Typological passport of the German language conclusion. English language. Topic5. Linguistic universals and their significance for the typology of languages
Typological and social passport of the Finnish language
Social passport of the Finnish language.
Finnish belongs to the Finno-Ugric language family, unlike many other European languages that form the Indo-European family.
Common in Finland (state language along with Swedish), Sweden, Norway, USA, Canada, Australia, Germany, Estonia, Russia. The number of speakers is 6 million people, of which 5 million consider Finnish native. The closest relative of the Finnish language is Karelian.
The closest relatives to Finnish are Estonian, Karelian, Vepsian, Ludic, Votic, Liv, which are spoken on the eastern and southern coasts of the Baltic Sea. In terms of the number of people who speak the languages of the Baltic-Finnish subgroup, Finnish and Estonian languages predominate along the shores of the Baltic Sea. Finnish and Estonian have not only a similar linguistic structure, but also a related lexical base. Thus, it is not difficult for Finns and Estonians to generally understand each other when communicating in their native languages.
Today, Finnish is spoken by the majority of the population of Finland - about 92%. In addition, there are about 300,000 ethnic Finns in the world who live outside of Finland in the border countries - Sweden and Norway, as well as among the Finnish diaspora in North America, Estonia, Russia (mainly in the Leningrad region and Karelia).
Finnish is one of the two official languages of Finland along with Swedish, as well as officially recognized minority language in Sweden. In the Kingdom of Sweden both the Finnish language standard and Meänkieli are recognized- Finnish dialect in the region of Tournedalen. In Russia, the Finns consider themselves, first of all, the Ingrians, who settled in the 17th century. the territory of the modern Leningrad region after the conclusion of the Stolbovsky peace treaty (1617), according to which Ladoga and Ingermanland were ceded to Sweden. In addition, ethnic Finns live in Karelia, where Finnish is recognized as one of the national languages of the republic, along with Karelian and Vepsian.
The ethnogenesis of the Finns took place on the basis of three ancient tribes: the Häme (Em), the Finns proper, the Suomi (Sum), and the Western Karelians. Thus, the classification of Finnish dialects according to morphological and phonetic features is based on their genetic correlation with the ancient tribal languages of these three ethnic groups.
Initially, the name "Suomi" ("Finland") referred only to the territory inhabited by the Finns themselves (Suomi), and then spread to the surrounding lands. In Russian chronicles of the XIII century. the ethnonym sum clearly points to the Finns proper, i.e. population of southwestern Finland.
The first written monument of the Finnish language is the first printed book - ABC-kirja of Archbishop Mikael Agricola of Turku (1543). An important milestone in the development of the modern literary Finnish language was the publication in 1835 by Elias Lönnrot of the national Karelian-Finnish epic Kalevala. However, Swedish continued to prevail as the official language in Finland until the second half of the 19th century. Only in 1863 did the Finnish language receive formally equal rights on a par with Swedish.
Rumors about the extraordinary difficulty of the Finnish language are somewhat exaggerated. There are only 4 tenses in it: present, imperfect, perfect and pluperfect. Words are read in exactly the same way as they are written, since the first texts appeared only at the beginning of the 16th century - speech was simply written in Latin letters.
In the formation and development of the literary language, 2 main periods are distinguished: Old Finnish (1540-1820) and New Finnish (since 1820). At the first stage of the Old Finnish period (until 1640), the Old Finnish literary language was created, based on which M. Agricola laid the southwestern dialect of the region of the then capital - Turku, which was influenced by the Yem dialect (the Old Finnish literary language remained in church use until the 20th century. ). The Novo-Finnish period was divided into early Novo-Finnish (1820-70) and modern Finnish (since 1870). At an early stage, the New Finnish literary language was formed, overcoming the orientation of Old Finnish towards Western dialects and moving closer to the popular spoken language. By the 1870s the foundations of the modern literary language were laid.
A little about Finnish facial expressions and gestures. Russian-speaking tourists often help express their thoughts with their hands. From the point of view of the Finns, intense gestures emit negative signals, indicate some problems, and calmness, like silence, speaks of attention, and not at all of boredom. When parting, we wave our hand, but in Finland they don’t. There are also no gestures in Finnish culture that indicate height (high / low) and size (large / small), raising / lowering hands or spreading them apart is not welcome, it is considered bad form to point at something with your finger. When communicating, the Finn keeps a distance and, if you get closer, he will probably step back. Finnish etiquette does not allow any touching of the body or clothes, including a pat on the shoulder.
Although in Finnish culture it is customary to shake hands only at the first meeting (during a second meeting this gesture is not duplicated), a handshake is mandatory for official or business contact. In Finland, you should extend your hand to the ladies if you do not want your behavior to be regarded as offensive.
During a conversation, it is recommended to look the interlocutor in the eyes in order to avoid suspicion of insincerity, you can not interrupt him and you should not expect an instant reaction. You need to be prepared for the fact that the Finnish partner during communication will control his facial expression so strictly that you will suspect that he has an absolute lack of facial expressions.
Typological passport of the Finnish language.
Phonetics and phonology
Finnish has 8 vowels and 13 consonant phonemes.
Vowels
The Finnish language is characterized by the presence of 8 short vowel phonemes a, o, u, i, e, a, o, y, which are opposed in duration by 8 long ones: aa, oo, uu, ii, ee, aa, oo, yy. A long vowel in duration when pronounced is about a third longer than a short one.
Front row Non front row
Unbroken Curved Unbroken Curved
Top lift i y u
Medium lift e o /o/ o
Lower lift a /?/ a /?
/
In addition, there are 18 diphthongs in Finnish. They are all descending - the beginning of the diphthong is louder than the end. Diphthongs can also be shortened when the mouth is shortened towards the end of the pronunciation, and widened when the mouth opens slightly towards the end of the diphthong. The first type is more common, there are only 15 such diphthongs (ai, ai, oi, oi, ui, yi, ei, au, ou, eu, iu, ay, oy, ey, iy), there are only three of the second type (ie, uo, yo)
Consonants
| labial | labiodental | dental | alveolar | postalveolar | middle language | back-lingual | laryngeal | |
| explosive | p, (b) | t, d | k, (?) | |||||
| nasal | m | n | ? | |||||
| trembling | r | |||||||
| fricatives | (f), v | s | (? ) | j | h | |||
| lateral | l |
Prosody
stress always falls on the first syllable. No vowel reduction
Vowel harmony
One of the most important rules of Finnish phonology is vowel harmony (Fin. vokaalisointu). Vowels are divided according to the place of articulation into front vowels a, o, y, e, i and back vowels a, o, u. The vowels e and i are considered neutral, which means that they can appear in the same word with both front and back vowels. Other front vowels a, o and y cannot be in the same word as back vowels (exceptions are borrowings). Moreover, if the word is complex, then harmony is observed within only one part, for example, isanmaa (“homeland”).
Endings and suffixes containing non-vowels e or i, due to synharmonism, always appear in two versions. For example, the inessive case ending appears in the variants -ssa and -ssa, cf .:
talo (house) – talossa (in the house)
metsa (forest) – metsassa (forest)
Morphology
Case system
In Finnish, there are about 15 cases. As in Russian and other synthetic languages, Finnish case declension occurs by adding various endings.
The nominative almost always denotes the subject. The accusative is only an object, taking the endings of the nominative plural or genitive. The genitive is just an addition. The word order in a sentence is relatively free, although it often differs from the word order in Russian; various syntactic constructions are distinguished (possessions, locations, obligations, etc.).
The 14 case endings are listed below: using the word koira (“dog”) as an example.
case
Nominative
End of unit h.
-
ending pl. h.
-t
Usage example
koira/koirat
Meaning
dog/dogs
case
Genitive
End of unit h.
-n
ending pl. h.
-en, -den (-tten), -in, -ten
Usage example
koiran/koirien
Meaning
dog, canine (bone)
case
partitive
End of unit h.
-a(-a)
ending pl. h.
-ta (-ta)
Usage example
koiraa / koiria
Meaning
several dogs, no dog/many dogs, no dogs
case
Essive
End of unit h.
-na (-na)
ending pl. h.
koirana/koirina
Usage example
(to be) a dog/dogs
case
translative
End of unit h.
-ksi
ending pl. h.
koiraksi/koiriksi
Usage example
(to become) a dog/dogs
case
Inessive
End of unit h.
-ssa (-ssa)
ending pl. h.
koirissa/koirissa
Usage example
in dog/dogs
case
Elative
End of unit h.
-sta (-sta)
ending pl. h.
koirasta/koirista
Usage example
about a dog/dogs, from a dog/dogs
case
illative
End of unit h.
vowel lengthening + n;
h + preceding vowel + n
ending pl. h.
-in; -hin; -seen; -siin
Usage example
koiraan/koiriin
Meaning
into a dog/dogs
case
Adessive
End of unit h.
-lla (-lla)
ending pl. h.
koiralla/koirilla
Usage example
On the dog/dogs, on the dog/dogs
case
Ablative
End of unit h.
-lta (-lta)
ending pl. h.
koiralta/koirilta
Usage example
from a dog/dogs
case
Allative
End of unit h.
etc.................
The manual includes practical tasks and questions on all topics of the theoretical course "Comparative Typology of the English and Russian Languages" as well as an analysis of units of typological comparison at all main levels. A list of references necessary for independent work on the topics studied is given.
Recommended by the UMO in the specialties of pedagogical education as a teaching aid for students of higher educational institutions studying in the specialty 033200 (050303) - a foreign language.
The concept of "typological" passport V.D. Arakina.
Many languages that really exist on the globe have been studied and described in sufficient detail in terms of research and analysis of their levels, systems and subsystems. The results of typological research show that each language is characterized by its particular stable set of leading features. The consideration of a number of Germanic languages, the Russian language, the Turkish language as a representative of the languages of the agglutinative system, as well as such foreign systemic languages as Samoan and Tahitian, allowed V.D. Arakin to single out the most significant typological indicators of the surveyed languages and, on this basis, to develop a brief but fairly complete summary of the five languages, the so-called "typological passports" of the Russian, English, and Icelandic languages. Turkish, Tahitian. The creation of these passports is a very promising direction in the field of typological research. "Typological passport", of course, facilitates acquaintance with the corresponding language, its main leading typological indicators, which determines the great practical and scientific-theoretical significance of this idea for comparing commensurable facts of languages of different systems, for determining the general principles of the structure and functioning of human language in general.
The typological passport includes the most significant typological parameters that determine the typological appearance of a particular language. These are the most important features. which V.D. Arakin considers it necessary to include in the typological passport of the language, are:
1. The composition of the phonemic inventory (the number of vowel phonemes - monophthongs, diphthongs: the number of consonants grouped into classes of stops, fricatives, affricates, sonorants).
CONTENT
Foreword
Part one. Basic concepts of the typology of languages as a special branch of linguistics. Methods of typological analysis
Section I. Basic concepts of linguistic typology
Section II. Universals, their definition and classification. The meaning of universals for the typology of languages
Section III. Methods of typological analysis
Part two. Typology of the phonological systems of the English and Russian languages
Section I. The concept of the phonological level of a language
Section II. Typological characteristics of supersegmental means (stress, intonation)
Section III. Typology of syllabic structures
Part three. Typology of morphological systems of English and Russian languages
Section I. The concept of the morphological level of the language
Section II. Noun
Section III. Adjective
Section IV. Verb
Part four. Typology of syntactic systems
Section I. Typology of the phrase
Section II. Typology of sentence members
Section III. Offer typology
Part five. Typology of lexical systems
Section I. Basic concepts of the lexical level
Section II. Typology of means of word production
Section III. Typology of non-affixal word formation
Section IV. Composition and types of compound words in English and Russian
Approximate topics and literature for seminars.
Free download e-book in a convenient format, watch and read:
Download the book Practicum on comparative typology of English and Russian languages, Rezvetsova M.D., Afanaseva O.V., Samokhina T.S., 2009 - fileskachat.com, fast and free download.
- Early learning of a foreign language, Teaching aid for seminars and independent work, Leonova E.V., 2015
- The Art of Language Making, From the Extinct Language of the Upper Classes to the Speech of Bloodthirsty Nomad Warriors, Peterson D.D., 2018
n1.doc
Typological passport "German"
The composition of the phonemic inventory.
Monophthongs: 16 long and short
Front vowels (Vokale der vorderen Reihe): , [i], , [y], , , , , , [a]
Middle vowels (Vokale der mittleren Reihe):
Back vowels (Vokale der hinteren Reihe): , [u], , , [a:]
ranks: front, middle, rear (vordere, mittlere, hintere Reihe)
Climbing: high, medium, low (hohe, mittlere, tiefe Zungehebung)
Diphthongs: 3 descending diphthongs , ,
Consonants: 24 and 3 affricates: p, b, t, d, k, g, f, v, s, z, j, x, h, m, n, l, r, R,
The structure of the phonemic inventory.
Correlation:(mutual dependence, correlation of two or more language units) deafness / voicedness (d-t, b-p, g-k, z-s); longitude/shortness; aspiration (passively developing); correlation of consonants by hardness-softness: no
Neutralization: deafness / sonority; the presence of historical alternations
Neutralization example: stunning voiced consonants b, d, g at the end of a word: Tag, und
stress: dynamic, as a rule, is assigned to the 1st root syllable (free, mobile). In German, there are three degrees of word stress: main, secondary and zero.
Syllable structure: The top of the syllable is a vowel, no more than 4 consonants in preposition and up to 5 in postposition. Dominant syllable types:
open/closed syllable
Intonation: ascending, descending and even tones
2/ schwebende Kadenz (progrediente Melodie): mit dem Tonbangerät…
3/ steigende Kadenz (interrogative Melodie): mit dem Tonbandgerät?
The composition of grammatical categories.
Collocations:
b) object - management; one-bivalent; postposition prevails.
Offer: a fixed word order (certain places are assigned to a verb in a personal form in different sentence schemes: In a simple declarative and interrogative word, the verb is in second place, and the nominal forms of the verb are usually the last. In a general interrogative sentence, the first place is occupied by the finite form of the verb. For The German subordinate clause is characterized by a special word order according to the model "conjunction - subject and secondary members of the sentence - predicate" .
)
Word structure: typologically significant - two-morphemic, three-morphemic. Polymorphemic - numbers, compound words.
Vocabulary structure:
Word formation:
The main way of connecting morphemes is a connecting morpheme (and without it): the presence of a fusion in morphemic sutures; two-component; preposition of the complementary morpheme in relation to the main one, the presence of no more than two word-producing morphemes.
General conclusion:
Typological passport Russian
and English languages.
COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE PHONEM INVENTORY OF LANGUAGES.
Russian language
English language
VOICE PHONEMS
Based on the row:
Front [and], [e];
Middle [s];
Back [a], [y], [o].
On the basis of the rise:
Upper [and], [y];
Middle [e], [o];
Lower [a], [uh ].
Oppositions on the basis of a series:
[and - y] fork - mug
[s - y] chicken - storm
[e - o] roll - globe
[and - s] bottom - dust
[o - a] cat - head of cabbage
[e - a] tripod - vase
[and - e] fox - honey
[u - e] cloud - chalk
[y - o] steep - hammer
[y - a] hillock - stone
VOICE PHONEMS
Monophthongs:
Based on the row:
Front, [e], [æ]
Medium retracted [i]
Middle [ə], [ɜ:]
Rear [ɒ], [ɔ:],
Back advanced, [ʌ], [ʊ]
On the basis of the rise:
High vowels are narrow,
High vowels are wide [i], [ʊ]
Mid-rise vowels are narrow [e], [ɜ:]
- wide mid vowels [ə]
Low vowels are narrow [ʌ], [ɔ:]
- wide low vowels [æ], , [ɒ]
Oppositions on the basis of a series:
[ i: - u:] fleet – brute
Bit-book
Net-turn
[æ - a:] camel-part
Dance-pot
[ʌ - ɔ:] bug - storm
Diphthongs are not represented in Russian.
Oppositions on the basis of the rise:
1. Within the same lift:
Creep-pill
Shrewd
[ɜ: - ə] curtain-cabal
[ɔ: - ɒ] walk-pot
2. Within different climbs:
[ i:- æ] - seed – bat;
[ʊ - ʌ] - look - stuck;
Neat - net;
Bill-dell;
[ʊ - a:] - nook - tart;
Fool-fall;
Soup - sop.
diphthongs:
[ɛə] hair
[ɪə] fear
[ʊə] poor
Kite
[ɔɪ] join
[əʊ] hope
house
Same
triphthongs:
fire; tower; pure
CONSONANT PHONEMS
CONSISTENT PHONEMS
35 phonemes
Classes :
Explosives: [p, p", t, t", k, k"; b, b", d, d", d, d"]
Slotted: [f, f", s, s", w, x, x", c, c", z, z", w]
Affricates: [h, c]
Sonorants: [m, m", n, n", p, p", l, l", th]
Long consonants: [zh":, sh":]
[p - b]: path - be;
[f - c]: background - out;
[p "- b"]: drink - beat;
[t - d]: volume - house;
[s - h]: cathedral - fence;
[t "- d"]: shadow - day;
[s "- z"]: sowing - pharynx;
[k - d]: count - goal;
[x - k]: move - code.
4 consonants [x, x "c, h] do not have correlating pairs.
Correlating pairs by palatality/non-palatality:
[b - b "]: was - beat;
[p - p "]: ardor - drank;
[in - in "]: howl - twist;
[f - f "]: blood - blood;
[m - m "]: mother - knead;
[n - n "]: nose - carried;
[t - t "]: cleans - clean;
[s - s "]: weight - the whole;
[l - l "]: bow - hatch;
: glad – row.
24 phonemes
Classes :
Explosives: [p, t, k; b, d, g]
slotted: [f, θ , s, ʃ; w, v, ð, z, ʒ, h]
Affricates: [dʒ, tʃ]
Sonorants: [m, n, r, I, j, rj]
Long consonants: absent.
Correlating pairs for voicedness / deafness:
: pill - bill;
: team-deem;
: coat-goat;
: fat-vat;
[ s – z]: seal – zeal;
[ tʃ – dʒ]: rich – ridge.
Correlating pairs of palatality/non-palatality are absent.
stress
1. Lack of power stress (with a quantitative component)
2. The presence of a force impact (with a high-altitude component)
3. Russian stress is mobile, that is, it can move in a word from one syllable to another (the word is a dictionary).
4. The main thing. The auxiliary is rare, only in polysyllabic words formed from two or more stems.
1. Presence of power stress (with a quantitative component)
2. Absence of force impact (with high-altitude component)
3. English stress can be considered typologically constant, or fixed, since the vast majority of English disyllabic and trisyllabic words have stress on the initial syllable (free – freedom).
4. Main, auxiliary. Existdistinctly pronounced secondary stress in words with more than four syllables, in which the main stress falls on the second or third syllable from the end.
accent functions.
Stress serves as a means of distinguishing both individual lexemes, for example, flour - flour, castle - castle, and individual word forms of one lexeme, for example, distinguishing between plural forms of the nominative case and singular forms of the genitive case of feminine and neuter nouns; cf .: winters - winters.
Performs a descriptive function:ob` ject –` object.
The structure of the syllable.
1. A fully open syllable, that is, a syllable that contains only one vowel (monophthong or diphthong), that isV: and (conjunction), o (preposition);
2. A fully closed syllable, that is, a syllable that includes an initial and final consonant, that isCVC: garden, house, cat;
3. Covered syllable, that is, a syllable that contains one initial consonant and vowel, that isCV: on, before, then;
4. A closed syllable, that is, a syllable that includes a vowel and a final consonant, that isVC: from, im.
The top of a syllable is formed only with the help of a vowel.
In preposition to the top of the syllable up to 4 consonants, in postposition up to 4 consonants.
1.Fully open syllable (eye [ ai], ear – [ɪə], are[a:])
2. Completely closed syllable (hat, top, look)
3. Coveredsyllable(day, know, far)
4. Closedsyllable(is , ice , arm ).
A vowel or syllabic consonant can form the top of a syllable.
In preposition up to 3 consonants, in postposition up to 6 consonants.
Intonation.
The types of syntagmas with decreasing scale are divided into:
1)Syntagma subtype with descending completion:
a. Declarative sentences (The cat walked right in front of the dog.)
b. Incentives (Pass me the salt, please.)
in. Exclamatory (What a sunny morning!)
d. Interrogative (Where could she go?)
2) A subtype of syntagmas with a descending tone and an ascending completion:
Incomplete sentences preceding another sentence, including subordinate clauses preceding the main sentence. (Gregory said that he would not be able to come on time.)
Introductory sentences following direct speech, which has an intonation design with a falling ending. (You write how you will get settled, how they will meet you, - Petrov admonished him.
Syntagma types with ascending scale
1)Syntagma subtype with ascending completion:
a. Interrogative sentences without interrogative words (Are you satisfied?)
b. Interrogative sentences beginning with is. (Didn't Zhenya go to school today?)
in. Incomplete interrogative sentences without a predicate, beginning with the union a. (And you?)
2)Syntagma subtype with descending completion
a. Interrogative sentences beginning with the word is, in which the center of the statement is followed by circumstances (Do you look like that man?)
b. Interrogative sentences with particles really and whether. (Are you still undecided?)
in. Interrogative sentences with predicate inversion (Did you watch the news last night?)
d. Alternative questions with the conjunction or. (Will you have tea or coffee?)
E. Listing sentences (We bought fish, vegetables and various sweets).
Syntagma type with flat scale
a. Answering interrogative sentences repeating the question (What does he want for breakfast? What does he want for breakfast?)
b. Sentences with introductory words (However, hello.)
in. Suggestions when reading poetry
Types of syntagmas with decreasing scale:
1)Syntagma subtype with descending completion
a. declarative sentences (JohnlovesJane.)
b. Incentives(Pass me the bowl with salad, please.)
in. exclamatory(What a wonderful life!)
d. Interrogative sentences beginning with question words (When did youcomebackhome?)
2) A subtype of syntagmas with a descending tone and an ascending completion
a. Incomplete sentences preceding another sentence, including subordinate clauses preceding the main clause(Marcus told us he was in depression for a month.)
b. Generalquestions(Do you like me?)
3) A subtype of syntagmas with a descending scale and a smooth ending:
Introductory sentences following direct speech, which has an intonation design with a falling ending (“Heisabsolutelyright”, said Johnwithafondsmile.)
There are no types of ascending scale syntagmas
There is no type of syntagma with an even scale
TYPOLOGY OF MORPHOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
GRAMMATIC CATEGORIES
Singular and plural forms.
There is widespread agreement in number.
The singular number is formed with the help of materially expressed morphemes:
For masculine nouns -th (land, barn, stream);
For feminine nouns -а, -я (gate, pig)
For neuter nouns -o, -e, -mya (milk, spear, flame);
Also zero morphemes (for most masculine nouns, for example, city, house, beast, and some part of the feminine - door, branch, etc.).
The singular number is expressed in morphemes of case word forms, where they are included together with case and gender semes.
In Russian, the plural is expressed:
Morphemes -s, -and for masculine and feminine nouns (bridges, nuts, pictures, songs, etc.); -morpheme -a, -a for masculine and neuter nouns (cities, houses, rings, clouds, etc.).
Nouns that are used only in the plural:
Collective nouns: foliage, young growth;
Real nouns: sugar, milk, honey, steel
Abstract or abstract nouns: love, walking, blue, kindness;
proper names;
Nouns that are used only in the singular: blind man's buff, chess, frost, twilight, scissors, trousers, glasses, etc.
There are two forms of number: singular and plural.
There is practically no agreement in the number.
The seme of singularity in English is represented only by a zero morpheme, for example: town, play, foot, etc.
The seme of plurality is represented by morphemes of number
S[-s] (carrot – carrots) and -[z] (bag – bags), es[-iz] (Fox – foxes) and in a limited number of nouns by alternating vowels (foot -feet, man – men, mouse – miceetc.).
Nouns used only in the singular:
Uncountable nouns: real and abstract:sugar, chalk, water, snow, air, hair.
- nouns fruit (fruit), fish (fish) are usually used in the singular, however, to refer to various types of fruits, use. plural fruits number.
- noun news; words denoting the names of games; as well as the names of sciences and sports ending in -ics, are used in the singular, although outwardly they have a plural form:news - news, news, chess - chess,physics - physics.
A group of nouns in which only the seme of plurality is represented:
- nouns denoting paired or compound items: scissors, trousers, tongs.
Some collective nouns: сlothes, riches, wages, goods, contents.
There are a number of words ending in -f or -fe that are plural. are replaced by -ves:
life - lives, wife - wives, wolf - wolvesandt. d.
Some nouns have retained the old forms of plural formation:
child - children (child - children)
ox - oxen (bull - bulls);
Some nouns have a plural form that is identical to the singular form:
cod - cod (cod)
deer - deer (deer - deer)
moose-moose (Elk – moose)
salmon - salmon.
1. The presence of 6 cases in the system of names and pronouns: nominative (cat), genitive (cats), dative (cat), accusative (cat), instrumental (cat), prepositional (about a cat).
2. Agreement in the category of case in the noun, adjective, pronouns, numerals.
3. Absence of the category of possessiveness.
4. Identification of a class of living objects using a formal expression in the accusative case.
1. According to the generally accepted point of view, there are two cases: general and possessive.
2. The absence of any agreement of nouns with other parts of speech.
3. The presence of the category of possessiveness, which has a morphological expression in the form of the morpheme "s".
4. Identification of a class of living objects with the help of a possessive suffix.
It has a formal expression in affixal morphemes.
Masculine nouns in the initial form are characterized by the presence of a zero morpheme after the final hard or soft consonant root (boy, day, rain) or a morpheme -and after the last vowel of the root (stream, swarm). Feminine semes are included in the morphemes -а, -я of the initial form or are reflected in the zero morpheme after a soft consonant root: cloud, leg, song, door, fortress.
Semes of the neuter gender are included in the morphemes -o, -e, -mya of the initial form: face, heart, stirrups, etc.
Nouns are outside the categorypluraliatantum.
Common nouns include:
1) foreign-language surnames with a vowel (Maurois, Depardieu, Savary), surnames of foreign origin with a consonant (Sagan, Knipovich), as well as Russian, Slavic surnames with -o (Nesterenko, Durnovo, Zhivago) and -y / -ih ( Borzoi, Sensitive);
2) the names of a person as belonging to some nationality (Bantu, Burundi, etc.), as well as some names of persons of different thematic groups (vis-a-vis, protégés);
3) own inflected names ending in -а/-я (Valya, Genya, Zhenya, Lera, Pasha, Sasha, etc.);
4) common declinable nouns ending in -а/-я, characterizing a person by their inclination towards something, by some character trait, etc. bully, wimp, mumbling, ignoramus, klutz, crybaby, etc.)
Animated nouns refer to women. and husband. R. Depending on gender, and can be replaced by pronouns, respectively.heorshe ( mymotherisadoctor. Sheisadoctor.)
Animal names are neuter and can be replaced by a pronounit(The cat is in the yard.Itisintheyard.)
Inanimate nouns are neuter and are replaced by pronounsit ( The bag is on the desk. It’ s on the desk.)
-For special clarification, they add: for people wordsboyandgirl (boyfriend, girlfriend); for animalsheandshe (he- wolf, tom- cat)
-Some nouns f.r. formed with the suffixess (actor – actress)
-Names of vehicles such asship, boat, carbelong to zh.r; some countries, planets.
Category of certainty/uncertainty.
It has no morphological expression and is expressed mainly lexically.
1. A particle is added to a noun that needs to be individualized;
2. Demonstrative pronouns this, this, this, these or that,
that, that, those in which in this case the seme of indicativeness is extinguished and the seme of individualization comes to the fore.
3. Indefinite pronouns some, some, some, some.
4. The numeral one, corresponding in its function to the indefinite article a (an);
5. Inverted order, when the subject of the sentence is in postposition to its predicate.
It has a grammatical character in English: it is the definite article the and the indefinite article a or an.
The article the has the following meanings:
1) selection from the class of homogeneous objects (cat – the cat);
2) the designation of an object that is one of a kind (the sun- sun);
3) indication on the specific an object(I saw the man, who is considered to be lost);
4) a generalization that makes it possible to perceive
a given object as a generalized designation of all objects of a given class (The horse is a domestic animal);
The semantic structure of the indefinite article a, an includes:
1) indicates that an object belongs to one or another class of objects (a dog - a dog (any dog);
2) the meaning of singularity, since nouns with the indefinite article a, an are always thought of in the singular.
Quality degree category (adjective)
The category of degree of comparison is present in qualitative adjectives. They have two forms: short and long.
Three degrees of quality: positive, comparative and excellent.
The comparative degree is formed in two ways: synthetic and analytical.
Synthetic method: adding to the basis of the adjective in a positive degree the morpheme -ee (s) or the morphemes -e / -she in the comparative degree and -eysh in the superlative degree: wise - wiser - wisest.
Analytical method: the addition of the words more, less in the comparative degree and most in the superlative degree.
They have the ability to agree with the noun they define in gender, number and case.
Qualitative adjectives have two forms: full and short.
The comparative degree is formed synthetically
by, that is, by adding to the basis of the adjective in a positive degree the morpheme -ee (or -ee) or unproductive morphemes -e or -she: strong - stronger, full - fuller; old - older, thin - thinner, etc. Adjectives in the form of a comparative degree do not have any agreement.
Another way of forming a comparative degree is the analytical method, in which words more or less are used before an adjective in a positive degree.
The superlative degree of adjectives is formed analytically by adding the word most to the positive form of the adjective.
Adjectives have only one category clearly represented in the vocabulary - quality adjectives: white, large, strong, etc.
They have no agreement in gender, number, or case.
There is no division of adjectives into full and short.
In English, there are two series of forms for the formation of degrees of comparison:
1) synthetic forms with morphemes -eg for comparative forms and -est for superlative forms. The synthetic way of forming degrees of comparison is used for monosyllabic and some disyllabic adjectives; cf.: strong -stronger – (the) strongest;
2) analytical forms formed by the words more and most, added to the invariable forms of a positive degree: intelligent -more intelligent - (the) most intelligent.
Special forms education: good - better - the best, bad - worse - the worst, little - less - least, much / many - more - the most.
Sight category (verb)
There are two types: imperfect and perfect.
The imperfect aspect expresses an action in progress without any restrictions (sleep, walk, read).
The perfective expresses an action that is limited by some limit, or reports the result of this action (sleep, go, read).
the presence of correlative pairs of verbs that form correlative series of forms that permeate the entire system of verb forms with the identity of their lexical meaning.
Species values are expressed using the following morphological means:
1. Suffixes -s-, -iv-, -ov, -ev- with alternating vowels or consonants, added to the verb stem (open - open);
2. Suffix -nu-, added to the verb stem; perfective verbs are formed from imperfective verbs (swing - swing);
3. Prefixes from-, to-, for-, o-, to-, from- and some others (read - read out);
4. Changing the vowels of the root, in some cases accompanied by an alternation of vowels in the verb stem (imagine - imagine);
5. Changing the place of stress with the same phonemic composition of the word (cut - cut - cut).
Unlike Old English, modern English has lost the aspect category.
The disappeared category of species was replaced by a complex system of temporary forms.
Time category.
The category of verb tense is closely related to the category of aspect. Ness verbs. kind to express. incl. have three forms of time - present, past and future complex (I build, I built, I will build); owl verbs. species have two forms of time - past and future simple (built, build). The morphological category of time is not characteristic of all forms of the verb. Of the conjugated forms, only the forms express will have this category. incl. Command. and exiled. incl. no form of time. Outside of the conjugated forms of the verb, participles have the category of time.
The basis of the tense category of the verb is forms of time within the indicative mood. The morphological category of time is built on the basis of the opposition of the following series of forms:
1) present tense forms; a number of forms temp. represented only by the forms of the verbs nes. type (leading, leading, leading, leading, leading, leading);
2) forms of the past tense a) verbs nes. type (led, led, led, led) and b) verbs of owls. type (closed, closed, closed, closed);
3) forms of the future tense: the future of the complex verbs nes. type (I will lead, you will lead, will lead, we will lead, you will lead, will lead) and the future simple verbs of owls. type (I will close, close, close, close, close, close), as well as Ch. to be (I will, will be, will be, will be, will be, will be).
Thus, in the indicated series of forms, four tenses of the verb are distinguished:
1) present forms. vr.,
2) past forms. temp. (non-noun and owl verbs),
3) forms of the future complex;
4) forms of the future simple.
Forms of the present tense are formed by attaching endings that are indicators of a person and a number to the basis of present. temp. nesov verbs. kind.
The forms of the future simple and the future complex differ significantly from each other in terms of formal expression. Forms like I will write, I will do are called forms of the future tense (future simple) according to their main meaning; according to the type of their education, they are forms of crust. temp. owl verbs. kind.
The forms of the future complex are characteristic of the verbs nes. kind. These are analytic forms. They are formed using the auxiliary verb to be in the personal form of the future simple (I will, will, will, will, will, will) and the infinitive (I will write, you will think, will consider). The auxiliary verb in the analytical form serves as a special indicator of the future tense (in addition, the personal endings of this verb indicate person and number).
Forms of the past tense are formed by means of suf. l, which is attached to the stem of the infinitive - past. vr .: played, caught, swam, nodded.
According to the point of view presented by a number of scientists, the system of tense forms of modern English consists of two correlative series of tense forms - from absolute tense forms, which include the forms of the Indefinite group, and relative tense forms, which include the tenses of the perfect group
and lengthy. Species meanings, without forming, according to this point of view, a morphologically expressed category, seem to be superimposed on temporal meanings.
Collateral category.
Only transitive verbs have a voice category.
In total, there are three pledges in Russian:
1. Active voice, expressed by certain syntactic structures, covering transitive verbs denoting an action aimed at a direct object, expressed in the form of the accusative case without a preposition (The commission is considering projects. The lamp illuminates the room.);
2. The reciprocal-middle voice, the morphological indicator of which is the affix -sya, added to the stem of the transitive verb. This includes: a) verbs of proper reflexive meaning (dress, make up), b) verbs of reciprocal meaning (hug), c) verbs of general reflexive meaning (stop);
3. Passive voice, the morphological indicators of which are the affix -sya, attached to verbs of the active voice, or forms of passive participles formed from transitive verbs using the suffixes -m-, -n- (-nn-), -t- in combination with personal forms of the verb to be (Projects are considered by the commission; The room is lit by a lamp.).
Most often uses the form of active voice
with a direct object in the accusative case in front of the predicate.
The category of the voice is represented by the real or active voice (Kate has knitted this sweater herself.), which exists in the forms of the indicative and its constituent forms of time and is associated with a direct or prepositional object, and a passive or passive voice, expressed by analytical forms, consisting of forms verb to be and participlesIIconjugated verb, i.e. +Vpt2(This building will be demolished next month.).
English preferred to use
passive forms in sentences where a person or object in the function of the subject experiences someone else's influence.
Category of modality.
The category is represented by grammatical means of the mood form:
- indicative mood is expressed by a special set of personal-numeric indicators. For example, in the form leaves (he leaves in an hour), the ending -it expresses the following meanings: indicative mood, present tense, 3rd person, singular;
- the subjunctive mood is formed from the past tense with the particle would (b): would have left (he would have left if he had been released); is timeless in nature, that is, it can express an action both in the present and in the past and in the future;
- the imperative mood is expressed using indicators of the 2nd person, which are attached to the basis of the presence: -i (te) (leaving-and / leaving-and-te) or -Ø (te) (drink-Ø / drink-Ø-te ).
Also lexical:
modal words (maybe, probably, probably, it seems, apparently)
modal verbs (to be able, to be able, to want, to desire)
-modal particles (perhaps, hardly, perhaps).
The modality of invalidity is represented by the following forms:
- subjunctive I (has a timeless character, does not express either the category of person or the category of number)
- subjunctiveII(has seme of unreality + seme "present" and seme "future")
- presumptive (has the seme "assumption", structure like should + Vinf, does not have gr. categories, corresponds to the form of the subjunctive mood in Russian)
-conditional
face category.
The category of a person is expressed by personal forms of the verb - a special form for each person in the present tense of the imperfective form, in the present-future tense of the indicative mood and in the form of the imperative mood: -i (-i, soft consonant), -te.
Unit hours Mn. h.
1st l. -yu (-y) 1st i.-eat (-eat, -im)
2nd l. -eat (-eat, -eesh) 2nd l.-eat (-ete, -ite)
3rd l. -et (-et, -it) 3rd l. -yut (-ut, -at, -yat)
In the past tense of the imperfect and perfect form and in the subjunctive mood, the category of a person is not expressed by personal forms.
The typological characteristic of the category expression is the personal endings of the verb.
In English, there are two ways of morphologically expressing the category of a person:
1) using the morpheme -es (-s) in the 3rd person
the only numbers affirmative forms present general time(he goes to school in the morning; she comes home late; John takes English lessons);
2) using auxiliary verbs have (has)
for dischargePerfect; am (is, are) for dischargeContinuous; do (does) for the interrogative and negative forms of the Indefinite discharge.
The typological characteristic of the category expression is auxiliary verbs and the absence of personal endings.
TYPOLOGY OF SYNTAX SYSTEMS
Phrase.
Developed spelling system. Adjectives agree with nouns in gender, number and case.
Determining the type of relationship - negotiation
attribute phrases.
Attributive-prepositional type with agreement, structure (A + K) (A - dependent component, K - core)
Subtype with agreement in three categories - gender, number, case.
1) Adjective-nominal group (broad band, wide bands, wide bands)
2) Pronominal-nominal group (Katya's pen, my glass, their books)
3) Numerical-nominal group (first page, first emotions, first words).
4) A participle-nominal group (a walking woman).
Attributive-prepositive type with control, structure Anc +Kn
1) Belonging to a person (my sister's husband). (Uncharacteristic for the Russian language)
2) The length of time and its filling (five-minute change).
Attributive-prepositive type with adjunction, A+K structure.
Nominal subtype (crystal vase)
Adjective (very interesting)
Verbal
Attributive-prepositive type with postposition and control, structure (К+pr+A)
-Prepositional-genetic subtype (silver ring)
-Prepositional-dative subtype (passion for drawing)
-Prepositional accusative subtype (air ticket)
-Prepositional-active subtype (discussion between the parties)
- Substantive-prepositional subtype (legends about gods)
-adjective-prepositional subtype (strong with math)
Object phrases.
Type object-postpositive with control (K+A(C))
- Subtype with direct object control (win favor)
- Subtype with indirect object control (show brother)
Object-postpositive type with adjacency, i.e. with K+A structure
-Subtype with object valence (send a parcel)
-Subtype with predicative valence (start running)
Object-prepositional type with control
-Subtype with single case control (forget the interview)
-Subtype with prepositional control of two cases (to lie on the couch)
-Subtype with prepositional control of three cases (to return from the event)
Object-prepositional type with adjunction
- Nominal subtype (to look after the child)
-Pronominal subtype (stare at it)
-Gerundial subtype (prevent closure)
Complex type, object-postpositive with control and double object valence
-Subtype with dative control (remove him from office)
Type complex, object-postpositive with adjunction and double object valence
- Subtype with a direct object relationship of the first component (the people elected him president)
-Subtype with indirect object link of the first dependent component and direct object link of the second component (it shows pictures to the son)
- A subtype with a prepositional connection of both components (the son asked his father for permission)
The type is complex, object-postpositive with control and object and predicative valency
-Subtype with a direct object - a noun or personal pronoun expressed in the accusative case (ask a friend to borrow something)
- A subtype with an indirect object - a noun or a pronoun in the form of a dative case (forbid neighbors to make noise at night)
-Subtype with object - personal pronoun in the form of the object case (he wants his son to come to him)
Type complex object-postpositive with adjunction and object predicative valency (think what will happen)
There is no agreement between adjectives in gender and case, so case and gender are not represented in English, and agreement in number is limited.
The defining type of connection is adjacency.
Types - attribute and object.
Attributive-prepositional type with agreement, that is, with the structure (A + K) (A - dependent component, K - stubble)
Subtype with agreement in three categories - gender, number, case
1) Adjective-nominal group (tiney dog, tiny dogs)
2) The pronominal-nominal group (Jack’ s desk)
3) Numerical-nominal group (second try)
4) A participial nominal group (being hectic)
The type is attributive-prepositive with control, that is, with the structure Anc + Kn
1) Belonging to a person (his brother’ s cousin)
2) The time interval and its filling (a ten hours’ s trip)
The type is attributive-prepositive with adjunction, that is, with the structure A+K
Nominal subtype (cut glass vase)
adjective (dark night)
Verbal
Attributive-prepositional type with postposition and control, i.e. with structure (К+pr+A)
Prepositional-genetic subtype - attributive-prepositional with postposition of control
Attributive prepositional type with postposition and adjunction K(n)+pr+A(n)
-substantive-prepositional subtype (legends about gods)
-adjective-prepositional subtype (rich in stories)
OFFER.
-Free word order
- One-part and two-part sentences, two-part sentences prevail
-Genetic word order No+Ngen
-Fixed word order
- One-part and two-part sentences, two-part sentences prevail.
-Genetic word order Ngen+No
- The predicate takes second place in affirmative sentences
Structural-semantic types of the subject.
-Subtype with a consistent subject (the vase broke)
-Subtype with inconsistent subject (with infinitive)
Single-component subject type
-Subtype with a consistent subject (familyadores)
-Subtype with inconsistent subject (with infinitive, ordinal numbers, gerund)
Two-component subject type (This is enough)
Structural-semantic types of the predicate.
-Subtype with a concordant predicate (we're looking)
-Nominal predicate subtype (she works as a salesperson)
- Subtype "complex predicate" (Dasha likes to read)
Type of one-component predicate
-Subtype with a concordant predicate (Mary works, we do)
- Subtype with inconsistent predicate(I can, she can, they can, we can)
Type of two-component predicate
-Subtype "nominal predicate" (she is a woman of taste)
- Subtype « complex predicate» (My sister can dance)
Structural-semantic types of circumstances.
Type of one-component circumstances (morning, evening, with irritation)
Type of two-component circumstances (whole day).
Type of one-component circumstances (with love)
Type of two-component circumstances (each day).
Typology of proposals.
Type of two-part sentences
-Subtype verb sentences (small woman)
-Subtype of nominal sentences (our mother is thirty years old)
Types of one-part sentences
-Verb subtype (What you sow is what you reap)
- Nominal subtype (Frost and sun; wonderful day! You are still dozing, my lovely friend ....)
Type two-part proposals
- Subtype verbal suggestions(the young painters earned only a few shillings occasionally)
- Subtype registered proposals(The weather was fine and we decided to go to the beach.)
Types single-component proposals
- Verbal subtype(This picture is painted by my brother.)
- Nominal subtype(It's Monday.)
TYPOLOGY OF LEXICAL SYSTEMS.
Vocabulary structure.
Developed system of prepositions.
Lexical categories are represented by affixation. An unexpressed system of linking verbs.
Developed system of prepositions. The almost complete absence of lexical categories. No possessive adjectives. Developed system of linking verbs.
Word structure.
More synthetic language. Derivation is common. Suffixing is more important than prefixing. The predominance of two-morphism.
Not a pronounced derivation. The suffix is more important than the prefix. Developed vocabulary. Monomorphism prevails.