swagger in gestures and behavior, sloppiness in clothing, rudeness, manifested in open hostility towards others, in disregard for other people's interests and requests, in the shameless imposition of one's will and desires on other people, in the inability to restrain one’s irritation, in deliberately insulting the dignity of people around him, in tactlessness, foul language, and the use of humiliating nicknames and nicknames.

A true culture of behavior is where a person’s actions in all situations, their content and external manifestation follow from the moral principles of morality and correspond to them.

Professional ethics: basic definitions, objects of study.

It is relevant to develop a culture of official communication, which includes a number of general points - rules of official etiquette. Failure to comply with these rules leads to unpleasant consequences. Thus, the inability to conduct a professional conversation, the inability to behave sociably with colleagues at work, in addition to wasting the time of many people, brings a lot of unpleasant moments.

To avoid these excesses, it is enough in the service to observe, although formal, but absolutely mandatory requirements: a polite tone of address, laconic presentation, tactfulness, sociability, naturalness, goodwill.

Professional ethics- this is a set of moral norms that determine a person’s attitude towards his professional duty. The moral relations of people in the labor sphere are regulated by professional ethics. The content of professional ethics are codes of conduct that prescribe a certain type of behavior, moral relationships between people and ways to justify these codes.

Professional ethics studies:

Moral qualities of a specialist’s personality that ensure the best performance of professional duty;

Relationships within professional teams, and those specific moral norms characteristic of a given profession;

Features of professional education.

The situations in which people find themselves in the process of performing their professional tasks have a strong influence on the formation of professional ethics. In the process of labor, certain moral relationships develop between people. They contain a number of elements inherent in all types of professional ethics:

This is the attitude towards social labor and towards participants in the labor process,

These are the moral relations that arise in the area of ​​direct contact between the interests of professional groups with each other and society.

Society places increased moral demands on certain types of professional activities. Basically, these are those professional areas in which the labor process itself requires coordination of the actions of all its participants (complex joint activities). As well as those areas of activity that are associated with the right to control the lives of other people, where attention is paid Special attention moral qualities of workers. Here we're talking about not only about the level of morality, but also about the proper performance of their professional duties. These are professions from the service sectors, transport, management, healthcare, and education. The peculiarities of the work of these professional groups have complex moral relationships when interacting with other people - objects of activity. Here the moral responsibility of the employee becomes crucial. Many such professions arose in ancient times, and therefore have their own professional and ethical codes, such as, for example, the “Hippocratic Oath” for doctors, the moral principles of priests, and codes of honor for those performing judicial functions.

Society considers the moral qualities of these categories of workers as one of the leading elements of their professional suitability.

Thus, general moral norms are concretized in a person’s work activity, taking into account the specifics of his profession. Consequently, professional morality should be considered in unity with the generally accepted system of morality in society. As a rule, a violation of work ethics is accompanied by the destruction of general moral principles, and vice versa. Consequently, an employee’s irresponsible attitude towards professional duties poses a danger to others and harms society.

The complexity of modern Russia is manifested in the fact that it is necessary to develop a new type of professional morality, which would reflect the ideology of labor activity based on the development of market relations, taking into account the emerging new morality of society. We are talking primarily about the moral ideology of the new middle class of society.

Types of professional ethics.

Each type of human activity (scientific, pedagogical, artistic, etc.) corresponds to certain types of professional ethics.

Professional ethics- these are the specific features professional activity, which are aimed directly at a person in certain conditions of his life and activities in society. The study of types of professional ethics shows the diversity and versatility of moral relations. For each profession, certain professional moral standards acquire some special significance.

The main types of professional ethics are: medical ethics, pedagogical ethics, ethics of a scientist, actor, artist, entrepreneur, engineer, etc.

Each type of professional ethics is determined by the uniqueness of professional activity and has its own specific requirements in the field of morality. For example, the ethics of a scientist presupposes, first of all, such moral qualities as scientific integrity, personal honesty, and, of course, patriotism. Judicial ethics requires honesty, justice, frankness, humanism (even towards the defendant if he is guilty), and loyalty to the law. Professional ethics in the context of military service requires strict fulfillment of official duty, courage, discipline, and devotion to the Motherland.

A special type of professional ethics is economic ethics (“business ethics”, “business ethics”). This problem is now receiving a lot of attention.

Economic ethics- this is a set of norms of behavior for an entrepreneur, the requirements imposed by a cultural society on his style of work, the nature of communication between business participants, and their social appearance. This is information about ethical concepts, moral requirements for the style of work and the appearance of a business person, adapted to the practical needs of a businessman. These are the ethics of negotiating with partners, the ethics of drawing up documentation, the use of ethical methods of competition and other areas of professional ethics.

Business etiquette, principles of ethics for a business person.

Business Etiquette- these are norms regulating the style of work, the manner of communication between companies, the image of a businessman, etc. Business ethics cannot arise from subjective desire. Its formation is a complex and lengthy process. The conditions for its formation are: political and economic freedom, strong executive power, stability of legislation, propaganda, law,

The main tenets of the entrepreneur's code of ethics are the following:

He is convinced of the usefulness of his work not only for himself, but also for others, for society as a whole;

He assumes that the people around him want and know how to work;

Believes in business and regards it as attractive creativity;

Recognizes the need for competition, but also understands the need for cooperation;

Respects any property, social movements, respects professionalism and competence, laws, values ​​education, science and technology.

These basic principles of ethics for a business person can be specified in relation to various areas of his professional activity.

For Russia, problems of economic ethics are becoming of great importance. This is explained by the rapid formation of market relations in our country.

Professional ethics of society cannot represent the absolute and final truth in people's behavior. Each generation must solve them again and again on its own. But new developments must be based on the moral stock created by previous generations.

Currently, the importance of professional ethics in regulation is increasing. various types labor activity. This is due to the desire to constantly improve professional standards in relation to changing social relations.

Ethics of business communication among organizational personnel.

Principles of ethics of business communication.

To characterize the whole range of issues related to the behavior of people in a business environment, the term “ethics of business communication” is used.

Business (official, official) communication, depending on the circumstances, can be direct or indirect. In the first case, it takes place through direct contact between the subjects of communication, and in the second, through correspondence or technical means.
Dale Carnegie noticed back in the 30s that the success of a person in his financial affairs, even in technical field or engineering, fifteen percent depends on his professional knowledge and eighty-five percent depends on his ability to communicate with people. In this context, the attempts of many researchers to formulate and substantiate the basic principles of business communication ethics or, as they are more often called in the West, the commandments of personal public relation (can be very roughly translated as “business etiquette”) are easily understandable. Jen Yager, in her book Business Etiquette: How to Survive and Thrive in the World of Business, outlines the following six principles:
1. Punctuality ( do everything on time). Only the behavior of a person who does everything on time is normative. Being late interferes with work and is a sign that the person cannot be relied upon. The principle of doing everything on time applies to all work assignments. Experts who study the organization and distribution of working time recommend adding an extra 25 percent to the time that, in your opinion, is required to complete the assigned work.
2. Confidentiality(don't talk too much). Secrets of an institution, corporation, or specific transaction must be kept as carefully as secrets of a personal nature. There is also no need to retell to anyone what you heard from a colleague, manager or subordinate about their work activities or personal life.
3. Courtesy, friendliness and friendliness. In any situation, it is necessary to behave with clients, clients, customers and co-workers politely, affably and kindly. This, however, does not mean the need to be friends with everyone with whom you have to communicate on duty.
4. Attention to others(think about others, not just yourself). Attention to others should extend to colleagues, superiors and subordinates. Respect the opinions of others, try to understand why they have a particular point of view. Always listen to criticism and advice from colleagues, superiors and subordinates. When someone questions the quality of your work, show that you value other people's thoughts and experiences. Self-confidence shouldn't stop you from being humble.
5. Appearance(dress appropriately). The main approach is to fit into your work environment, and within this environment - into the contingent of workers at your level. You need to look your best in the best possible way, that is, to dress with taste, choosing color scheme to the face. Carefully selected accessories are important.
6. Literacy(speak and write good language). Internal documents or letters sent outside the institution must be written in good language, and all proper names must be conveyed without errors. You cannot use swear words. Even if you just quote another person’s words, others will perceive them as part of your own vocabulary.

Stand out the following types ethics: professional, corporate and applied. Let's look at each type in more detail:

• 1. Professional ethics refers to practices designed to solve moral problems that arise in a particular profession. This type of ethics deals with the following problems:
  • the first is associated with the need to specify universal moral norms in relation to the conditions of professional activity;
  • it considers the requirements that exist within the profession and bind their bearers with special, business relationships;
  • she discusses the correspondence between the values ​​of the profession and the interests of society itself and, from this perspective, approaches the problems of correlation social responsibility and professional duty.
  • Professional ethics has the following characteristics:
  • it is expressed in the form of demands addressed to representatives of a given profession. From this follows its normative image, enshrined in the form of beautifully formulated codes and declarations. As a rule, they are small documents containing a call to live up to the high calling of the profession;
  • documents on professional ethics are filled with the conviction that the values ​​professed by it are completely obvious and follow from a simple analysis of the activities of the most prominent representatives of this type of activity;
  • The professional community itself is considered the authority of ethics, and the most respected representatives who will be given such high trust can speak on its behalf. From this context, it becomes clear that both the investigation and the sanctions are also a matter for the community itself. His trial and sentence are the decision of a panel of professionals against those who misunderstood their high destiny, used their status to harm the community and thereby excluded themselves from it.

Professional ethics strives to solve the following problems: not to lose the status of the profession, to prove social significance, to respond to the challenges of rapidly changing conditions, to strengthen one’s own cohesion, to develop common standards joint activities and protect oneself from the claims of other areas of professional competence.

This type of ethical theory and practice has some disadvantages. At first glance, one can note its closed, narrow character, reliance only on its own authority when making moral assessments, which results in unfounded ambitions when resolving acute conflict situations. The professional environment is a fundamentally conservative element; traditions and foundations play a huge role in it. In addition, moral consciousness cannot agree that professionalism is considered the main value of any social practice. If in a specific area of ​​activity there is a need to discuss emerging moral problems, this means that ordinary ideas about professional duty are not enough for its normal functioning.

2. Corporate ethics are enshrined in special codes. Professional codes of ethics are aimed at regulating relationships among employees. Such codes regulate employee behavior, increase the status of employees in society, and form a trusting attitude towards them among clients. In a sense, the adoption of such a code is an imitation of the rite of initiation of an individual into the profession.

Codes of ethics tell employees how to behave ethically and help them apply moral principles in labor activity. Corporate codes are not codes in the usual sense because they cannot be forced by orders to act ethically or unethically. Every code must be evaluated from a moral point of view.

Corporate codes vary in form. The purpose of some codes is to inform service workers of legal requirements that they were not previously familiar with, but which they should be aware of. Others set out specific requirements that prohibit abuses such as bribery and illegal contributions. Some organizations develop corporate codes that describe the rules of behavior in a given organization. For example, one company considers it unacceptable to accept gifts from customers, while others allow the acceptance of gifts in the form of a small amount of money.

Some organizations may prohibit giving gifts to clients. Limit the amount of contributions made to funds political parties, purchasing shares of a company with which they cooperate, as this may cause a conflict of interests.

Corporate codes perform a number of important functions and help solve specific problems specific to a particular profession and which employees may encounter. When a company has established exactly what an employee is allowed to do or not, then he knows exactly what actions are unacceptable in this company. When the most significant ethical dilemmas are posed by the organization, the activities of employees are regulated by the corporate code.

One of the most important tasks of the corporate code is to establish priorities in relation to target groups and ways to harmonize their interests.

There are three other important functions of a corporate code:

• 1) reputational;
• 2) managerial;
• 3) development of corporate culture.

The essence of the reputation function is to form a trusting attitude towards the company on the part of clients, suppliers, etc. The corporate code in this case plays the role of PR, i.e., it increases the attractiveness of the company. The presence of a company code of corporate ethics is becoming a global standard for doing business in the service sector.

The essence managerial function is to regulate the behavior of employees in conflict situations when it is difficult to accept correct solution consistent with ethical standards. There are several ways to improve employee performance:

• 1) regulation of priorities in interaction with significant external groups;
• 2) determining the procedure for making decisions in conflict situations when they comply with ethical standards;
• 3) indications of incorrect behavior from an ethical point of view.

Corporate ethics is an important basis for corporate

culture, the code of corporate ethics is a guarantor of the development of corporate culture. The Code guides all company employees towards ethical values, as well as orienting employees towards common corporate goals and thereby increasing corporate cohesion.

The key system tools in the field of human factor management are: corporate culture and the organization’s code of ethics.

3. Applied ethics is the most popular type of modern moral theory. Moreover, it can be argued that ethics itself, as a moral philosophy, primarily exists in this form. Applied ethics is usually understood as intellectual practices revolving around the discussion of the most controversial, often dramatic dilemmas of the surrounding reality, insoluble from the point of view of ordinary pragmatic calculation. We examined two of these dilemmas in the previous story - lies and violence. It turned out that from the point of view of the possibility of a moral justification for these phenomena, both opposing points of view can be fairly reliably argued, and the debate on this topic can last endlessly. However, both situations considered relate primarily to a person’s personal choice. What if a professional point of view or the interest of a corporation interfered with them? For example, remember the discussion about lying. Many people involved in information flows would argue that deception is very often justified. A representative of a business corporation would also assert his right to misrepresent information for profit. But in any dispute there is another side - humanity itself, which does not want to be a consumer of lies.

Applied ethics arose precisely as a free discussion in which all sides can speak, including morality itself. But most importantly, this debate is conducted in such a way that possible solution the conflict situation was not dominated by the authority of either party. So, in this situation, the point of view of a professional is no more valuable than that of an ordinary person, because the broadest consequences of the proposed solutions can be seen not narrowly professional look, but the consolidated opinion of all interested participants. By by and large By inviting dialogue, applied ethics takes the point of view of morality itself, that is, it seeks to protect centuries-old ideas of people about ideal, truly human relationships. Therefore, unlike professional and corporate examples, it is not structured in the form of codes and declarations. Applied ethics is, in principle, non-normative, since the situations that it discusses cannot be solved by following one, even a very good, requirement. Another thing is that, as a result of the discussion, a specific rule may be born, but its consolidation (legislative and corporate) is a matter for other practices. This type of ethical reasoning comes precisely from ideas about absolute moral values, and from these positions she argues, wanting to limit the one-dimensional pragmatic view of the order of things.

The methodology of applied ethics is quite simple. It is important for her to understand the positions of all parties, listen to their arguments, understand the causes of the conflict, but the main thing is to establish a dialogue between the conflicting parties, as well as those who want to help resolve it. Unlike the two styles of ethics discussed above, it does not seek to regulate anything at all. Her job is to find the most acceptable solution at the moment. Moreover, unlike corporate regulation, it does not need to apply and justify sanctions.

What's happened ethics? People put different meanings into this concept, believing that it is:

· The doctrine of morality;

· A system of rules that monitor and correct people’s behavior;

· A way of assessing human actions, their approval or condemnation;

· “Social regulator” of behavior and relationships between people;

Indeed, ethics is interested in questions of human behavior and relationships between people. Aristotle also argued that main task ethics is Study human relations in their most perfect form. Since its origins in antiquity, it began to act as “philosophy practical life”, analyzing the behavior of a “social person”, “a communicating person”. Ethics -Philosophical teaching, Subject which is Morality (morality), A The central problem - Good and evil. Ethics studies the genesis, essence, specificity of morality; reveals its place and role in the life of society, reveals the mechanisms of moral regulation of human life, the criteria for moral progress. She examines the structure of the moral consciousness of society and the individual, analyzes the content and meaning of such categories as good and evil, freedom and responsibility, duty and conscience, honor and dignity, happiness and the meaning of life. Thus, ethics becomes the basis for creating an optimal model of humane and fair relations that ensure high quality communication between people and a guideline for each person to develop their own strategy and tactics of “correct life”.

Ethics focused on Man, his life, freedom and interests – This Humanistic ethics. E Tika and morality, oriented towards something else, external to man (for example, the idea of ​​communism, or world domination, or fulfilling the will of the leader), is Authoritarian character.

The principled position of humanistic ethics Thing is she considers a person in his physical and spiritual integrity, believing that “ Target person - To be youreself, A Condition achieving such a goal - Be a man for yourself” (E. Fromm). The highest values ​​of humanistic ethics are “not self-denial and selfishness - but self-love, not the denial of the individual, but the affirmation of one’s truly human self” (E. Fromm). Thus, Humanistic ethics is based on faith in man, his autonomy, independence, freedom and reason, Believing that a person is capable On one's own Distinguish between good and evil and make correct ethical assessments. From the point of view of humanistic ethics, there is nothing higher and more worthy than human life. But a person finds himself and his happiness only in kinship and solidarity with people. Moreover, love for humanistic ethics is “not a higher power descending on a person, and not a duty assigned to him: it is his own strength, thanks to which he becomes close to the world and makes the world truly his own” (E. Fromm).

Depending on affiliation with a particular ethical school, on the tasks facing ethics as a science and academic discipline, ethics is structured differently. Based on the principles of humanistic ethics and its role as “practical philosophy” in its Structure The following blocks are distinguished:

History of morals and ethical teachings -Describes the process of development of ethical teachings, as well as the genesis and evolution of morality from antiquity to the present day; here we can highlight Descriptive ethics, describing socio-historical types of morality (knightly, bourgeois, etc.).

Moral theory – Explains evolution and mechanism of action of morality based on it Structural-functional analysis; It is a doctrine about the essence of morality, its basic principles and categories, structure, functions and patterns.

Normative ethics– gives justification moral principles and norms that are based on highest moral values , Act as a theoretical development and addition to the moral consciousness of society and the individual and Prescribe from the position of obligation ( Deontology) certain rules of behavior in relationships between people, helping a person develop Strategy and tactics of “correct life”.

Applied ethics– performs on the basis of normative ethics Practical learning function People behave appropriately in specific situations and in certain areas of their life. Applied ethics also has its own structure. It includes:

· Environmental ethics and bioethics;

· Ethics of citizenship;

· Situational ethics;

· Ethics of Interpersonal Communication;

· Ethics of business communication;

· Professional ethics.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

Ethics. Morality. Moral. How do these concepts differ? Is such a task of ethics as “teaching morality” feasible? Can morality be taught?

“If ethics is the doctrine of the moral norms of society, then wouldn’t it turn out that ethical norms lead to the unification of the human personality,” reflects student K. “Isn’t ethics, in this case, a means for selecting those qualities that are useful to society, and discard the rest?” ?. What is your opinion on this matter?

“Don’t you think that ethics is a product of human weakness, since it replaces the formation of one’s own views with ready-made cliches?” – this was the question asked by student M.M. to the teacher. What would you answer him?

What do you see distinctive features authoritarian and humanistic ethics according to for various reasons: by goals and means, by basic principles, by methods and methods of regulation.

How do you evaluate A. Schweitzer’s statement that ethics is an infinitely expanded responsibility to all living things?

“Situational” ethics: do any life situations fall under ethical standards? Can you call situations “outside ethics”?

In connection with what do professional ethics arise and become relevant? What is professional deontology?

Analyze the presented diagrams and find additional connections in them: between normative and applied ethics, normative and situational, within applied ethics. Are all connections and relationships presented in the diagram unambiguous? Establish double connections between individual structural elements ethics.

Can environmental ethics and citizenship ethics be classified as normative ethics? Try to justify your position.

Professional ethical knowledge exists in three main forms (traditions)::

1. Theoretical philosophical ethics , explanatory (and therefore justifying) morality and attempting to define morality;

2. Descriptive , or descriptive ethics (sometimes called phenomenological), which describes the phenomena of moral consciousness, behavior, speech;

3. Normative ethics , prescriptive I and justifying certain moral standards, principles, norms, codes.

Ethical research is conducted in three main directions, representing three different ways of thinking:

explanation , in which the “spotlight” of our consciousness is directed inward - try to explain to someone what justice, love or honor is;

description – the “spotlight” of consciousness is directed outward – to the outside world – try to describe to yourself or someone else the features of the manifestation of justice, love or honor in a certain group of people or an individual;

prescription – the “spotlight” of consciousness is directed into the fantasy zone – try to demand from someone that he (or she) be fair or follow some specific model of love or code of honor.

Philosophical and ethical (theoretical) direction mainly developed by professional philosophers and moral writers and “lives” in the texts of their works. Behind long history Ethics has created many concepts that explain morality. These are the secular ethical concepts of Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, Kant, Hegel , Feuerbach, Schweitzer, E. Fromm, and the concepts of religious ethics of Christianity, Islam, Buddhism. Moreover, to explain and solve ethical problems, people are often forced to turn to related fields of knowledge: psychology, economics, history, anthropology, sociology, biology, etc.

Within the framework of theoretical philosophical ethics, there are two main directions in the ways of explaining morality:

1. Ethics of absolutism - within which the source of moral requirements is considered to be eternal, unchanging principles: the laws of the Universe, Divine commandments, absolute ideas that exist before any experience (a priori) (Socrates, Plato, Kant, Spencer, Christian ethics).

2. Relative ethics– or ethical relativism. Its supporters believe that moral principles, concepts of good and evil are not absolute, but relative, conditional, dependent on social conditions, associated with the interests, beliefs, inclinations of people, time and place (sophists, Hobbes, Mandeville, emotivists).

Descriptive or descriptive (positive) ethics focuses its efforts on a specific sociological and historical analysis of the morality of a particular society, group, layer, profession, studies and describes real moral phenomena - phenomena: customs, mores, traditions, the structure of moral consciousness. Descriptive ethics also deals with the study and description of existing ethical standards adopted in production, within a profession, in various cultures, comparing various moral systems, individual and group stereotypes in various cultures. This method scientific research used when conducting opinion polls.

Normative or prescriptive (exhortation) ethics justifies and prescribes certain moral principles and norms. The purpose of moral principles is to guide behavior, and this is what makes ethics worth studying: the question “What should I do?” extremely important for every person. The functions of moral language are to influence choice, give recommendations, advice, commands. The language of morality is the language of commands, instructions; it is one of the types of prescriptive language.

Professional ethics is to a greater extent normative; the language of professional ethical codes is the language of prescriptions and regulations.

3.Applied ethics and its approaches to the analysis of moral problems and decision making (deontological and utilitarian). 1. Duty approach (deontological) has two varieties:

1)Moral rights (human rights) approach .

The typical approach from the point of view of duty was expressed in the works of German philosopher I. Kant. For a person who consciously or unconsciously (which is quite common) shares Kant's views on morality, being moral means the same thing as being reasonable. No one can force a person to be reasonable, just like to be moral. The basis of morality must be sought in the human mind. In order to imagine what demands morality makes on us and what it means to be moral, it is necessary to understand what it means to be reasonable and what are the important properties of reason.

Such important properties three:

A) First property is the logical consistency inherent in the mind. Moral actions should therefore not be internally contradictory and should not conflict with each other.

b) Second property- the universality of reason, its universality: reason is one for everyone, therefore what is reasonable for me is reasonable for everyone else, and vice versa.

V) Third property– reason does not depend on experience, its truth is not based on experience, it is, as philosophers say, a priori, therefore the morality of an action does not depend on its consequences. In order to be moral, an action must have three formal characteristics: it must be universalizable(an action is morally right only if you want all people in a similar situation to do the same); it must be based on autonomy and must respect the autonomy of sentient beings (must be based on respect for sentient beings as valuable individuals with purpose in themselves); people can use their minds control your feelings, instincts and imagine your actions before they are fulfilled (the will of every rational being is the will that establishes universal laws).

2)Equity approach .

Regulation of the natural sense of justice and injustice is also one of the important tasks of professional ethics of a lawyer. The concept of "justice" means fairness ( from lat. justitia ), the lawyer, thus, acts as a “representative of justice” and justice for him “is an inseparable moral and official duty.” Associated with the activities of a lawyer is the problem of the relationship between legality and justice, which arises every time a decision is made that either formally corresponds to the letter of the law, but is assessed as unfair, or seems fair, but does not comply with the requirements of the law (the assessment may follow from public opinion , participants in the trial, the international community, etc.). Before making a decision, a lawyer must weigh the pros and cons, listen to the voice of his conscience, the “voice of justice.”

There are several categories of justice:

A) distribution – distributive justice. Benefits and burdens can be distributed in society different ways: according to the principle of equality, depending on needs, on effort expended, on merit, on contribution;

b) retributive (punitive) justice– Focuses on responsibility or punishment for wrongdoing. The main problems of retributive justice are the determination of the conditions that make punishment just and the nature of punishment itself;

V) compensatory justice– focuses on compensating the injured party to the extent that the damage can be fairly assessed. Compensatory justice involves compensating someone for a past injustice done to them or making amends for past harm done to them.

G) procedural fairness- a term used to designate honestly developed procedures, methods practical activities or agreements reached in good faith;

d) commutative (exchange) justice– refers to the fairness and fairness of transactions. 2. Benefit approach (utilitarian).

The theory of utilitarianism was developed in the 19th century. by English philosophers Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) and is currently widely used in making and justifying decisions in social life.

We all judge the justice or injustice of this or that action, deed, statement, making moral judgments. We are speaking. “This man is just” or “He is unjust.” You may be asked the question: “Why do you think it is fair?” If you answer as follows: “He is just because the consequences of his actions were favorable to people,” then this will mean that you are in in this case stand on the position of utilitarianism. According to this theory, a judgment about the justice or injustice of an action should be assessed by the expected or actually existing result.

A person’s choice of one action or another depends not only on his will - when choosing, he must also proceed from objective circumstances: specific situation, current practice, existing legislation, intentions of partners, one’s own well-being, etc. The theory of utilitarianism is based on the principle of benefit.

Utilitarianism helps a person who has a choice to decide which action he should take. Utilitarianism helps to give a more objective, unbiased assessment of the consequences of any actions, and to formulate moral assessments. He strives to establish harmony between personal and social interests and help find a path to realizing “the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.”

The position of classical utilitarianism can be formulated in three main provisions:

a) an action is considered right or wrong not in itself, but only according to its consequences;

b) the good or evil of consequences is measured by the happiness or unhappiness to which a given action leads, right actions lead to the greatest happiness;

c) for a person, his personal interest is just as important as the interest of other people, therefore those actions that lead to the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people (and sentient beings in general) will always be correct.

The motives that guided a person when committing certain actions are in themselves devoid of a moral character, but can influence an increase or decrease in the number of useful actions. Utilitarians believe that most of the good deeds we do are not done out of a desire for the general good, but out of a desire for individual benefit. The essence of an action does not change depending on whether it was done by a good person or bad person, because this person’s own moral qualities, in turn, are determined by a number of actions he has committed.

Within the framework of modern utilitarianism, there are two options for solving ethical problems:

A) Utilitarianism rules says: when determining the correctness of actions, one must take into account long term prospects and assess the consequences of a range of actions over a period of time. By action here, therefore, we mean not a specific act, but a certain type of action. The rule itself is evaluated (in comparison with other rules) depending on the result that the action will lead to.

b) Act utilitarianism evaluates a given action in a specific situation by the immediate consequences, good (useful) or bad, to which it leads. Act utilitarianism says: one must take into account all the real (short-term) consequences of one specific action in terms of the total benefit for all interested parties.

4. Categories of ethics. Categories of ethics – these are the basic concepts of ethical science, reflecting the most essential elements of morality. With all the variety of approaches to defining the system of ethical categories, we can identify the generally accepted categories, the most important in theoretical and practical terms: – good and evil; – good; – justice; – duty; – conscience; – responsibility; – dignity and honor. 1. Good and evil– most general forms moral assessment, distinguishing between moral and immoral. Good - a category of ethics that unites everything that has a positive moral meaning, meets the requirements of morality, serves to distinguish the moral from the immoral, opposing evil. Evil – category of ethics, in its content opposite to good, generally expressing the idea of ​​​​immorality, contrary to the requirements of morality, deserving of condemnation. This is a general abstract characteristic of negative moral qualities. 2. Good- this is everything that contributes to human life, serves to satisfy the material and spiritual needs of people, and is a means to achieve certain goals. These are both natural and spiritual benefits (knowledge, education, cultural goods). In an ethical sense, the concept of good is often used as a synonym for good. 3. Justice– is understood in society in various aspects. This is a moral, political and legal category. In ethics, justice is a category that means a state of affairs that is considered as due, consistent with ideas about the essence of man, his inalienable rights, based on the recognition of equality between all people and the need for correspondence between an act and retribution for good and evil, the practical role different people and their social status, rights and responsibilities, merits and their recognition. Aristotle first divided justice into equalizing (fairness equality ) And distribution (fairness of proportionality ). These aspects of justice remain important in modern conditions. 4. Debt – category of ethics, meaning the attitude of an individual to society, other people, expressed in moral obligation towards them in specific conditions. Duty is a moral task that a person formulates for himself on the basis of moral requirements addressed to everyone. This is a personal task for a specific person in a specific situation. Debt can be social : patriotic, military, doctor’s duty, judge’s duty, investigator’s duty, etc. Debt can be personal: parental, filial, conjugal, comradely, etc. Employees of the courts and the prosecutor's office can successfully perform their functions only when they deeply understand the social significance of their activities and have a high sense of duty and are ready to fulfill it to the end, despite all the difficulties and obstacles. A judge, prosecutor, or investigator cannot tolerate violations of laws, human rights, and the interests of society and the state. 5. Conscience– a self-evaluative feeling, experience, one of the oldest intimate and personal regulators of human behavior. Conscience is a category of ethics that characterizes a person’s ability to exercise moral self-control, internal self-esteem from the standpoint of compliance of his behavior with moral requirements, to independently formulate moral tasks for himself and demand that he fulfill them. Conscience is a person’s subjective awareness of his duty and responsibility to society and other people, acting as a duty and responsibility to himself. The sense of conscience protects a person from the bad, the vicious, stimulates nobility, responsibility - people often appeal to their own conscience and to the conscience of others, evaluate themselves and others, using the concepts of “clear conscience”, “bad conscience”, “asleep conscience”, “conscientious” person", "unscrupulous", "remorse", etc. The role of conscience is especially important when a person is facing moral choice, and external control from public opinion is either excluded or difficult. A lawyer, conducting proceedings in a case or performing other functions, acts in an area that affects the vital benefits of people, faces many conflicts, and faces the need to make responsible decisions, often in difficult moral situations. And only workers with a developed sense of conscience, capable of correctly, self-critically and principledly judging their motives and actions, can effectively fulfill their high mission and maintain the prestige of their profession and personality. 6. Responsibility – category of ethics that characterizes a person from the point of view of his fulfillment of moral requirements, compliance of his moral activity with moral duty, considered from the standpoint of the individual’s capabilities. When deciding the issue of moral responsibility, it is necessary to take into account a number of factors, including: whether a person is capable of fulfilling the moral duties prescribed to him; whether he understood them correctly; should he be responsible for the consequences of his actions, which are influenced by external circumstances; can a person foresee these consequences? Responsibility is the duty and necessity to give an account of one’s actions and actions, and to be responsible for their possible consequences. Responsibility is generally a philosophical and sociological concept. Responsibility in ethics and responsibility in law are closely related. It is enough, for example, to recall the theoretical justifications of criminal liability and the principle of personal and culpable responsibility. 7. Dignity and honor. Dignity – category of ethics, meaning a person’s special moral attitude towards himself and the attitude towards him on the part of society and those around him, based on recognition of the value of a person as an individual. A person's awareness of his own dignity is a form of self-awareness and self-control. A person does not commit a certain act, believing that it is beneath his dignity. Dignity is an expression of a person’s responsibility for his behavior to himself, a form of self-affirmation of the individual. Dignity obliges us to perform moral actions, conform their behavior to the requirements of morality. At the same time, the dignity of the individual requires others to respect him, recognition of the corresponding rights and opportunities for a person, and justifies the high demands placed on him by others. In this regard, dignity depends on a person’s position in society, the state of society, its ability to ensure the practical assertion of inalienable human rights, and recognition of the self-worth of the individual. The concept of personal dignity is based on the principle of moral equality of all people, based on equal rights every person to respect, a ban on humiliating his dignity, no matter what social status he borrows. Honor as a category of ethics means a person’s moral attitude towards himself and the attitude towards him from society and those around him, when the moral value of an individual is associated with the moral merits of a person, with his specific social position, type of activity and moral merits recognized for him (the honor of an officer, the honor of a judge , honor of a scientist, doctor, entrepreneur, etc.). Honor and dignity are closely related. However, unlike dignity, which is based on the recognition of the equality of all people, honor evaluates people differentially.

5. The principle of humanism. Humanism(from the Latin humanus - humane) - the principle of worldview, including morality, meaning recognition of a person highest value, faith in man, his ability to improve, the requirement for freedom and protection of personal dignity, the idea of ​​a person’s right to happiness, that meeting the needs and interests of the individual should be the ultimate goal of society. Supporters of humanism proclaim man as the center of the universe, the crown of nature. Since ancient times, his desire for happiness and pleasure has been declared the basis of morality. The philosopher I. Kant, substantiating his theory of morality, in which morality was considered as an area of ​​the proper, formulated an essentially humanistic requirement, called the categorical imperative. Kant’s categorical imperative (unconditional command) in one of its formulations reads: “act in such a way that you always treat humanity, both in yourself and in the person of everyone else, as an end, and never treat it only as a means.” ". The categorical imperative proclaims the most important humane position, which means that every person deserves to be treated as an individual, worthy of being the center of attention of others, that no one has the right to use a person as a tool, a means to achieve personal or social goals, to treat him as one of his own. kind of material. The idea of ​​Kant's categorical imperative was supported by many thinkers, including in Russia. However, its implementation in life, as Kant himself noted, is not fully feasible. The humanistic principle contains the most ancient normative moral requirement, called " Golden Rule". Ethical categories and principles permeate the entire life of people, even those who have no idea about their scientific interpretation. They determine the content of law, are present in legislative acts, including those regulating the specific activities of a lawyer. Familiarity with their essence is necessary for a lawyer both for studying and understanding the law, and for practical activities in its application.

6.The golden rule of ethics.« The Golden Rule of Ethics" reads- “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.” In different eras, this principle was reflected in religious and philosophical teachings, such as Christianity, Judaism, Buddhism, and Islam. At its core, this golden rule is the result that crowns the moral laws defined for a person living in society. " Golden Rule “has a universal human character and constitutes the moral basis for the formation of all other human qualities. From this rule follow all the commands concerning both the love of man for man, and of man for the Almighty. In fact, the biblical commandments of love come from this rule. " Golden Rule “In early historical times, the development of mankind was determined by philosophical and ethical prerequisites; to this day it continues to be supplemented, analyzed and refined. In early childhood, a person begins to understand his “I”, but through it he begins to understand the feelings and desires of another person: as soon as you pinch yourself, it becomes clear how painful it is for another person. In the life of the individual begins to act " Golden Rule ", which different nations reinforced by proverbs and sayings. “Don’t dig a hole for someone else - you won’t fall into it yourself,” “whatever comes around, so will it respond.” " Golden Rule " V different religions is a teaching given to man by God. Only in the implementation of this rule does he see a way to harmonize relations between people who differ in their moral qualities, life attitudes, abilities, cultural level. " Golden Rule "is a universal human value, without which it is doomed to extinction. This is confirmed by the entire history of the development of human society, when empires fell that violated this rule. Its formation as a moral value and ideal of each individual is the main task of ethical education.

7. The beginnings of ethics in Plato. Plato as an ethicist grows out of Socrates, an illustration and proof of this is the dialogue of "Gorgias", which researchers usually attribute to the transitional period of the philosopher's work. It also reproduces the ideas of Socrates and at the same time formulates a new, purely Platonic position: it is better to endure injustice than to commit it, although both are bad. Plato, following Socrates, takes the logic of moral consciousness most seriously, considering only it valid; only through it, in his opinion, does everything else acquire value for a person. Plato believes that “a person should not appear good, but be good...” Here, in “Gorgias,” Plato fixes the contradiction between the growth of external well-being and the decline of morals: those who are considered the benefactors of Athens are Themistocles, Cimon, Pericles - actually brought him disaster; they "filled the city with harbours, shipyards, walls, taxes and other nonsense, forgetting about temperance and justice." Plato turns everything upside down, he wants to reform the reality of interhuman relations in accordance with moral obligation. He is guided by logic: from idea to reality, from what should be to what is. But in order for such a reversal to look plausible, as if an already inverted world was being brought back into a normal position, and the restructuring of human society he proposed looked legitimate, he postulates the existence of another world - the world of ideas, the prototypes of our moral concepts. The ethical orientation of Plato's idealism is also expressed in the fact that the supreme place in the world of ideas is occupied by good; it is like the sun, it constitutes the true creative and organizing principle. In the writings of Plato, goodness is in itself general view are divided into two classes: spiritual and earthly, or divine and human. Earthly goods are divided into physical and property. The world of ideas appears in Plato as an ideal world and becomes the goal setting of earthly existence. Plato's individual ethics, which is the ethics of self-improvement, self-exaltation of the individual, is complemented by his social ethics, which is based on the principle of unconditional subordination of citizens to the interests of the state. For Plato, social ethics is a continuation, addition and
concretization of personal ethics, although at first glance they clearly contradict each other. The state is, according to Plato, a hierarchically organized, clearly defined unity of three functions: legislation, or management, protection from enemies, care for the individual ( material support). Accordingly, there should be three classes of citizens: rulers, warriors, farmers and artisans. Each class or estate has its own virtue. Rulers are characterized by wisdom that allows them to think and manage the state as a whole, to subordinate the interests of all individual parts to its good. They are also not devoid of courage, but this is a specific quality of the next, second in rank, class of guards in the proper sense of the word, that is, warriors. They must first of all have the right opinion about what to fear and what not to fear. Prudence and moderation are the main virtues of the third, lower class. In addition to the three named virtues, there is one more, the most important, which is characteristic of the state as a whole and makes its very existence possible. This is justice, the essence of which is to be content with one’s clearly designated place in the general hierarchy, without going beyond the boundaries of one’s assigned sphere of activity.