The term "technology" (from the Greek "techne" - art, skill, ability; "logos" - concept, knowledge) came into politics from production. This term refers to the directed impact of a person on material objects in order to change their properties, to impart the qualities necessary for people. Technological knowledge focused a person not on explaining the events and phenomena that are taking place, but on substantiating the ways and methods of achieving the set goals.

The term “political technologies” is one of the newest in political science. The relevance of these technologies has increased significantly with the appearance of a “political person” in the historical arena as a result of the development of democratic processes, turning him into an active participant in political changes in society.

Political technologies - a set of techniques, methods, methods, procedures used by political actors to achieve political goals, to solve political management problems.

People are always the main object of influence in the political technological process. It is they who create parties, hold rallies and strikes, vote for candidates, reproduce or destroy political and economic systems. The achievement of political goals depends on people. Respectively, political technologies- these are ways, methods of influencing people in order to change their political behavior.

Political technologies, based on a theoretical analysis of the interaction of political subjects, contain methodological guidelines and guidelines effective solution political problems and achieving certain political goals.

The processes of democratization in the 20th century led to a decrease in the share of violence, the forceful solution of problems in the sphere of political administration. The shift in emphasis in the ways of achieving political goals occurred due to the fact that the values ​​and principles of the rule of law, ideological and political pluralism, and restrictions on the actions of higher state officials law, proclaiming the inviolability of the rights and freedoms of the individual, etc. Thus, political technologies- these are such ways of influencing people in order to change their political behavior, which exclude the use of direct coercion and physical violence.

The essence of political technologies can be revealed only through the system of identifying and using the potential public system- "human resource" in accordance with the goals and meaning of human existence. This is realized through a set of methods, procedures, operations, methods of influence, all modern possibilities creative activity of both subjects of management and political institutions in general.

The purpose of political technologies is to optimize the fulfillment by political subjects of their tasks and duties through rational means, arranging the sequence of actions, and developing an appropriate algorithm of behavior.

In general, political technologies act in two forms: 1) as a structural element of any system, a technologically designed software product; 2) as an activity related to the implementation of the intended goal.

The functioning of new political technologies is always associated with the need to optimize political management, quickly and efficiently replicate special techniques and procedures. Of particular importance for these technologies is the presence of conditions for their implementation: elements of the structure of the political process, structural features and patterns of their functioning; the ability to formalize real phenomena and present them in the form of indicators, operations and procedures.

All the variety of political technological methods can be reduced to three types:

1) techniques that ensure a directed change in the rules of interaction between participants in the political process, including by changing the normative, institutional order. By adopting new laws, changing the rules of the game, it is possible to achieve a change in the behavior of people in society. True, apart from the state, other subjects of politics do not have the right to rule-making, so we can say that this actively used technique in the public administration system has its own limitations in those political processes where non-governmental organizations and groups (institutions and civil society organizations) are the main acting forces. ;

2) techniques that ensure the introduction of new ideas, values ​​into the mass consciousness, the formation of new attitudes, beliefs.

3) techniques to manipulate people's behavior.

To the greatest extent, new political technologies are associated with the manipulation of people's consciousness and behavior. Manipulation (from French manipulation) in literal translation is hidden hand movements that actuate a device. In politics, manipulation means special kind impact, when the manipulator induces a person to actions that he did not intend to carry out in this moment. Manipulation differs from forceful, imperious influence in that there is no direct instruction, an order what to do, and the following open coercion, or the threat of sanctions. In the course of manipulative influence, a person does not feel external coercion, it seems to him that he himself makes a decision and chooses the form of his behavior.

The American scientist R. Goodin formulated and described two fundamental models of manipulation - “rational” and “psychological”. The first of these is characterized by the use of lies, deceit and secrecy. A common feature of these methods is either the complete or partial concealment of information that may affect decision-making, or its distortion. The second, “psychological” model is characterized by the use of unconscious reactions of the individual, which are “provoked” by specially modeled behavior. For example, at a certain attractive moment in his speech, the candidate reinforces his speech with a memorable gesture. In the future, the gesture is repeated, causing positive experiences and reactions in the audience.

AT modern world theory and practice of political manipulation received a fairly deep scientific development and practical application. The general technology of global, nationwide manipulation is usually based on the systematic introduction into the mass consciousness socio-political myths- illusory ideas that affirm certain values ​​and norms that are perceived by the objects of manipulation mainly on faith, without critical reflection (for example, the political myth of "American exceptionalism").

A myth is a generalized idea of ​​reality, combining both moral and aesthetic attitudes, connecting reality with mysticism. That is, it is always a representation that is largely illusory, but due to its ethical and artistic appeal, it has a great impact on the mass consciousness.

According to the Russian political scientist Sergei Kara-Murza: “Myths, which carry an important irrational ... component, become part of the tradition and play an important role in legitimizing the social system in ideocratic states.” However, the myth modern society has not lost its significance as an important form of social consciousness and representation of reality.

In situations of social instability and uncertainty, classical political technologies (specify which ones) do not bring the expected result. Yes, in modern Russia The largest number of votes is collected not by those political leaders who better understand social problems, but by those who better understand the electorate, take into account the multidimensional spectrum of interests, moods and expectations. Success comes not to those political leaders who seek to understand the current political situation, but to those who promise a lot, demonstrating their efficiency and thriftiness, while playing paternalism and “social concern”.

Those politicians whose rhetoric is intertextual and whose language is metaphorical, with elements of visibility and self-evidence, also gain an advantage. Using concepts - images in the political lexicon, mixing myths and reality, present, past and future in the political text, addressing political relations, politicians achieve great success in their claims to power.

To root socio-political myths, the technology of manipulation involves the use of a rich arsenal of specific methods of influencing consciousness of people. Manipulation methods include:

Reducing the amount of information available to an ordinary citizen;

Use of propaganda (providing citizens with partly correct, but tendentious information);

Use of secrecy (deliberate concealment of information that is capable of undermining the official political course - to show - whom, whose course);

Information overload (conscious presentation of excessive information in order to deprive an ordinary citizen of the opportunity to adequately assimilate and correctly evaluate it);

Labeling (to reject and compromise persons or ideas by listeners without evidence, an unseemly definition is given, for example, “imperialist”, “fascist”, etc.).

Along with the methods described above, a number of other methods are also used. These can be the so-called "linguistic traps" - the imposition of the necessary assessments of events through their comparison with certain values. Opposite to this is another method of “linguistic deprivation”, which consists in the exclusion of certain concepts and terms from the political lexicon (according to the principle: no term - no problem). Widely used in political practice is such a method of manipulating consciousness as a political nomination - a targeted choice of terms, concepts and expressions that can produce the desired impression. (“We are slaves of words,” said K. Marx, and then F. Nietzsche literally repeated it.).

Manipulation is widely used not only in totalitarian and authoritarian states, where it is often the dominant type of political technology, but also in modern Western democracies, especially in party propaganda and during election campaigns. Today, not a single presidential or parliamentary election campaign in the countries of the West, as well as in Russia and other states, is complete without the use of manipulation techniques that create among the population ideas about a certain policy that are very far from reality.

Types of political technologies

Essence and distinctive features political technologies

Real political processes in any complex society and state are extremely diverse. On the one hand, they can be viewed as a manifestation of a specific public sphere that has social boundaries, internal and external interdependencies, a set of actors, hallmarks etc. On the other hand, these power relationships can be represented as a set of specific problems that require solutions by the state and other political actors, their implementation of appropriate targeted actions, and the use of specific means and resources. But then the situation changes significantly: all macrosocial intergroup relations in the sphere of power are transformed into the interdependence of individual structures and institutions, into specific actions and feelings of actors, committed in a certain place and in real time. Thus, intergroup competition in the sphere of power appears as practical ways and procedures for managing, making decisions, resolving conflicts, establishing communications and other processes that reveal a different level of political dependencies and connections. In this sense, the processes of exercising power and managing society will be guided by factors that fix the complex interweaving of the most diverse - psychological, material and other - phenomena that really affect the course of events.

Thus, the solution of a specific problem means not so much a person's understanding of the goals and means of achieving them, but the development of specific ways to put them into practice, i.e. application of certain technologies to solve the problem. In general, a technological solution to a problem does not mean understanding WHAT it is, but HOW to defuse a specific situation. That is why technology reveals new meaning and essence of power. Technologies in a new way pose the problem of measuring political events, lay the foundation for specialized activities to regulate (control) political phenomena. Forming a special perspective of understanding political processes, technologies show that the essence of this phenomenon can radically depend on the methods used to solve a particular problem. For example, mass slander, dissemination of disinformation, refusal to provide television airtime to representatives of certain parties can turn the process of forming government bodies from the free choice of their representatives by citizens into imposing on them the interests and will of circles that control the media.

So, we can say that political technologies are a set of consistently applied procedures, techniques and methods of activity aimed at the most optimal and effective implementation of the goals and objectives of a particular subject at a certain time and in a certain place. In general, as a set of certain knowledge and skills that provide the subject with solutions to specific problems in the sphere of power, political technologies are also referred to as political technologies. marketing.

As a rule, the need for the formation of political technologies manifests itself where and when there are repeated, sometimes even stereotyped actions, and at the same time there are quite specific requirements for the conditions and results of this type of activity. More specifically, the reasons for their appearance can be attributed:

The need for a more rational, simple and effective way to implement the practical goals facing the various participants in the process of applying political power and government;

Reducing the unpredictability of interactions in the sphere of power, the spasmodic nature of the processes of redistribution of state resources, unfolding in an unpredictable development of the situation, fraught with unexpected explosive forms of protest social activity and other force majeure circumstances;

The need to apply cost-effective and resource-saving methods of managing state (corporate) property, personnel and technical structures;

The need to give stability to the relationship of participants in a particular process, accelerating the training of personnel in advanced methods of action and, ultimately, expanding the ability to achieve goals by a large number of subjects in different, but similar conditions;

The need to manage the object of human claims;

The possibility of a clearer definition of critical, threshold values ​​of a particular process, beyond which the subjects lose the opportunity to carry out effective and efficient actions to manage the situation.

In other words, the main pathos of applying political technologies lies in optimizing the fulfillment by various subjects of their tasks and responsibilities. Technologies are functionally aimed at achieving goals in accordance with the interests, functions and goals of subjects, which may consist in attracting and saving resources, stabilizing or destabilizing the situation in the state, organizing election campaigns, prompt information support for decision-making, coordinating interests in the development government programs etc.

Political technologies as a set of methods and procedures for purposeful activity not only streamline the means of achieving the goal, but also fix sequence of actions appropriate subject behavior algorithms. It is the algorithms that single out and consolidate the most optimal and effective ways to solve a particular problem, and also make it possible to transfer and replicate the acquired experience.

In fact, the algorithms are a certain "dry residue" of the target activity of the subject, the result of rationalization, simplification and standardization of the methods and procedures used by him. In practice, technologies crystallize out of a diverse number of ways and mechanisms of relationships between subjects and objects, interactions of contractors, external and internal factors. In other words, the technology is established only when, in the process of achieving the goal, a known sequence of operations is formed (and fixed in a certain way), fixing the sequence of applying certain techniques and means to achieve a specific goal.

Therefore, technologies cannot be mixed with separate mechanisms, techniques or methods of interaction. Technology is both the process of applying techniques aimed at achieving a specific goal by a really acting subject, and result this activity. More precisely, technology is the result of a certain interaction of these methods of activity, which appears when repeated actions to achieve the goal have demonstrated more optimal and economical ways resolving the issue.

Of course, some types of purposeful human activity, due to their complexity, can be technologized not entirely and completely, but only at certain points in the process of achieving the goal. That is, in the process of activity, the subject can use only local technologies that can only partially rationalize and streamline certain areas of interaction. For example, in the field of political decision-making, where, as a rule, poorly structured tasks are solved and where, therefore, there is a large specific gravity unforeseen circumstances, political technologies usually represent a set of actions serving mainly only separate phases of development and implementation of goals (for example, coordination of actions of legislative and executive authorities). In general, they are not able to rationalize and optimize this process.

Consequently, political technologies can operate in the mode of complete completion of the cycle of implementation of a particular process, or they can be associated with the optimization of only its individual phases and stages. Even more complex complexes of power-administrative relationships (for example, relations within informal, shadow groups integrated into the process of government decision-making) are in principle incapable of forming technological chains even for their individual fragments.

Technologies as certain algorithms of actions are a form political engineering , conditioned both by the properties of the acting human(his knowledge, experience, attitude towards implementation, etc.), and the material (spiritual) used in his activities resources and technical components. For this reason, the formation and application of technologies, the rhythm (tempo) of their implementation are strictly related to the qualifications and competence of the subject, his practical knowledge and skills in the use of certain technical resources. As a rule, low availability of technical or human resources reduces the effectiveness of technology application. Therefore, not so much the effectiveness of application, but the very existence of political technologies directly depends on the state of the acting subject, on his ability to use the accumulated experience, to realize the available opportunities in a particular situation. Mistakes and incompetence of a subject (especially one endowed with authority and responsibility), from which no statuses and titles can save, can not only reduce the functional significance of technologies, but also completely change the direction of their actions. So the use of political technologies (primarily in the most important areas for the state and society) involves the selection of subjects in terms of qualifications, practical experience, psychological stability, ability to act in non-standard situations, etc.

The found algorithms of actions can also act as a means initiation, source of motivation for the internal mechanisms of regulation of both the political system and its individual elements. In other words, having become an element of the activity of one or another individual (group of persons), constantly engaged in decision-making, conflict resolution or the performance of other specific functions, technologies become one of the mechanisms bootstrap and self-organization this area of ​​human activity. In this sense, technologies can be more than just a list of optimal and effective action but also act as a way to strengthen control over the process of achieving goals, a form of management of this activity. And in any case, the highest criterion for the effectiveness of the application of technologies is the actual achievement of the intended result.

At the same time, evaluating the effectiveness of technologies is an extremely risky activity, because it is aimed at obtaining reliable information. about real mechanisms of power and control. Given that very important and significant resources are being redistributed in the sphere of political power, the activities of many people involved in this process (structures, institutions) are fundamentally aimed at hiding the necessary information about the adoption of relevant decisions and the technologies used. Therefore, the price of such information can be extremely high.

However, the importance of evaluating technological procedures is connected not only with the danger of control over the real processes of power. Its importance is also due to the fact that in the sphere of political power, for example, in the field of government controlled, various kinds of attempts are constantly appearing to create such ways of interaction between structures and institutions of power, which, having formal signs of technological improvement of the process (say, harmonization of sectoral interests), are actually a means of achieving completely different goals (in particular, covering private entrepreneurship of certain officials). So political technologies are often deliberately imitated, hiding behind their own external forms completely different goals and interests of actors.

Political technologies extend to the entire field of political power and public administration. Because of this, they are included both in conventional (legal) processes of the application of political power and the appropriate distribution of state resources, and in non-conventional ones, involving the use of techniques and procedures that are expressly prohibited by law or contrary to political traditions (technologies of subversive actions, terrorism or orchestrated elections, manipulation of public opinion, etc.).

Technology limited place and time of their application. A specific combination of techniques, methods and methods of activity as a certain system of this activity has its own “internal time” (I. Prigogine). But for all its certainty, fixity of actions tied to the spatio-temporal parameters of the situation, technologies also have mechanisms to overcome such dependence. And above all, this dependence is overcome due to the presence in them of the “self-tuning gene”, adaptability to the situation.

In other words, in technologies there is always a place for the creativity of the subject, improvisation, and non-standard actions. The strengthening of such an improvisational beginning serves as a kind of signal for the transition to new types of interactions with contractors, improving the structure and developing original methods of activity. At the same time, technology is the enemy of arbitrariness. They are by nature opposed to intuition and precedent as the leading means of realizing human goals. Technologies are aimed at rationalization and simplification of actions in order to achieve the goal, and that is why they are prone to certain formalization and institutionalization, normative consolidation.

Because of this, technologies have some upper limits which they should not cross, so as not to turn into a form of frank subjectivism. But they should not freeze, so as not to disrupt the compliance of the process of achieving goals with a dynamically developing situation. Rotating between these poles of formalization and subjectification, technologies are constantly in danger of degenerating either into a set of dogmas or into a continuous improvisation of subjects.

Depending on the nature and scale of the acting subject, technologies differ significantly in their parameters: resources, estimates of their effectiveness, etc. Thus, technologies designed to optimize the activities of mass political actors tend to be more intermittent and therefore less reliable. Therefore, in order to confidently manage the behavior of large social strata, to regulate the dynamics of public sentiment, etc., it is necessary to use more stringent and tough regulators, large investments, resource provision, etc. are needed.

Into the structure of political technologies, as a rule, includes the three most significant components: specific knowledge; concrete tricks, procedures and methods of action; as well as various technical and resource Components.

Principal role knowledge due to the fact that political technologies are essentially the embodiment of special forms of reflection of reality, which are aimed at finding means and ways practical solution problems arising in the sphere of power and government. In this sense, the technological level of cognition of reality is not only a form scientific and applied knowledge, but at the same time expresses an assessment of political problems from the point of view of subjects interested in their solution.

Thus, technological knowledge is a cognitive-projective, ideal-transforming activity, which includes the methods of not only ordinary, but also scientific knowledge of reality, as if synthesizing their approaches to solve problems. specific task. This gives technological knowledge its own logic of reflection and explanation of phenomena, which is not inherent in either scientific forms of reflection or ordinary approaches separately.

Unlike theory, which is not directly related to practice and mediates its relationship with it by some ideal constructions that do not exclude various interpretations of real phenomena, technological knowledge directly and quite unambiguously perceives reality, internally organizing on the basis of a reflection of reality, specific events. Technological knowledge is distinguished by the fact that it is not an ideally constructed abstraction that ... is tied to a specific three-dimensional space with a specific reference point, but works with a specific problem, a situation that exists in real time and possessing such topological (depth, width and other metric characteristics) and temporal (temporal) parameters of events that exclude the very possibility of speculative completion of ongoing events with logically derivable properties.

If scientific knowledge idealizes an event (situation), then technological knowledge specifies logical objects; if scientific knowledge is addressed to the practice-universe, then the technological display - to a separate fragment of reality, reflected by an equally specific subject. Therefore, from the point of view of the technological relation to the world, this fragment practical reality requires not logical thinking, but a practical answer. Such an answer should be formed within the framework of the fundamental limitations of a particular situation and not imply a theoretical expansion of a particular event to a class of phenomena of the same type. As a result, all the truths of technological knowledge are fundamentally mobile (relative), exclusive and unique.

Technological knowledge considers any event as a fragment of reality, which has its own logic of movement, sources of development, growth limits, etc. and suggesting the promotion of some problem that needs to be solved. Thus, the content of technological knowledge is formed on the basis of the positions of the one who reflects the event. (technologist, analyst); someone who sets specific goals for solving a problem associated with a given situation (customer), as well as the one who acts at the stage of solving the problem (executor). Consequently, each of them is able to change the content and form of technological information.

Such tripling the subject technological knowledge indicates that his entire cognitive strategy is based on the reduction of objective conditions to a subjectively interpreted situation both at the stage of diagnosis and at the stage of updating knowledge. The inclusion of the representations of these subjects in the assessment of the situation shows that there can be any number of target orientations within the framework of technological knowledge about the same problem. Therefore, specific problems can be technologically interpreted and "embedded" in a wide variety of political processes.

With the technological approach, the problem of developing such a coordinate system that can lead to an understanding of the composition, structure, form, and nature of changes in certain events (situations) comes to the fore. This implies the inclusion in the technological database of not only conclusions and assessments of a special nature (assessments of the correlation of political forces, their ideological programs, etc.), but also the information that reveals this situation from economic, domestic, environmental, and other points of view. .

Depending on the nature of the solution of practical problems, technological knowledge can take a variety of positions regarding the theoretical conclusions that have been made by academic science about this type of objects. To paraphrase O. Comte, we can say that technologies are such representations that mediate the attitude towards “knowledge” with the attitude towards “action”. Therefore, in a number of cases, the bearer of technological knowledge may, while performing his task, not pay attention to certain theoretical conclusions. Thus, the scientific and theoretical results of research can be absolutely indifferent to the solution of a specific practical problem. Moreover, the conclusions of fundamental science can be ignored even when they are objectively necessary for solving a specific problem. And such a choice can be dictated not only by the goals or peculiarities of the approach of the analyst, customer or contractor, but also by their resource capabilities, as well as other practically significant factors.

The technological assessment of the situation also forms its own sign (semantic) structures. Thus, if the language of science always assumes a strict categorical-conceptual form, although diverse, then technological knowledge is based on a much freer order of formation of semantic structures. In his analytical vocabulary, strict concepts coexist with sensual images, terms defined in the semantic meaning - with polysemantic ones. Here there are not only language forms that display complex semantic shades, but also non-specialized structures of communication (vernacular, everyday vocabulary, abbreviations of a living language, slogans, folklore, etc.). So technological knowledge is based on a more mobile language, sign structures that emphasize subjectivity, the individuality of the researcher and are oriented towards instrumental goals, empirical communication and the expansion of information about events.

Technological knowledge is ultimately the subjective basis of political engineering, which deals with political design (forecasting, planning and programming) and organization practical activities institutions of power. Therefore, the main value for technologies is not even the very knowledge of how something can be done, accomplished, but a specific skill, the skills to perform actions and achieve goals.

The content of such specific skills and abilities, which are expressed in the application of certain methods, procedures, techniques and methods of action, is directly set by specific goals or, ultimately, by the characteristics of a particular subject area of ​​policy. For example, in the field of decision-making, these can be methods of coordinating and balancing the interests of the parties in the development of certain public policy goals; within the permission international conflicts- ways to find compromises between the conflicting parties or influence them on the part of conciliating (arbitration) structures; in the information sphere of political power - methods of misinforming the public or, on the contrary, fighting against the slanderous fabrications of rivals, etc.

The use of certain techniques and procedures directly depends on the state of the actors and on the specific conditions in which the problem is solved. So, a technologist who is not familiar with modern methods of organizing and conducting election campaigns cannot apply techniques and techniques that can ensure victory for his customer in elections. In conditions of strict state control over the conduct of elections, as a rule, it is not possible to use many "black" and illegal technologies to fight competitors, etc.

Specific methods and methods of activity also directly depend on the availability of certain personnel structures, the technical equipment of actors, the availability of certain (financial, etc.) resources that affect the content of political technologies. For example, the use of technology information support public policy (especially when it comes to goals of strategic or significant commercial importance) is impossible without technical structures designed to protect state secrets; a candidate's campaign headquarters, constrained in material resources, as a rule, is forced to refuse, for example, the organization of his appearances on television or the use of other effective, but costly technologies of rivalry, which are necessary to achieve victory in the elections; the use of management technologies in times of crisis is impossible without structures that duplicate decision-making, without additional resources, a personnel reserve, etc. Thus, the presence of these components of political technologies imposes the most significant restrictions on the methods of solving problems, the application of certain methods of activity, or, on the contrary, can significantly increase the effectiveness of the latter.

Types of political technologies

Variety of political technologies. Technologies are embedded in a wide variety of processes that ensure the formation and use of political power at various levels of organization of the state and society, thus contributing to the formation of not only universal, but also typical properties of political technologies.

The most common of them - functional types of political technologies that involve the rationalization and algorithmization of the role loads of various subjects of management and power (for example, decision-making, coordination of interests, negotiation, communication with the public, etc.) and, ultimately, aimed at managing and controlling these processes . Instrumental varieties of political technologies imitate the use of techniques aimed at rationalizing specific activities, but in fact they have completely different goals and cover them up.

From the point of view of areas in which certain methods of achieving goals are applied, we can talk about the so-called subject technologies (for example, electoral, lobbying techniques, computer and information technology, negotiation techniques and procedures used in the diplomatic or military spheres, etc.). It is clear that such an approach to Evaluation of the specific properties of technologies not only makes it possible to fix the areas of power interaction that are technologized to the greatest extent (in particular, elections to government bodies) or to the least extent. In this sense, one can even state the existence of such political interactions that, in principle, cannot be subject to any technologization, such as, for example, the process of informal coordination of interests in the process of making decisions at the state level. This approach helps to see the areas of intersection of various techniques, their interchangeability in solving problems in certain areas of politics and public administration.

Closely related to this type of technology are the so-called level technologies that reflect the degree of social organization of subject areas. These include: global, connected, for example, with the solution of global problems - the protection of nature, the maintenance international security etc., continental-regional, revealing the specific actions of states, as well as international organizations and institutions for solving problems in the Middle East, European or any other region, national-state, characterizing the process of exercising power and public administration within one country, corporate, reflecting power and management relations within a separate organization, local, fixing the specifics of the activities of the relations of subjects in limited points of the political space, as well as interpersonal.

From the point of view of the nature of the duration of the use of certain methods of activity, it makes sense to single out the following technologies: strategic, aimed at the long-term result of the actors' activities; tactical, involving the implementation of short-term goals; sporadic, applied at the same time, and cyclic, constantly reproducing in the structure of the subject's activity.

Taking into account the focus of technologies on expanding the range of subjects capable of applying the established algorithms of activity in solving the same type of problems, we can talk about replicated, i.e. designed for widespread use in similar conditions, technologies that, in fact, meet these requirements, as well as those that are opposite to them - unique technologies, which are a list of actions applicable only in certain, strictly fixed conditions and not reproducible even in similar conditions. The first of these technologies are less dependent on the properties of the actors implementing them and therefore save time and material resources as much as possible in the implementation of the same type of activity. Unique technologies are applicable only for a one-time provision of certain goals, and often only for a strictly defined circle of actors. They tend to be much more expensive and almost completely lose their effectiveness when transferring even under similar circumstances.

So, for example, certain "diplomatic" technologies can be repeatedly used in the process of conducting interstate negotiations, and most important tricks and election campaign techniques can be used without any restrictions in elections of various levels, regardless of the country where they are held, the level (federal or local) of social organization or the time of holding. At the same time, when resolving any interethnic conflicts with an exceptionally peculiar set of parties, causes, reasons, duration, and other parameters of the conflict, such methods and techniques can be used that can achieve the desired effect only in a certain place and at a certain time.

Taking into account the variety of conditions of activity, dynamic changes, properties and abilities of subjects, we can distinguish tough and soft technology. The first testify to the predetermination and at the same time the invariance of the main parameters of the methods and methods of activity used by the subjects. Very often, such technologies provide a legal and procedural order for coordinating interests between departments and government institutions, for example, maintaining a hierarchy in coordinating government programs, signing documents, etc. Opposite technologies demonstrate the methods of activity in less institutionalized conditions, those methods and techniques that allow flexible adaptation of the goals and resources available to the subject to changing conditions.

In other words, these are, as it were, self-adjusting technologies, situationally changing algorithms of actions that ultimately expand the experience necessary to improve the process of achieving goals in a particular area. And if the former can be regarded as methods of activity, mainly reproducing the structures, functions and relations of power, then the latter as shaping, completing the political system and the system of state administration to the level of current requirements. The latter, in fact, fix the process of updating and even the rebirth of technologies, their transition to newly emerging algorithms.

Normative and deviant technologies. From the point of view of the degree and nature of the regulation of activities (which is of particular value for the analysis of transient processes), there are normative and deviant technology. Regulatory technologies are methods of activity that are strictly determined by the laws, norms, traditions or customs existing in society (organization). Deviant technologies are the opposite of them; they are methods of activity that deviate from such requirements and standards. These include, for example, a whole range of contravening laws or regulations public morality"gray" and "black" technologies. As practice has shown, at critical points in the political process, namely during elections to the highest state power, foreign and domestic political crises, there is an unprecedented flourishing of this kind of technology. Subjects of influence and power often turn to "leaking compromising evidence", blackmail, information leaks, slander, and in some cases even terror, organizing conspiracies, coups, etc. Very often, such forms of activity become sources of not only scandals, but also crises that change the course of the political process, the alignment of forces in society, affecting countries' compliance with international obligations, and so on.

It is important for society and the state to understand ways to prevent the use of such technologies in the struggle for power, to develop appropriate political antidotes. However, it is already becoming clear today that in modern (and not only Russian) society it is almost impossible to fight against some methods of this kind. For example, given the distribution modern means communication, purely technically it is not possible to prevent electronic espionage and other similar methods of activity.

Close to the considered types of technologies are also overt and shadow ways to achieve power-political and state-administrative goals. The first of these types, expressed, for example, in the forms of a dialogue between the authorities and the public, embodying the public nature of the authorities, in fact plays the role of a kind of business card political regime and the established system of government. However, such methods, techniques of management and power often have a purely demonstrative, "exhibition" character, they are oriented towards communicating with public opinion and creating an image of active and effective power in it. At the same time, their practical connection with the real process of developing state decisions can be very weak, or even absent altogether.

Shadow technologies of management and power, being, from a practical point of view, sometimes the most important and determining the process of applying power and distributing state resources, at the same time, they are distinguished by a very weak level of manufacturability, representing rather unique (spontaneous, situational) rather than standardized and agorithmic methods and methods of activity. .

Political management as a theory and practice of effective management of political events, processes, focused on the implementation of certain political interests of certain participants in political life, includes a technological subsystem, using which you can select a combination of specific technologies to achieve certain political goals. From a technological point of view, political management is a set of procedures, skills and management techniques in politics. Each technology ( from gr. techne-craftsmanship, skill, artfully and logos-concept, doctrine) is a set of techniques and methods of influencing the material, energy and information structure of objects of labor. Social technologies are in demand during the preparation and implementation of solutions to various social and political problems. This assumes the consistency and sequence of elements, among which are the goals and material means of achieving them, motives, intellectual resources, organizational procedures (rules). Technology is closely related to the action of certain subjects with skills and knowledge. Without such subjects, the technology may be "stillborn".

The technology of political management includes certain managerial procedures, as well as an appropriate set of skills and management techniques. Technology is the main content of political management. The manufacturability of political management implies that at each stage of the process of achieving the goal, proven combinations of technology elements are used. However, this does not negate the introduction of innovations, unexpected decisions that enhance the innovativeness of political management. At the stages of development and implementation of political decisions, political course, selection and training of personnel, ensuring direct or indirect participation of citizens, groups and organizations in this process, there is always control over the implementation of technology, its updating.

There are different approaches to defining the essence of political technologies. According to one of them, political technologies are the sum (system) of consistent, obviously effective actions aimed at achieving the desired political result1. Therefore, political technologies include methods for achieving an immediate local short-term result (tactics) and obtaining deep, global, long-term effects (strategy ).

In the "Political Encyclopedia" (1999), the emphasis is on the fact that political technologies are methods for solving political problems, developing policies, implementing them, carrying out practical political activities, a set of techniques aimed at transforming (changing the state) of an object in the field of politics, achieving a given result (goal).

Domestic authors O.G. Leonov and Yu.L. Muravyov define technologies for managing political processes as a set of techniques, methods, procedures for implementing the functions of the political system, aimed at improving the efficiency of managing the political process and achieving the desired results in the field of politics.

Political technologies discipline the activities of people, the organization of systems, and therefore can be used repeatedly to solve similar political problems. The subjects of the use of political technologies are the political elite, leaders, parties, public organizations. The object of influence is political consciousness and behavior social groups of people. Main tools for the implementation of political technologies the media and various centers of political science (political) research act.

In the broadest sense, political technologies is an activity approach to the creation of a scientifically based model for the transformation of the political space, taking into account its spiritual and moral impact on people's lives3. An analysis of the conditions for the functioning of the political life of society shows that the essence of the technologization of political processes can be revealed in the process of identifying and using the potentials of the political system for the purpose of its optimal functioning using a set of methods and techniques of political influence. Political technologies include: goals, content, means, control, regulation, criteria, stages, methods and forms of diagnosing the political space, identifying dysfunctions, pathologies, anomalies and finding the most effective ways to regulate political events in order to create favorable conditions the life of society.

Political technologies in terms of content are:

Political consulting, etc.

Among the important methodological problems of the study of political technologies, the definition of criteria (indicators) for the technologization of political events deserves attention. Studies have shown that technologization is possible under the following conditions: an object must have a certain degree of complexity; elements of its structure, features of their structure and regularities of functioning are known; the subject of management must be able to formalize real processes, present them in the form of indicators, operations, procedures and create an innovative environment for reproduction and provide the necessary level of management, etc. The nature and features of political technology are due to the internal nature of the technologization object itself and the social setting of the organization (personality) for its development and implementation. The technologization process is characterized by:

Delimitation, division of a political event into stages, phases, operations;

Coordination and phased actions aimed at obtaining the predicted result;

Unambiguous execution of procedures and operations.

The political technology development system includes a number of stages:

theoretical;

· methodical;

procedural.

Political technologies today are a new and not yet fully explored way to achieve goals in all spheres of political life.. When introducing political technologies, society faces problems that are characteristic of any process of innovation. Political technologies will undoubtedly be effective when:

· continuous increase of their knowledge intensity;

· overcoming the crisis in society and the economy, when innovations are not in demand;

the presence of specialists - political technologists who actually participate in the management of political events;

changing the attitude of society towards the owners of intellectual activity, overcoming anti-intellectualism and a negative attitude towards innovative impulses that help overcome the barrier in the way of any extraordinary solution, science-intensive project.

The growing role and importance of political technologies in Russia is due to a number of reasons. First of all, the composition of managerial personnel is currently dominated by people with engineering education, for whom the idea of ​​transferring the methods of industrial engineering to the field of political processes with its accuracy, clarity of setting goals and achievability of real results is attractive. In addition, political technologies are characterized by the distinctness of the goal, the gradual execution of the task, the preservation of the traditions of the past, as it were. Not in last place is the temptation inherent in the Russian mentality to find faster, more available funds to solve complex social and political problems.

Political technologies in their content are distinguished by the presence of algorithmized, standardized means and procedural methods for the formation of social programs, sociotechnical projects. Through them, the function of identifying, disclosing, using the potential of the political system in the conditions of its optimal functioning through the management of political events is realized. The structure of political technology is characterized by the presence of:

a given algorithm;

standard of activity;

Sequence of operations

Political technologies contain the unity of traditional, creative, innovative actions. They are created to solve problems of a certain class (type) and involve a certain type of activity, set and quality of actions. To solve tasks of the same type, one or another political technology can be transferred from one object to a similar one, but taking into account the necessary adjustments that come from the nature of specific conditions, place, time, and other factors of the existence of a given social object. Thus, political technologies are a special form of activity directly related to solving practical political problems and obtaining a specific result. Their specificity is manifested in the presence of:

· substantiated socio-political project;

a given algorithm of sequential actions (steps) on the way to the process of solving a problem, achieving a specific result;

standard of activity, prescribed procedures for actions carried out on the basis of experience gained and therefore requiring a high culture of performance; sustainable structural components of political technologies (a substantiated project, an algorithm for its implementation, a standard of activity and behavior, objective criteria for assessing the course, process and result of solving a practical political problem).

Political technologies are, in a certain sense, complete, a coherent system of actions to solve practical political task and, at the same time, it is a developing system, as it is enriched with new operations in the course of the process of real implementation, because there are continuous changes in political life, the structural model of technologization of which can be represented as follows:

By the nature of the tasks to be solved, political technologies can be private and universal;

· political technologies of society as a whole, nations, national-ethnic groups, parties, associations, associations differ in the degree of association;

· according to the hierarchy of management, global world technologies, continental, state, regional ones are singled out;

· high, medium and low degree of maturity of political objects and subjects require their own specific approach to the technologization of the political space. Why do not pass the most modern innovative technologies? Obviously, the lack of social maturity of objects and subjects affects low level awareness of overdue changes and the presence of a complex and diverse mechanism for slowing down political innovations, and, consequently, the targeted development of the political space.

Political technologies are a kind of link between theory and methodology, on the one hand, and political practice, on the other.. The set of such technologies, as can be seen from the proposed model, is very large, it requires constant correction based on innovations and rather scrupulous, adequate binding to specific conditions and states of the political space.

The model of technologization of a specific level of political space includes: the environment (political activity), self-realization of the individual, factors and conditions that contribute to the effectiveness, quality of the political situation. The technologization of political processes will increase as humanity advances along the path to the information society, in which one of the main tasks will be the advanced development of science, the theoretical justification of ways to preserve the spiritual and moral potential of society, maintain relations between people, nations, states on the principles of humanity. Experience shows that it is impossible to achieve an economically prosperous and politically stable society without a proper technological study of political programs and projects, without a serious mastery of the most modern methods of analysis. Political technologies make it possible not only to know political life, but also to purposefully influence it. The specificity of political technologies is their ability to self-development. Since the beginning of the 1990s, political processes in Russia have been associated with the transition to a new system of social relations, political and state structure and management.

The beginning of the 21st century dictates the need to develop conceptual innovative approaches not only theoretically cognitive nature, diagnosing the state of society, but also carrying constructive creatively transforming functions, based on a predictive vision of social development.

Since the beginning of the 1990s, political processes in Russia have been associated with the transition to a new system of social relations, political and state structure and management.

Similar information.

Political power realizes its interests (dominion, organization, subordination) not only through certain functions, but also through technologies. They develop and transform taking into account the specific historical situation. The term "political technologies" is interpreted as intellectual complexes, normative actions, actions aimed either at a person or at material objects in order to change their properties, impart the necessary qualities that increase the effectiveness of political subjects.

The structure of political technologies is based on:

• – goal analysis;
• - division of activities into separate stages, stages, operations;
• - selection of adequate effective methods, means and logic of their application depending on the intended goals;
• – solution of specific political management tasks.

Political technologies include:

• - two main components: universalistic (characterized by the absence of an explicit dependence on the time and place of the implementation of the strategy) and concrete heuristic (focuses on taking into account both time and place);
• - methods for achieving the goal: tactical (immediate local short-term results) and strategic (obtaining a global long-term effect).

Political technologies can be characterized as ways and methods of influencing individuals in order to change their behavior.

Since, ultimately, the achievement of political goals depends on a person, it is individuals in the political technological process that are the main object of influence.

Political technologies contain methodological guidelines and guidelines for effectively solving political problems and achieving certain political goals, based on a theoretical analysis of the interaction of political subjects.

New political technologies are always associated with the need to optimize political management, quickly and efficiently disseminate special techniques and procedures.

The decisive importance for these technologies is the existence of conditions for their implementation:

• - elements of the structure of the political process;
• - features of the structure and patterns of their functioning;
• - the ability to formalize real phenomena and present them in the form of indicators, operations and procedures.

The whole variety of political technological methods is often referred to by researchers as one of the the following types:

• - updating the rules of interaction between participants in the political process, including by changing the normative, institutional order. By adopting new laws, changing the rules of the game, it is possible to achieve a change in the behavior of people in society;
• - introducing into the mass consciousness of other ideas, values, the formation of new attitudes, beliefs;
• - Techniques that allow you to manipulate people's behavior.

Among the directions, which are based on the creation and application of political technologies, the following can be distinguished: political management; political PR; lobbying; GR; political advertising; political marketing; imageology; political consulting, etc. Let us consider some of them in more detail.

Political management is a broad and constantly evolving field, encompassing a range of activities in the professional political arena. The field includes campaign management and consulting, advertising support for the creation of a "product" and its broadcast, grassroots politics, opposition analysis, the problem of propaganda, lobbying, fundraising. Political management is focused on the analysis of energy resources, tactics and strategies used by members of organizations involved in political struggle. They focus on how these participants obtain and use the opportunity to influence business outcomes. The power of a manager in the political space largely depends on environment:

• – the state of the economy;
• - the influence of various groups, corporations, unions, etc.;
• – supply and demand for specific skills of workers;
• – existence of state laws, etc.

One of the most important contributions to political management has been the understanding of the negotiation process as an aspect of governance. The main task of specialists in the field of political marketing is the ability to negotiate with various groups and obtain agreements necessary for the successful functioning of a political institution (subject). The outcome of the negotiations depends on personal qualities specialist.

Political PR. The main task of the public relations service in public authorities is to achieve mutual understanding between public authorities and citizens.

The concept of political PR is based on propaganda, representative activities, and context management. Political PR is of great interest today, especially given the existence of a representative democracy in the state, when various competing interests can be voiced and heard. Political PR has in its arsenal a whole range of both "hard" and "soft" PR methods using direct and indirect communication channels. Political PR promotes active interaction at various levels between interested and even disinterested participants in both the political process and political discourse.

GR activities and lobbying. The main task of the government relations officer is to improve the legislative and regulatory environment in order to achieve the specific goals of an individual entity (political, economic, social, etc.). This is achieved by:

• – impact on legislative and regulatory activities;
• – conducting lobbying and mass campaigns;
• – participation in various kinds of coalitions (national, regional, local, etc.);
• - maintaining forums;
• – promoting the creation of a positive attitude towards a specific problem (topic).

The main goal of a GR specialist is to build a comfortable, predictable system of relations with political stakeholders relevant to the company. Its tasks include: monitoring possible danger from the authorities; timely informing management; if necessary, appeal to narrow specialists (lobbyists, political consultants, etc.).

Lobbying technologies are actively developing in states that allow and even more stimulate the participation of citizens in political life and recognize the right of an individual to influence decision-making at the level of various state structures representing the interests of an individual. The main goal of lobbying activity is to obtain consent to make a political decision in a particular public authority.

Lobbyist organizations take the form of all sorts of committees, commissions, councils, bureaus created under legislative and governmental bodies. A specialist in the field of lobbying should be able to resolve any issue in a particular public authority, provided that he has experience in interacting with government agencies, it is desirable to have informal access to political personalities.

In the political practice of democratic countries, there is a wide range of technologies, forms and methods of civilized lobbying activity. These include such as:

• – collection and provision of information to legislators;
• – speeches at hearings in congressional committees;
• – participation in the development and submission of ready-made bills;
• - various informal contacts;
• - propaganda campaigns;
• – financing of election campaigns;
• – participation in the conduct or provision of personnel for participation in election campaigns;
• - influence on the legislator through influential voters, as well as through the dissemination of the results of his voting in the electoral body;
• – joint lobbying by several organizations;
• – impact on the process of appointment to public office;
• – political support of departments;
• – Speaking at hearings before regulatory agencies.

Political advertising has recently become an integral part of the strategy of large political actors (organizations, parties, individuals). The main difference between political advertising and commercial advertising is the absence of "rules" when it comes to the content and form of political advertising.

Political marketing is perceived not only as political advertising, party-political programs and electoral speeches, but also as positioning in the electoral market. There are several main characteristics of political marketing:

• - all voters make their choice on the basis of hypothetical ideas on a specific day - voting day;
• - political parties and candidates are complex intangible products that voters cannot separate, therefore, they must decide whether or not to support the entire "package";
• - in many countries it is difficult to form a new and successful participant in the political process, in most cases brand leaders, as a rule, remain the same.

Some researchers (M. Scammell, D. Kavanagh) characterize political marketing as an activity on a set of strategies and tools for tracking and studying public opinion before and during the election campaign, including the development of a communication campaign and evaluation of effectiveness. Others, such as P. Marek, conceptualize political marketing as a complex process, the results of more global political efforts and emphasize that one of the main means of political marketing is political communication. The result of the introduction of marketing into politics is the development of a political communication strategy - a global strategy for designing, rationalizing and transporting modern political communication.

• Russian professional portach about lobbying and GR in Russia [Electronic resource]. URL: lobbying.ru/.
• Ioannis Kolovos and Phil harris Political Marketing and Political Communication: the relationship revisited [Electronic pecypc|. URL: otago.ourarchive.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10523/1463/pm-pc.pdf .
• Maarek P .J political marketing and communication. London: John Libbey & Co., 1995.

Political technologies are a set of rules, procedures, techniques and methods of influencing the political process that provide a specific subject with the optimal and effective implementation of its goals and objectives. The specificity of political technology is that it algorithmizes activities in the sphere of politics according to strictly defined rules, i.e. reduces it to a system of actions performed in the interests of fulfilling the set political task.

In modern conditions, power, political ideas, organizations, politicians act as a political commodity offered to citizens. Political technologies are aimed at the effectiveness of the market promotion of a political product. In this regard, their second name - "political marketing" is fully justified. His appearance is associated with the fact that in the United States after the Second World War, presidential candidates began to resort to the services of advertising agencies to organize their election campaign.

Political technologies translate theoretical political science knowledge into the plane of practical political activity, thereby allowing the use of the whole variety of political laws, principles, norms, factors in determining the goals, means and methods of implementing policies - this, in fact, is the essence of the process of technologization of the political environment.

The structure of political technologies is formed by three main elements, each of which, in turn, has complex structure. The first element is technological knowledge, which combines scientific and applied knowledge of political problems with their assessment. Its content consists of the knowledge and positions of the following subjects of political technologies: a technologist who analyzes political events and processes; a customer who defines specific goals; an executor who directly solves the problem of the optimal application of the relevant procedures, techniques and methods of influencing the political process. The second element is procedures, techniques, methods of influence. They reflect those specific skills and abilities to carry out purposeful actions that the subjects of political technologies possess. The third element is technical and resource support. It includes financial, technical and other means that can be used in the process of applying specific technological methods (“promoting” a candidate, forming an appropriate image, etc.), as well as personnel structures and their reserves.

The construction of political technologies is carried out with the help of analytical goal-setting and the subsequent division of activities into separate stages, stages, operations, selection of adequate effective methods, means and the logic of their application, depending on the goals being realized.

As a rule, modern political technologies have a number of stages: diagnostics and monitoring of the socio-political situation; setting goals and objectives to be achieved with the help of a specific political technology; comparative analysis of possible options for achieving the set goals, etc. A clear example of political technologies is the technology of dividing a single political power into legislative, executive and judicial powers.

Political technologies are sets of the most appropriate methods, methods, procedures for implementing the functions of the political system, aimed at increasing the efficiency of the political process and achieving the desired results in the field of politics. They include both methods for achieving an immediate local short-term result (tactics) and obtaining a deep, global, long-term effect (strategy). The use of certain political technologies determines the effectiveness of political management, regulation of political processes, the stability of the political system and the entire political space. Political technologies are determined by the type of social development (the dominance of evolutionary or revolutionary processes in it), the nature of the regime (democratic, authoritarian, totalitarian, etc.).

Among the increasingly developed technologies of political activity, the following technologies stand out: social partnership; lobbying activities; adoption and implementation of political decisions; resolution of political conflicts; "public relations"; electoral; political management; manipulation; image formation; optimization of political risk, etc.

Thus, in nature there are no abstract political technologies suitable for all occasions. Each of them, on the one hand, is specific and unique, since it is designed to ensure the interaction of various political forces and structures to resolve very specific issues. On the other hand, it is multifaceted in its content and nature, multifaceted in terms of implementation conditions, composition of performers, types of political activities and problems to be solved.