Spacecraft. Spacecraft
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Current missions
- Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter - June 19, 2009. The device will carry out the following research: study of lunar global topography; measuring radiation in lunar orbit; study of the lunar polar regions, including the search for water ice deposits and the study of illumination parameters; compiling ultra-precise maps with objects marked at least 0.5 meters in order to find the best landing sites.
- ARTEMIS P1 and ARTEMIS P2 - February 17, 2009. Studying the magnetic field of the Moon.
- Chang'e-2 - October 1, 2010. On October 27, the device began photographing areas of the Moon suitable for landing the next spacecraft. To solve this problem, the satellite will approach the Moon at a distance of 15 kilometers.
- Chang'e-3 - The device was launched on December 1, 2013 from the Xichang Cosmodrome.
- Yutu is the first Chinese lunar rover, launched along with Chang'e-3.
Mars
Successful missions
Current missions
- Mars Odysseus - April 7, 2001. Artificial satellite of Mars.
- Mars Express - June 2, 2003. Artificial satellite of Mars.
- Opportunity - July 7, 2003. Mars rover.
- Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter - August 12, 2005. Artificial satellite of Mars.
- Curiosity - November 26, 2011. Mars rover.
- Mangalyaan - November 4, 2013, artificial satellite of Mars.
- - November 18, 2013, artificial satellite of Mars.
- Trace Gus Orbiter - launched March 14, 2016. The device will explore and determine the nature of the appearance in the atmosphere of Mars of small components of methane, other gases and water vapor, the content of which has been known since 2003. The presence of methane, which quickly decomposes under ultraviolet radiation, means its constant supply from an unknown source. Such a source can be fossils or the biosphere - living organisms.
Jupiter
Successful missions
Current missions
Saturn
(KA), different kinds aircraft equipped special equipment and intended for flights into space or in space for scientific, economic (commercial) and other purposes (see Space flight). The world's first spacecraft was launched in the USSR on October 4, 1957, the first manned spacecraft - the Vostok spacecraft under the control of USSR citizen Yu. A. Gagarin - on April 12, 1961.
Spacecraft are divided into two main groups: near-Earth orbital vehicles - artificial Earth satellites (AES); interplanetary spacecraft that go beyond the sphere of influence of the Earth - artificial satellites of the Moon (ISL), Mars (ISM), the Sun (ISS), interplanetary stations and so on. According to their main purpose, spacecraft are divided into research, testing and specialized (the last 2 types of spacecraft are also called applied). Research spacecraft conduct a set of scientific and technical experiments, research of a medical and biological nature, study the space environment and natural phenomena, determine characteristics and constants outer space, parameters of the Earth, other planets and celestial bodies. Test spacecraft are used to check and test, under space flight conditions, structural elements, systems of units and units of the samples under development and methods of their use. Specialized spacecraft solve one or more applied problems for national economic (commercial) or military purposes, for example, communications and control, reconnaissance, navigation, etc.
The design of a spacecraft can be compact (with a constant configuration during launch into orbit and in flight), deployable (the configuration changes in orbit due to opening individual elements structures) and inflatable (the given shape in orbit is ensured by inflating the shell).
There are light spacecraft with a mass ranging from several kilograms to 5 tons; medium - up to 15 tons; heavy - up to 50 tons and super-heavy - 50 tons or more. According to the design and layout basis, spacecraft are monoblock, multiblock and unified. The design of a monoblock spacecraft constitutes a single and functionally indivisible basic framework. A multi-block spacecraft is made of functional blocks (compartments) and structurally allows for a change in purpose by replacing individual blocks (building them up) on Earth or in orbit. The basic design and layout basis of a unified spacecraft allows, by installing the appropriate equipment, to create devices for various purposes.
According to the control method, spacecraft are divided into automatic, manned (inhabited) and combined (visited). The last 2 types are also called spacecraft (SC) or space stations (KS). Automatic spacecraft has a set of on-board equipment that does not require a crew on board and ensures the execution of a given autonomous program. Manned spacecraft intended to perform tasks with the participation of a person (crew). Combined spacecraft- a type of automatic, the design of which provides for periodic visits by astronauts during its operation to carry out scientific, repair, testing, special and other work. A distinctive feature of most existing and future types of spacecraft is the ability for long-term independent operation in outer space conditions, which are characterized by deep vacuum, the presence of meteoric particles, intense radiation and weightlessness.
The spacecraft includes a body with structural elements, supporting equipment and special (target) equipment. The body of a spacecraft is the structural and layout basis for the installation and placement of all its elements and related equipment. The supporting equipment of an automatic spacecraft provides for the following systems: orientation and stabilization, thermal control, power supply, command and software, telemetry, trajectory measurements, control and navigation, executive bodies, etc. Inhabited (manned) and visited spacecraft, in addition, have life support systems, emergency rescue, etc. Special (target) equipment of a spacecraft can be optical, photographic, television, infrared, radar, radio engineering, spectrometric, X-ray, radiometric, calorimetric, radio communication and relay, etc. (see also Onboard spacecraft equipment).
Research spacecraft Due to the wide range of issues being addressed, they are varied in mass, size, design, type of orbits used, nature of equipment and instrumentation. Their mass ranges from several kilograms to 10 tons or more, and the altitude of their orbits ranges from 150 to 400,000 kilometers. Automatic research spacecraft include Soviet artificial Earth satellites of the Cosmos, Electron, and Proton series; American spacecraft of the series of observatory satellites “Explorer”, “OGO”, “OSO”, “OAO”, etc., as well as automatic interplanetary stations. Certain types of automatic research spacecraft or means of equipping them have been developed in the German Democratic Republic, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Great Britain, Canada, France, Germany, Japan and other countries.
Spacecraft of the Cosmos series are designed to study near-Earth space, radiation from the Sun and stars, processes in the Earth’s magnetosphere, study the composition of cosmic radiation and radiation belts, fluctuations of the ionosphere and the distribution of meteoric particles in near-Earth space. Several dozen spacecraft of this series are launched annually. By mid-1977, more than 930 Cosmos spacecraft had been launched.
Spacecraft of the Electron series are designed to simultaneously study the external and internal radiation belts and the Earth’s magnetic field. The orbits are elliptical (perigee height 400-460 kilometers, apogee height 7000-68,000 kilometers), spacecraft mass 350-445 kilograms. One launch vehicle (LV) simultaneously launches into these orbits 2 spacecraft, different in the composition of scientific equipment, size, design and shape; they form a cosmic system.
Spacecraft of the Proton series were used for a comprehensive study of cosmic rays and the interactions of ultra-high energy particles with matter. The mass of the spacecraft is 12-17 tons, the relative mass of the scientific equipment is 28-70%.
The Explorer spacecraft is one of the American unmanned research spacecraft. Its mass, depending on the problem being solved, ranges from several kilograms to 400 kilograms. Using these spacecraft, the intensity of cosmic radiation is measured, the solar wind and magnetic fields in the lunar region are studied, the troposphere, the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere, X-ray and ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, etc. are studied. A total of 50 launches were carried out.
Spacecraft of the series of observatory satellites “OGO”, “OSO”, “OAO” have a highly specialized purpose. OGO spacecraft are used for geophysical measurements and, in particular, to study the influence of solar activity on physical parameters near-Earth space. Weight 450-635 kilograms. The OSO spacecraft were used to study the Sun. Weight 200-1000 kilograms, relative mass of scientific equipment 32-40%. The purpose of the JSC spacecraft is to conduct astronomical observations. Weight 2000 kilograms.
Automatic interplanetary stations (AIS) are used to fly to other celestial bodies and study interplanetary space. Since 1959, over 60 automatic interplanetary stations have been launched (by mid-1977): Soviet automatic interplanetary stations of the Luna, Venus, Mars, and Zond series; American automatic interplanetary stations of the Mariner, Ranger, Pioneer, Surveyor, Viking, etc. series. These spacecraft made it possible to expand knowledge about the physical conditions of the Moon and nearby planets solar system- Mars, Venus, Mercury, obtain a complex of scientific data on the properties of planets and interplanetary space. Depending on the purpose and tasks to be solved, the on-board equipment of automatic interplanetary stations may include various automatic controlled units and devices: self-propelled research vehicles equipped with the necessary set of tools (for example, Lunokhod-type vehicles), manipulators, etc. (see Cosmonautics).
Test spacecraft. In the Soviet Union, various modifications of the Cosmos spacecraft are used as automatic test spacecraft; in the USA, satellites of the OV, ATS, GGTS, Dodge, TTS, SERT, and RW types are used. etc. With the help of spacecraft of the Cosmos series, the characteristics and capabilities of thermal control systems and life support systems for manned spacecraft were studied, the processes of automatic docking of satellites in orbit, and methods of protecting spacecraft elements from radiation were developed. Manned and combined (visited) research spacecraft are designed to conduct medical-biological, physico-chemical and extra-atmospheric astronomical research, research of the space environment, study of the Earth's atmosphere, its natural resources and so on. By mid-1977, 59 launches of manned and visited spacecraft had been carried out. These are Soviet spaceships (SC) and space stations (KS) of the Vostok, Voskhod, Soyuz, Salyut series, and American ones of the Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, and Skylab series.
Specialized spacecraft national economic (commercial) purposes are used for meteorological observations, communications and research of natural resources. Specific gravity This group by the mid-70s accounted for about 20% of all launched spacecraft (excluding military ones). The annual economic benefit from a space-based global weather system that provides two-week forecasts could be as much as $15 billion, according to some estimates.
Meteorological spacecraft used to provide global information that enables reliable long-term forecasts. The simultaneous use of several spacecraft with television and infrared (IR) equipment makes it possible to continuously monitor the distribution and movement of clouds across to the globe, the formation of powerful air vortices, hurricanes, storms, provide control over the thermal regime of the earth's surface and atmosphere, determine the vertical profile of temperature, pressure and humidity, as well as other factors that have important to make a weather forecast. Meteorological spacecraft include the Meteor (USSR), Tiros, ESSA, ITOS, and Nimbus (USA) types.
The Meteor-type spacecraft is designed to obtain complex meteorological information in the visible and infrared (IR) spectral ranges from both the illuminated and shadow sides of the Earth. Equipped with a three-axis electromechanical body orientation system, an autonomous solar panel orientation system, a thermal control system, and a set of controls. Special equipment includes television and IR cameras, a set of actinometric devices of scanning and non-scanning types.
The American Tyros-type spacecraft is designed to record infrared radiation. Stabilized by rotation. Diameter 1 meter, height 0.5 meters, weight 120-135 kilograms. Special equipment - television cameras and sensors. The received information is stored until it is transmitted to Earth by a magnetic storage device. By mid-1977, 10 Tyros-type spacecraft had been launched.
Spacecraft of the ESSA and ITOS types are types of meteorological spacecraft. The weight of “ESSA” is 148 kilograms, “ITOS” is 310-340 kilograms. By mid-1977, 9 ESSA and 8 ITOS spacecraft had been launched.
The Nimbus-type spacecraft is an experimental meteorological spacecraft for flight testing of on-board equipment. Weight 377-680 kilograms.
Communication spacecraft relay radio signals from earth stations located beyond line of sight. The minimum range between stations at which relaying information using communication spacecraft is economically feasible is 500-1000 kilometers. According to the method of relaying information, communication space systems are divided into active ones using spacecraft that re-radiate the received signal using on-board equipment (“Molniya”, “Rainbow” - USSR, “Sincom” - USA, international “Intelsat” and others), and passive ( American "Echo" and others)
Spacecraft of the Molniya type relay television programs and carry out long-distance telephone and telegraph communications. Weight 1600 kilograms. It is launched into highly elongated elliptical orbits with an apogee altitude of 40,000 kilometers above the Northern Hemisphere. Equipped with a powerful multi-channel relay system.
The Rainbow-type spacecraft (international registration index "Statsionar-1") is designed to provide continuous round-the-clock telephone and telegraph radio communications in the centimeter wavelength range and simultaneous transmission of color and black-and-white programs of the USSR central television. It is launched into a circular orbit close to geostationary. Equipped with on-board relay equipment. Spacecraft of the Molniya and Rainbow types are part of the Orbita long-distance space radio communication system.
The Intelsat-type spacecraft serves commercial communications purposes. It has been in regular use since 1965. It exists in four modifications, differing in the capabilities of the relay system. "Intelsat-4" is a cylindrical, rotation-stabilized device. Weight after fuel burn-up is 700 kilograms, diameter is 2.4 meters, height (including antenna unit) is 5.3 meters. Has 3000-9000 relay communication channels. The estimated duration of operational use of the spacecraft is at least 7 years. By mid-1977, 21 launches of Intelsat spacecraft of various modifications were made. 
The Echo-type spacecraft is a long-lasting passive communications spacecraft. It is a thin-walled inflatable spherical shell with an external reflective coating. From 1960 to 1964, 2 spacecraft of this type were launched in the USA.
Spacecraft for exploring the Earth's natural resources allow you to obtain information about the natural conditions of continents and oceans, the flora and fauna of the Earth, the results of human activity. Information is used to solve problems in forestry and agriculture, geology, hydrology, geodesy, cartography, oceanology, etc. The development of this direction dates back to the early 70s. The first spacecraft for studying the Earth's natural resources, the ERTS type, was launched in the USA in 1972. The study of the Earth's natural resources is also carried out using a special set of instruments on the Salyut (USSR) and Skylab (USA) spacecraft.
The ERTS-type spacecraft was created on the basis of the artificial Earth satellite Nimbus. Weight 891 kilograms. The special equipment consists of 3 television cameras, a 4-channel television spectrometer with optical-mechanical scanning, two video recording devices and a system for receiving data from earth stations. The resolution of the cameras is 50 meters from an altitude of 920 kilometers. The estimated duration of operational use is 1 year.
A number of specialized spacecraft have been created abroad, mainly in the United States, and are widely used for military purposes. Such spacecraft are divided into reconnaissance, navigation, communications and control, and multi-purpose. Reconnaissance spacecraft conduct photographic, radio engineering, and meteorological reconnaissance, detect launches of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), monitor nuclear explosions, etc. Photographic reconnaissance has been carried out in the United States since 1959 by spacecraft of the Discoverer type. Detailed photographic reconnaissance using the Samos spacecraft has been carried out since 1961. In total, by mid-1977, 79 such spacecraft had been launched. Samos is designed as a container with reconnaissance equipment docked with the second stage of the Agena launch vehicle. Samos spacecraft were launched into orbits with an inclination of 95-110° and an altitude of 130-160 kilometers at perigee and 450 kilometers at apogee. The period of operational use is up to 47 days.
For periodic monitoring of changes in the terrain, preliminary reconnaissance of the construction of facilities, identifying the situation in the World Ocean, mapping the Earth and issuing target designations for detailed reconnaissance means, survey photo reconnaissance spacecraft are used. They were launched by the USA until mid-1972. Their working orbits had an inclination of 65-100°, an altitude at perigee of 160-200 kilometers, and at apogee up to 450 kilometers. The period of operational use is from 9 to 33 days. The spacecraft could maneuver in altitude in order to reach the necessary objects or reconnaissance area. Two cameras photographed a wide swath of terrain.
Radio reconnaissance has been carried out in the United States since 1962 using Ferret-type spacecraft designed for preliminary reconnaissance of radio systems in a wide frequency range. The mass of the spacecraft is about 1000 kilograms. They are launched into orbits with an inclination of about 75°, at an altitude of 500 kilometers. Onboard special receivers and analyzers make it possible to determine the main parameters of radio equipment (RTS): carrier frequency, pulse duration, operating mode, location and signal structure. Detailed electronic reconnaissance spacecraft weighing 60-160 kilograms determine the parameters of individual radio equipment. They operate at the same altitudes and orbits with inclinations ranging from 64-110°. 
In the interests of the US military department, meteorological spacecraft “Toros”, “Nimbus”, “ESSA”, “ITOS”, etc. are used. Thus, the United States used spacecraft to provide meteorological support for military operations in Vietnam in 1964-73. Data on cloudiness were taken into account by the American military command when organizing combat sorties, planning land and sea operations, camouflaging aircraft carriers from Vietnamese aircraft in areas over which thick clouds formed, etc. From 1966 to mid-1977, 22 spacecraft of these types were launched in the United States. US meteorological spacecraft models “5B”, “5C”, “5D” are equipped with two television cameras for shooting clouds in the visible range of the spectrum with a resolution of 3.2 and 0.6 kilometers, two cameras for shooting in the infrared range with the same resolution and instruments for measuring temperatures in the vertical profile of the atmosphere. There are also special meteorological reconnaissance spacecraft that report data on the state of clouds in areas that are subject to photography by photo reconnaissance spacecraft.
Spacecraft early detection ICBM launches began to be created in the United States in the late 50s (Midas type, which since 1968 were replaced by IS type spacecraft).
Midas-type spacecraft were equipped with IR radiation detectors to detect ICBM engine plumes in the middle part of the active part of the trajectory. They were launched into polar orbits at an altitude of 3500-3700 kilometers. Weight in orbit is 1.6-2.3 tons (together with the last stage of the launch vehicle).
IS-type spacecraft are used to detect ICBM flares launched from ground-based launch facilities and submarines. They were launched into nearly synchronous orbits, usually at an altitude of 32,000 - 40,000 kilometers with an inclination of about 10°. Structurally, the spacecraft are made in the form of a cylinder with a diameter of 1.4 meters and a length of 1.7 meters. Total weight 680-1000 kilograms (after fuel burnout about 350 kilograms). Possible special equipment includes IR and X-ray detectors, as well as television cameras.
Spacecraft for monitoring nuclear explosions have been developed in the United States since the late 50s. From 1963 to 1970, 6 pairs of NDS-type spacecraft were launched into circular orbits at an altitude of about 110,000 kilometers with an inclination of 32-33°. The mass of the NDS type spacecraft of the first pairs is 240 kilograms, the last ones - 330 kilograms. The spacecraft are equipped with a complex of special equipment for recording nuclear explosions at various altitudes and on Earth, and are stabilized by rotation. The operational life is about 1.5 years. In connection with the creation of a multi-purpose spacecraft of the IMEWS type, launches of NDS spacecraft have been stopped since the early 70s.
Navigation spacecraft are used for navigation support for combat patrols of submarines, surface ships and other moving units. The operational satellite system for determining the coordinates of warships with an accuracy of 180-990 meters consists of 5 spacecraft, replaced with new ones as they fail. The operating orbits are polar, with an altitude of 900-1000 kilometers.
Communications and control spacecraft have been in regular operation since 1966. In the United States, by mid-1977, 34 spacecraft of the DCP, DSCS-2, and other types were launched.
Spacecraft of the DCP series solve military communications problems. One launch vehicle launches up to 8 spacecraft into orbits at an altitude of 33,000 - 34,360 kilometers with a low inclination (up to 7.2°). A total of 26 spacecraft were launched. Structurally, the spacecraft weighing 45 kilograms is made in the form of a polyhedron with a height of 0.77 meters and a diameter of 0.81 - 0.91 meters. In orbit, it is stabilized by rotating at a speed of 150 rpm. The onboard transceiver has up to 11 duplex telephone channels. DSCS-2 spacecraft solve communication problems in the interests of the command of the US armed forces, as well as tactical communications between military units within the theater of operations.
Multi-purpose military spacecraft serve for early warning of a missile attack, detection of nuclear explosions and other tasks. In the USA, since 1974, the Seuss system has been developed using IMEWS spacecraft for conducting comprehensive reconnaissance. A multi-purpose spacecraft of the IMEWS type provides a solution to 3 problems: early detection of launches of intercontinental ballistic missiles and tracking them; registration of nuclear explosions in the atmosphere and on the Earth's surface; global meteorological intelligence. Weight is about 800 kilograms, structurally designed in the form of a cylinder turning into a cone (length approximately 6 meters, maximum diameter about 2.4 meters). It is launched into synchronous orbits with an altitude of about 26,000 - 36,000 kilometers and an orbital period of about 20 hours. It is equipped with a complex of special equipment, the basis of which is IR and television equipment. An infrared detector built into the telescope detects rocket plumes. 
The multi-purpose spacecraft also includes the LASP type spacecraft; Designed mainly for conducting survey and detailed photographic reconnaissance of strategic objects and mapping the earth's surface. From 1971 to mid-1977, 13 such spacecraft were launched into sun-synchronous orbits with an altitude of 150-180 kilometers at perigee and 300 kilometers at apogee.
The development of spacecraft and their use for space research have had a significant impact on the overall scientific and technical progress, for the development of many new areas of applied science and technology. Spacecraft have found widespread practical use in the national economy. By mid-1977, more than 2,000 spacecraft of various types had been launched, including more than 1,100 Soviet ones, about 900 foreign ones, and by this time about 750 spacecraft were constantly in orbit.
Literature: Space exploration in the USSR. [Official press reports for 1957-1975] M., 1971 - 77; Zaitsev Yu.P. Satellites "Cosmos" M., 1975; Design of scientific space equipment. M., 1976, Ilyin V.A., Kuzmak G.E. Optimal flights of spacecraft with high-thrust engines. M, 1976, Odintsov V.A., Anuchin V.M. Maneuvering in space. M, 1974; Korovkin A.S. Spacecraft control systems. M., 1972; Space trajectory measurements. M, 1969, Engineering Handbook on space technology. 2nd edition. M, 1977. Orbits of cooperation of the International Communications of the USSR in the exploration and use of outer space. M., 1975, Manned spacecraft. Design and testing. Per. from English M., 1968. A.M.Belyakov, E.L.Palagin, F.R.Khantseverov.
Man has always been attracted by the cold reaches of space... They amaze with their dark mystery. Probably out of a great desire to touch the unknown, people came up with aircrafts.
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Small spacecraft
Cassini spacecraft
The first satellites
To carry out interplanetary travel at one time it was necessary to create powerful, modern and durable machines that could overcome not only the gravitational force of our planet, but also various unfavourable conditions environment of interplanetary space. To overcome the gravitational force of our planet, an aircraft requires a speed of over eleven kilometers per second. Overcoming the gravitational forces of the Earth acting on it in flight, the device goes into open space— interplanetary space.
But space is just beginning here. Next you need to overcome the gravitational force of the Sun and get out from under its “power”, for this you will need average speed movement over sixteen kilometers per second. This is how the aircraft leaves the zone of influence of the Sun and enters interstellar space. However, this is not the limit, for the dimensions of the cosmos are limitless, just as the dimensions of human consciousness are limitless. To advance further, namely to enter intergalactic space, you need to reach a speed of over five hundred kilometers per second.
The first satellite of our planet was Sputnik 1, launched Soviet Union for the purpose of studying outer space around the Earth. It was a breakthrough in the field of space exploration. Thanks to the launch of the first satellite, the Earth's own atmosphere, as well as the outer space surrounding it, was studied in detail. The fastest and most distant spacecraft in relation to our planet today is the Voyager 1 satellite. He has been exploring the Solar System and its environs for forty years. Over these forty years, invaluable data has been collected that can serve as a good springboard for scientific discoveries of the future.
One of the priority areas of science in the field of space exploration is the exploration of Mars. As for the flight to this planet, so far such an idea remains only on paper, although work in its direction is underway. Through trial and error and analysis of spacecraft failures, scientists are trying to find the most comfortable option for a flight to Mars. It is also very important that the most suitable facilities for the crew are created inside the ship. safe conditions. One of the main problems today is the electrification of a spacecraft during high speed conditions, which creates a fire hazard. But still, even despite this, man’s thirst for knowledge of space is unquenchable. This is evidenced by the huge list of interplanetary trips carried out to date.
Spacecraft launches in 2017
The list of spacecraft launches in 2017 is very long. The leader in the list of spacecraft launches, of course, is America, as the flagship of scientific research in the field of space exploration, but other countries are also not lagging behind. And the launch statistics are positive; in the entire year of 2017, there were only three unsuccessful launches.
Exploration of the Moon by spacecraft
Of course, the most attractive object of human research has always been the Moon. In 1969, man first set foot on the surface of the Moon. Scientists who have studied the planet Mercury claim that the Moon and Mercury are similar in physical characteristics. An image taken by a spacecraft from Saturn's orbit shows the Moon looking like a point of light in the vast darkness of space.
Russian spacecraft
Most of Russia's current spacecraft are Soviet aircraft. reusable, which were launched into space back in Soviet times. However, modern aircraft in Russia are also achieving success in space exploration. Russian scientists are planning many flights to the surface of the Moon, Mars and Jupiter. The greatest contribution to the study of Venus, the Moon and Mars was made by Soviet research stations with the same names. They made a great many flights, the results of which were priceless photographs and video materials, measurements of temperature, pressure, study of the atmosphere of these planets, etc.
Classification of spacecraft
According to the principle of operation and specialization, spacecraft are divided into:
- artificial satellites of planets;
- space stations for interplanetary exploration;
- rovers;
- spaceships;
- orbital stations.
Earth satellites, orbital stations and spacecraft are designed to explore the Earth and the planets of the solar system. Space stations are designed for research beyond the solar system.
Descent module of the Soyuz spacecraft
"Soyuz" is a manned spacecraft with scientific equipment on board, on-board equipment, the possibility of communication between the spacecraft and the earth, the presence of energy-converting equipment, a telemetry system, an orientation and stabilization system and many other systems and instruments for conducting research work and life support crew. The Soyuz descent module has an impressive weight - from 2800 to 2900 kg, depending on the make of the ship. One of the disadvantages of the ship is the high probability of failure of radio communications and unopened solar panels. But this was corrected in later versions of the ship.
History of spacecraft of the Resurs-F series
The history of the “Resource” series dates back to 1979. This is a series of spacecraft for photo and video shooting in outer space, as well as for cartographic studies of the Earth's surface. The information obtained using the Resurs-F series spacecraft is used in cartography, geodesy, and also for monitoring the seismic activity of the Earth’s crust.
Small spacecraft
Artificial satellites, which are small in size, are designed to solve the simplest problems. A lot is known about how they are used and what role they play in the study of space and the surface of the earth. Their main task is monitoring and researching the Earth's surface. The classification of small satellites depends on their mass. Divided:
- minisatellites;
- microsatellites;
- nanosatellites;
- picosatellites;
- femtosatellites.
Depending on the size and mass of the satellite, its task is determined, but one way or another, all satellites of this series perform tasks to study the Earth’s surface.
Electric rocket engine for spacecraft
The essence of the operation of an electric motor is the conversion of electrical energy into kinetic energy. Electric rocket engines are divided into: electrostatic, electrothermal, electromagnetic, magnetodynamic, pulsed, ion. A nuclear electric motor opens up the possibility of flight to distant stars and planets due to its power. The propulsion system converts energy into mechanical energy, which allows it to develop the speed necessary to overcome the force of gravity.
Spacecraft design
The development of spacecraft systems depends on the tasks assigned to these vehicles. Their activities can cover very different areas of activity - from scientific research to meteorological and military intelligence. The design and provision of devices with certain systems and functions depends on the tasks assigned to them.
Cassini spacecraft
The names of these scouts of the secrets of the Universe are known throughout the world - “Juno”, “Meteor”, “Rosetta”, Galileo”, “Phoenix”, “Pioneer”, “Jubilee”, “Dawn”, “Akatsuki”, “Voyager” ", "Magellan", "Ace", "Tundra", "Buran", "Rus", "Ulysses", "Nivelir-ZU" (14f150), "Genesis", "Viking", "Vega", "Luna- 2", "Luna-3", "Soho", "Meridian", "Stardust", "Gemini-12", "Spektr-RG", "Horizon", "Federation", a series of devices "Resurs-P" and many others, the list goes on and on. Thanks to the information they collect, we can open up more and more new horizons.
The equally high-quality and unique Cassini spacecraft was launched back in 1997 and served for the benefit of humanity for twenty years. His prerogative is the study of the distant and mysterious “lord of the rings” of our solar system - Saturn. In September of this year, the device completed its honorable mission as a guiding star for humanity and, as befits a falling star, it burned to the ground in flight without touching its native Earth.
Soyuz TMA-6
Spacecraft (SV) - common name technical devices, used to perform various tasks in outer space, as well as conduct research and other types of work on the surface of various celestial bodies. The means of delivering spacecraft into orbit are launch vehicles or airplanes.
A spacecraft, one of the main tasks of which is to transport people or equipment in the upper part of the earth's atmosphere - the so-called near space, is called a spacecraft (SC) or a spacecraft (SCAV).
The areas of use of spacecraft determine their division into the following groups:
suborbital;
near-Earth orbital, moving in geocentric orbits artificial satellites Earth;
interplanetary (expeditionary);
planetary.
It is customary to distinguish between automatic satellites (AES) and manned spacecraft. Manned spacecraft include, in particular, all types of manned spacecraft (SC) and orbital space stations(OS). (Despite the fact that modern orbital stations fly in the region of near space, and can formally be called “Spacecraft,” in the established tradition, they are called “Spacecraft.”)
The name "Spacecraft" is sometimes also used to refer to active (that is, maneuvering) satellites, in order to emphasize their differences from passive satellites. In most cases, the meanings of the terms “Spacecraft” and “Spacecraft” are synonymous and interchangeable.
In recently actively researched projects to create orbital-hypersonic aircraft as parts of aerospace systems (AKS), the names aerospace apparatus (ASV) are often used, denoting spaceplanes and spacecraft AKS, designed to perform controlled flight, as in airless space space and in the dense atmosphere of the Earth.
While there are several dozen countries with satellites, the most complex technologies for automatic return and interplanetary spacecraft have been mastered by only a few countries - the USSR/Russia, the USA, China, Japan, India, Europe/ESA. Manned spacecraft have only the first three of them (in addition, Japan and Europe have spacecraft visited by people in orbit, in the form of ISS modules and trucks). Also, only the first three of them have the technology to intercept satellites in orbit (although Japan and Europe are close to it due to dockings).
In 2005, 55 spacecraft launches took place (there were more spacecraft themselves, since several spacecraft can be launched during one launch). Russia accounted for 26 launches. The number of commercial launches was 18.
Spacecraft
Based on their operating mode, the following types of spacecraft are distinguished:
artificial Earth satellites - the general name for all devices located in a geocentric orbit, that is, revolving around the Earth
automatic interplanetary stations ( space probes) - devices that fly between the Earth and other cosmic bodies; at the same time, they can both go into orbit around the body under study and study them from flight trajectories; some devices are then sent beyond the solar system
spacecraft, automatic or manned, are used to deliver cargo and people into Earth orbit; there are plans for flights to the orbits of other planets
orbital stations - devices designed for long-term stay and work of people in Earth orbit
landers - used to deliver people and materials from orbit around or interplanetary trajectory to the surface of a planet
planetary rovers - automatic laboratory complexes or vehicles for moving along the surface of a planet or other celestial body
Based on the presence of a return function:
Returnable - provide for the return of people and materials to Earth, performing a soft or hard landing
Non-recoverable - when the resource is used up, they usually leave orbit and burn up in the atmosphere
According to the functions performed, the following classes are distinguished:
meteorological
navigational
communication satellites, television broadcasting, telecommunication satellites
research
geophysical
geodetic
astronomical
Earth remote sensing
reconnaissance and military satellites
other
Many spacecraft perform several functions at once.
Also according to mass characteristics:
femto- - up to 100 g
pico - up to 1 kg
nano- - 1-10 kg
micro - 10-100 kg
mini - 100-500 kg
small - 500-1000 kg
large - more than 1000 kg
In general, the flight of a spacecraft is divided into an ascent section, an orbital flight section, and a landing section. At the launch site, the spacecraft must acquire the required escape velocity in a given direction. The orbital segment is characterized by the inertial motion of the vehicle in accordance with the laws of celestial mechanics. Landing area designed to reduce the speed of the returning vehicle to the permissible landing speed.
The spacecraft consists of several components, first of all, it is the target equipment that ensures the fulfillment of the task facing the spacecraft. In addition to the target equipment, there is usually whole line service systems that ensure long-term operation of the device in outer space conditions are: power supply systems, thermoregulation, radiation protection, motion control, orientation, emergency rescue, landing, control, separation from the carrier, separation and docking, on-board radio complex, life support. Depending on the function performed by the spacecraft, some of the listed service systems may be absent; for example, communication satellites do not have emergency rescue or life support systems.
The vast majority of spacecraft systems require power; a combination of solar panels and chemical batteries is usually used as a source of electricity. Other sources are used less frequently, such as fuel cells, radioisotope batteries, nuclear reactors, disposable galvanic cells.
The spacecraft continuously receives heat from internal sources(devices, units, etc.) and from external ones: direct solar radiation, radiation reflected from the planet, the planet’s own radiation, friction against the remnants of the planet’s atmosphere at the height of the apparatus. The device also loses heat in the form of radiation. Many spacecraft components are temperature-sensitive and do not tolerate overheating or hypothermia. The thermal management system is responsible for maintaining the balance between the received thermal energy and its output, the redistribution of thermal energy between the structures of the apparatus and thus ensuring the specified temperature.
The spacecraft control system controls the propulsion system of the spacecraft in order to ensure the orientation of the spacecraft and perform maneuvers. Usually has connections with target equipment and other service subsystems in order to monitor and manage their state. As a rule, it is capable of communicating via an on-board radio complex with ground control services.
To ensure monitoring of the state of the spacecraft, control, and transmission of information from target equipment, a communication channel with the ground control complex is required. Radio communication is mainly used for this. When the spacecraft is far away from the Earth, highly directional antennas and their guidance systems are required.
A life support system is necessary for manned spacecraft, as well as for devices on board which biological experiments are carried out. Includes reserves of necessary substances, as well as regeneration and disposal systems.
The spacecraft orientation system includes devices for determining the current orientation of the spacecraft (solar sensor, star sensors, etc.) and actuators (attitude thrusters and power gyroscopes).
The propulsion system of the spacecraft allows you to change the speed and direction of motion of the spacecraft. Chemical is usually used rocket engine, but these can also be electric, nuclear and other engines; A solar sail can also be used.
The spacecraft emergency rescue system is typical for manned spacecraft, as well as for vehicles with nuclear reactors (US-A) and nuclear warheads (R-36orb).
Science fiction writers who sent their heroes to other worlds did not even imagine how quickly these dreams would come true. From the first launches of small rockets, rising several tens of meters, to the first artificial Earth satellite, only 30 years passed. These days, numerous spacecraft photograph the surfaces of distant planets and their satellites, conduct all kinds of research, transmitting data to Earth. A little more time will pass, and vast colonies will appear in space. According to expert estimates, by 2030 more than 1,000 people will be constantly working outside the earth's atmosphere
Lunar exploration
It is quite natural that the Moon, as the celestial body closest to the Earth, became the first object to which spacecraft were directed.
The Soviet automatic interplanetary stations of the first generation “Luna-1, −2, −3” did not use either course correction on the Earth-Moon trajectory or braking during approach. They flew directly. Launching from the Earth on January 2, 1959, the Luna-1 station weighing 361 kg for the first time reached the second escape velocity (i.e., the minimum speed that an object starting from a celestial body must develop in order to overcome the force of its gravity; for the Earth it is equal to 11.19 km/s) and passed at a distance of about six thousand kilometers from the surface of the Moon.
Luna 2 reached the lunar surface on September 14, 1959 near the central meridian (the landing site of this station is now called Lunnika Bay). Its instruments showed that the Moon has virtually no magnetic field of its own. And on board the Luna-3 station there was photo-television equipment, which for the first time transmitted to Earth images of part of the visible and almost 2/3 of the invisible hemisphere. They were wearing a large number of defects, but despite this, scientists managed to knock out many details on the far side of the Moon. The craters discovered by Luna-3 were named: Tsiolkovsky, Kurchatov, Giordano Bruno, Jules Berne, etc.
Large-scale photography of individual sections of the surface of the visible hemisphere was carried out during the fall to the Moon by the American spacecraft Ranger 7, -8, -9 in 1964 and 1965. The Soviet probe Zond-3 completed photographing the invisible hemisphere.
The first soft landing on the lunar surface was carried out in February 1966 by the Soviet automatic station Luna-9. Television cameras transmitted panoramas of the surrounding landscape to Earth with a resolution of up to several millimeters. In 1966, artificial satellites Luna-10, -11, -12 were also launched into orbit around the Moon. They were equipped with instruments for studying the spectral composition of infrared and gamma radiation from the lunar surface, equipment for recording meteor particles, etc. In the same year, the American Surveyor-1 spacecraft soft landing to the Moon and transmitted images of the surface to Earth for six weeks. At the end of December 1966, the Luna-13 station performed a soft landing, its remote instruments examined the properties of the lunar soil, and television cameras photographed the surrounding area.
Soft landings in various areas of the Moon were carried out by the American spacecraft Survey-or-3, -5, -6, -7 (1967-1968), which were supposed to explore the lunar surface and select landing sites for Apollo series spacecraft. . Five American artificial satellites "Lunar orbiter" in 1966-1967. photographed the Moon and studied its gravitational field. Detailed imaging of the surface in the area of the lunar equator, carried out by these satellites, was also needed to select future landing sites for spacecraft with astronauts.
The development of elements of the flight program to the Moon was carried out first by unmanned spacecraft of the Apollo series, and then by manned ones (Apollo 8, -9, -10). Apollo weighed 44 tons and consisted of a main block and a lunar cabin, which included landing and takeoff stages. Manned flights of the Moon were also planned in our country. To practice maneuvers in orbit, the Zond-4, −5, −6, −7, −8 spacecraft were used. However, these plans were abandoned after American astronauts made such flights.
The landing site for the lunar cabin of the Apollo 11 spacecraft was chosen in the Sea of Tranquility, where Ranger 8 and Surveyor 5 had already visited. Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin landed on July 20, 1969. Armstrong was the first to leave the cabin, uttering a phrase that became historic: “This is a small step for the shuttle, but a giant leap for mankind.” The astronauts spoke to the US President using Czech radio communications; They installed a laser radiation compressor, a seismic meter, took pictures, and collected 221 samples of lunar soil. All work took them 2 hours 30 minutes. During this time, the astronauts moved away from the landing module at a distance of up to 100 m. Michael Collins, who also carried out scientific research, was found in orbit in the main block.
Astronauts of Apollo 12, launched on November 14, 1969, Charles! Conrad and Alan Bean landed in the Ocean of Storms region, near the lunar equator. Richard Gordon remained in the main block of the ship in orbit around the Moon. Conrad and Bean reached the surface twice and installed equipment to study the seismic activity of the Moon and the composition of particles solar wind at its surface. Since the landing site was chosen near the Surveyor 3 station, which had been on the Moon for two years and seven months, the astronauts’ task was to survey it. They found no signs of destruction of the station; only a layer of reddish-brown dust covered it. This time, 34 kg of lunar rock samples were collected.
The crew of Apollo 13 was unable to land on the Moon due to an explosion in the engine compartment of the main unit. Having flown around the Moon, the astronauts returned to Earth seven days later.
The Soviet automatic station “Luna-16” in September 1970 made a soft landing in the Sea of Plenty, where lunar rock weighing 105 g was taken with a special soil-collecting device and placed in the return vehicle, which delivered it to Earth. In the same year, the Lunokhod-1 self-propelled vehicle was first delivered by the Luna-17 station, covering a 10.5 km long path and transmitting many images to Earth. Using the laser corner reflector installed on Lunokhod-1, it was possible to clarify the distance from the Earth to the Moon.
The Apollo 14 expedition took place from January 31 to February 9, 1971. The report from the landing site of the lunar cabin in the area of the Fra Mauro crater was transmitted to Earth. Astronauts Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell spent 9 hours on the lunar surface and collected 44.5 kg of rocks. In August 1971, the crew of Apollo 15 landed at the foot of the lunar Apennine Mountains. For the first time, astronauts David Scott and James Irwin used a lunar rover for movement, making a 10 km long journey on it, and conducted numerous studies. In particular, they studied a deep gorge called Hadley's Furrow, but did not dare to go down without special equipment.
In April 1972, the crew of the lunar cabin of the Apollo 16 spacecraft landed on the mainland in the vicinity of the Descartes crater. In December of the same year, the last, sixth expedition on the Apollo 17 spacecraft was successfully completed.
The second self-propelled vehicle Lunokhod-2, delivered by the Luna-21 station in January 1973, continued research in a rather complex region of the Moon, which is a transition from the sea to the mainland. Using on-board television equipment, numerous panoramas and photographs of the surrounding area, data on the properties of the soil and its chemical composition were transmitted to Earth. A total of 37 km were covered. In 1974, the Luna-22 apparatus studied the relief and gravitational field from the orbit of an artificial satellite of the Moon. In the same year, Luna 23 managed to land in the Sea of Crisis area. The exploration of the Moon by Soviet automatic stations was completed by the Luna-24 spacecraft, which automatically drilled lunar soil in the Sea of Crises to a depth of 2 m and delivered 170 g of lunar rock to Earth on August 22, 1976.
After that, for quite a long time there were no launches to the Moon either in our country or in the USA. Interestingly, only 14 years later, in March 1990, Japan, using a Nissan rocket, launched the Muses-A automatic apparatus into orbit around the Moon for remote study of the lunar surface.
New generation devices created using ultra-light materials include the Clementine station, launched in January 1994. In addition to photographing the lunar surface, it measured relief heights, and also refined the thickness of the lunar crust, the model of the gravitational field and some other parameters.
In the near future, exploration of the Moon will begin. Already today, projects are being developed in detail to create a permanent inhabited base on its surface. The long-term or permanent presence on the Moon of replacement crews of such a base will make it possible to solve more complex scientific and applied problems.
Mercury Research
Nothing was known about the surface of the planet closest to the Sun until the flight of the Mariner 10 spacecraft, launched on November 3, 1973. The weight of the scientific equipment was about 80 kg. First, the device was directed towards Venus, in the gravitational field of which it received gravitational acceleration and, changing its trajectory, flew up to Mercury on March 29, 1974. Images of the surface obtained as a result of three flights of Mariner 10 at an interval of six months showed a surprising similarity of Mercury's topography with the Earth's closest neighbor, the Moon. As it turned out, its entire surface is covered with many craters of different sizes.
Scientists were somewhat disappointed that no atmosphere was found on Mercury. Traces of argon, neon, helium and hydrogen were found, but so insignificant that we can only talk about a vacuum with a degree of rarefaction that they cannot yet obtain on Earth.
During the first flyby, which took place at an altitude of 705 km, a plasma shock wave and a magnetic field were detected near Mercury. It was possible to clarify the value of the planet’s radius (2439 km) and its mass.
September 21, 1974 quite long distance(more than 48 thousand kilometers) the second flight near Mercury was carried out. Temperature sensors made it possible to establish that during a day, the duration of which is 88 Earth days. The planet's surface temperature rises to 510 °C, and at night drops to −210 °C. Using a radiometer, the heat flux emitted by the surface was determined; Against the background of heated areas consisting of loose rocks, colder areas consisting of rocks were identified.
During the third flyby of Mercury, which took place on March 16, 1975 at the shortest distance of −318 km, it was confirmed that the detected magnetic field indeed belonged to the planet. Its strength is about 1% of the strength of the earth's magnetic field. 3 thousand photographs obtained at this session had a resolution of up to 50 m. Since three photographic sessions covered the western hemisphere of the planet, the eastern hemisphere remained unexplored.
Currently, projects are being developed for new flights of space stations to Mercury, which will make it possible to study its eastern hemisphere.
Venus Research
The surface of Venus is completely hidden by a thick cloud cover, and only with the help of radars is it possible to “see” its relief.
The first descent vehicle in the form of a sphere with a diameter of 0.9 m with a heat-protective coating was delivered by the Venera-3 spacecraft in March 1966. The descent vehicles of the Venera-4, −5, −6 stations transmitted information about pressure, temperature and composition atmosphere during descent. However, they did not reach the surface of the planet, since they were not designed for the atmospheric pressure of Venus, which, as it turned out, is 90 atmospheres! And only the Venera-7 descent module in December 1970 finally landed on the surface of Venus and transmitted data on the composition of the atmosphere, the temperature of its various layers and surface, as well as changes in pressure.
In July 1972, the Venera 8 lander landed for the first time on the daytime side of the planet and showed that the illumination on its surface resembled an earthly cloudy day. The clouds of Venus, through which the device passed at an altitude of 70 to 30 km, had a layered structure and were not very dense.
In October 1975, the new generation Venera-9, −10 devices, which made a soft landing at a distance of over 2 thousand kilometers from each other on the illuminated side of the planet, transmitted panoramas of the surrounding area to Earth for the first time. The mass of each descent module with a diameter of 2.4 m was 1560 kg. Within an hour, the spacecraft remaining in orbit relayed scientific information from the surface of the planet to Earth.
People were able to see the global features of the relief of most of the surface of Venus thanks to radar sounding carried out from the American automatic station Pioneer Venus 1 in 1978. On maps compiled from the results of measuring surface heights, one can see extensive hills, individual mountain ranges and lowlands .
An interesting experiment was carried out at the Pioneer-Venera-2 station: with its help, one large one (with a diameter of 1.5 m and a mass of 316 kg) and three small ones (with a diameter of 0.7 m and a mass of 96.6 kg) were dropped into the atmosphere of Venus. ) the vehicle descends to the day and night sides, as well as to the region of the planet’s north pole. The devices transmitted information as they fell, and one of the small devices even withstood the impact and transmitted data from the surface for an hour. The results of this experiment confirmed that the planet's atmosphere contains up to 96% carbon dioxide, up to 4% nitrogen and some water vapor. A thin layer of dust was found on the surface.
In December 1978, research was also carried out by the Soviet “Venera-11, −12”, which landed at a distance of 800 km from each other. The data on the registration of electrical discharges in the planet’s atmosphere turned out to be interesting. One of the devices detected 25 lightning strikes per second, and the other about 1000, with one of the thunderclaps lasting 15 minutes. Apparently, the occurrence of these discharges is facilitated by the high content of sulfuric acid in the cloud cover.
Data on the chemical composition of the rocks at the Venera-13, −14 landing site were obtained in March 1982 using special soil sampling devices that placed the rock inside the descent vehicle. Data from the analyzes performed by the machines were transmitted to Earth, where scientists were able to compare these rocks with basalts found in the deep basins of the Earth's oceans.
From the orbits of the artificial satellites of Venus, the Venera-15, −16 spacecraft, equipped with radar systems, transmitted images of the surface of part of the northern hemisphere of the planet and measurement data of relief heights. As a result of each flight in highly elongated circumpolar orbits, a strip of terrain 160 km wide and 8 thousand kilometers long was photographed. Based on the materials from these surveys, an atlas of the surface of Venus was compiled, including relief maps, geological and other special maps.
A new type of lander, consisting of a lander and a balloon probe, was dropped from the Soviet stations "Ve-ga-1, -2", intended for research of Venus and Halley's comet in 1985. The balloon probes drifted at an altitude of about 54 km and transmitted data for two days, while the landing vehicles conducted a study of the atmosphere and surface of the planet.
The most detailed images of the entire surface of Venus were obtained using the American Magellan spacecraft, launched by astronauts of the space shuttle Atlantis in May 1989. Regular radar surveys carried out over several years made it possible to obtain images of the topography of the surface of Venus with a resolution of less than 300 m. As a result of all the experiments carried out using spacecraft, Venus has perhaps been studied better than other planets.
Research of Mars and its satellites
The flight to Mars takes six to eight months. Because the mutual arrangement The Earth and Mars are changing all the time, and the minimum distances between them (oppositions) occur only once every two years; the launch moment is chosen in such a way that Mars is at the intersection with the trajectory of the spacecraft, which by that time has reached its orbit.
The first launch towards Mars was carried out in early November 1962. The Soviet “Mars-1” passed at a distance of 197 thousand kilometers from the red planet. Photographs of its surface were taken by the American Mariner 4, launched two years later and passing on July 15, 1965 at a distance of 10 thousand kilometers from the surface of the planet.
It turned out that Mars is also covered with craters. The mass of the planet and the composition of its atmosphere were clarified. In 1969, the Mariner 6, −7 spacecraft, from a distance of 3400 km from Mars, transmitted several dozen images with a resolution of up to 300 m, and also measured the temperature of the southern polar cap. which turned out to be very low (-125 °C).
In May 1971, Mars 2, −3 and Mariner 9 were launched. The Mars-2, −3 devices, weighing 4.65 tons each, had an orbital compartment and a descent module. Only the Mars-3 lander managed to make a soft landing.
The Mars-2, −3 spacecraft conducted research from the orbits of artificial satellites, transmitting data on the properties of the atmosphere and surface of Mars based on the nature of radiation in the visible, infrared and ultraviolet spectral ranges, as well as in the radio wave range. The temperature of the northern polar cap was measured (below −110 °C); the extent, composition, temperature of the atmosphere, the temperature of the planet's surface were determined; data on the height of dust clouds and a weak magnetic field were obtained, as well as color images of Mars.
Mariner 9 also transferred an artificial satellite of Mars into orbit with a period of about 12 hours. It transmitted to Earth 7329 images of Mars with a resolution of up to 100 m, as well as photographs of its satellites, Phobos Deimos. Images of the Martian surface clearly show giant extinct volcanoes, many large and small canyons and valleys resembling dried up riverbeds; Martian craters differ from lunar ones in their emissions, indicating the presence of subsurface ice, as well as traces of water erosion and wind activity
A whole flotilla of four spacecraft Mars-4, −5, −6, −7 launched in 1973 reached the vicinity of Mars in early 1974. From-; malfunctions on-board systems Braking "Mars-4" passed at a distance of about 2200 km from the surface of the planet, having only photographed it. Mars-5 carried out remote sensing of the surface and atmosphere from the orbit of an artificial satellite. The Mars 6 lander made a soft landing in the southern hemisphere. Data on the chemical composition, pressure and temperature of the atmosphere were transmitted to Earth. Mars 7 passed at a distance of 1,300 km from the surface without completing its program.
The most effective flights were the two American Vikings launched in 1975. On board the devices were television cameras, infrared spectrometers for recording water vapor in the atmosphere, and radiometers for obtaining temperature data. The Viking 1 landing unit made a soft landing on Chrys Planitia on July 20, 1976, and the Viking 2 landing unit on Utopia Planitia on September 3, 1976. Unique experiments were carried out at the landing sites in order to detect signs of life in the Martian soil. A special device captured a soil sample and placed it in one of the containers containing a supply of water or nutrients. Since any living organisms change their habitat, the instruments had to record this. Although some changes in the environment in a tightly closed container were observed, the presence of a strong oxidizing agent in the soil could lead to the same results. That is why scientists could not confidently attribute these changes to the activity of bacteria.
Detailed photographs of the surface of Mars and its satellites were taken from orbital stations. Based on the data obtained, we compiled detailed maps surfaces of the planet, geological, thermal and other special maps.
The task of the Soviet stations “Pho-bos-1, -2”, launched after a 13-year break, was to study Mars and its satellite Phobos. As a result of an incorrect command from Earth, Phobos-1 lost orientation, and communication with it could not be restored.
“Phobos-2” entered the orbit of the artificial satellite of Mars in January 1989. Data on temperature changes on the surface of Mars and new information about the properties of the rocks that make up Phobos were obtained using remote methods. 38 images with a resolution of up to 40 m were obtained, and the temperature of its surface was measured, which was 30 °C in the hottest spots. Unfortunately, it was not possible to implement the main program to study Phobos. Contact with the device was lost on March 27, 1989.
The series of failures did not end there. The American Mars Observer spacecraft, launched in 1992, also failed to complete its mission. Contact with him was lost on August 21, 1993. It was not possible to place the Russian station “Mars-9b” on the flight path to Mars. In July 1997, Mars Pathfinder delivered the first automatic rover to the planet, which successfully studied the chemical composition of the surface and meteorological conditions.
In 1998, Japan plans to launch the Planet-B orbiter to Mars. In 2003, the European Space Agency, together with the United States and Russia, plans to create a network of special stations on Mars. Programs are being developed to fly astronauts to Mars. Such an expedition will take more than two years, since in order to return they will have to wait for a convenient relative position of Earth and Mars.
Jupiter Research
The study of giant planets using space technology began a decade later than the terrestrial planets. On March 3, 1972, the American spacecraft Pioneer 10 launched from Earth. After 6 months of flight, the device successfully passed the asteroid belt and after another 15 months reached the environs of the “king of the planets,” passing at a distance of 130,300 km from it in December 1973.
Using the original photopolarimeter, 340 images of the cloud cover of Jupiter and the surfaces of the four largest moons were obtained: Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. In addition to the Great Red Spot, whose dimensions exceed the diameter of our planet, it was discovered White spot more than 10 thousand kilometers in diameter. An infrared radiometer showed the temperature of the outer cloud cover to be 133 °C. It was also discovered that Jupiter emits 1.6 times more heat than it receives from the Sun; The mass of the planet and satellite Io has been specified.
Research has shown that Jupiter has a powerful magnetic field; a zone with intense radiation was also recorded (10 thousand times more than in the near-Earth radiation belts) at a distance of 177 thousand kilometers from the planet. The gravity of Jupiter greatly changed the flight path of the device. Pioneer 10 began to move tangentially to the orbit of Jupiter, moving away from the Earth almost in a straight line. Interestingly, a plume of Jupiter's magnetosphere was discovered outside the orbit of Saturn. In 1987, Pioneer 10 went beyond the boundaries of the solar system.
The route of Pioneer 11, which flew at a distance of 43 thousand kilometers from Jupiter in December 1974, was calculated differently. He passed between the belts and the planet itself without receiving a dangerous dose of radiation. The same devices were installed on this device as on the previous one. Analysis of color images of the cloud layer obtained with a photopolarimeter made it possible to identify the features and structure of the clouds. Their height turned out to be different in the stripes and the zones located between them. According to Pioneer 11 studies, the light zones and the Great Red Spot are characterized by upward currents in the atmosphere. The clouds in them are located higher than in neighboring areas of the stripes, and it is colder here.
Jupiter's gravity turned Pioneer 11 almost 180°. After several corrections to the flight path, he crossed the orbit of Saturn not far from the planet itself.
The unique relative position of the Earth and the giant planets from 1976 to 1978 was used to consistently study these planets. Under the influence of gravitational fields, spacecraft were able to move from the flight path from Jupiter to Saturn, then to Uranus and Neptune. Without the use of the gravitational fields of the intermediate planets, the flight to Uranus would have taken 16 years instead of 9, and to Neptune - 20 years instead of 12. In 1977. The Voyager −1, −2 spacecraft set off on a long journey, with Voyager 2 launched earlier, on August 20, 1977, along a “slow” trajectory, and Voyager 1 on September 5, 1977, according to “ fast."
Voyager 1 made a flyby of Jupiter in March 1979, and Voyager 2 passed by the giant four months later. They transmitted to Earth images of Jupiter's cloud cover and the surfaces of nearby moons in amazing detail. Atmospheric masses of red, orange, yellow, brown and blue were constantly moving. The stripes of vortex flows captured each other, now narrowing, now expanding. The speed of cloud movement turned out to be 11 km/s. The Great Red Spot rotated counterclockwise and made a full revolution in 6 hours. Voyager 1 for the first time showed that Jupiter has a system of pale rings located at a distance of 57 thousand kilometers from the cloud cover of the planet, and there are eight volcanoes on the moon Io . Voyager 2 reported several months later that six of them remained active. Photographs of other Galilean moons - Europa, Ganymede and Callisto - showed that their surfaces differ sharply from each other.
The American spacecraft Galileo, delivered to low-Earth orbit in the cargo compartment of the Atlantis reusable spacecraft, was a new generation apparatus for research chemical composition and physical characteristics of Jupiter, as well as for more detailed photography of its satellites. The device consisted of an orbital module for long-term observations and a special probe that was supposed to penetrate the planet’s atmosphere. Galileo's trajectory was quite complex. First, the device headed towards Venus, which it passed by in February 1990. Then, along a new trajectory in December, it returned to Earth. Numerous photographs of Venus, the Earth and the Moon were transmitted.
In October 1991, while passing through the asteroid belt, the device photographed the minor planet Gaspra. Returning to Earth for the second time in December 1992 and receiving new acceleration, he rushed to the main goal of his journey - Jupiter. Once again in the asteroid belt in August 1993, he photographed another small planet, Ida.
Two years later, Galileo reached the vicinity of Jupiter. On command from the Earth, a descent probe separated from it and for five months completed solo flight to the boundaries of Jupiter's atmosphere at a speed of 45 km/s. Due to the resistance of its upper layers, the speed dropped to several hundred meters per second within two minutes. At the same time, the overloads exceeded the earth's gravity by 230 times. The device penetrated the atmosphere to a depth of 156 km and operated for 57 minutes. Atmospheric data was relayed through the main Galileo unit.
Saturn Research
The first spacecraft to visit the vicinity of Saturn was Pioneer 11, which on September 1, 1979 passed at a distance of 21,400 km from the cloud layer of the planet. Saturn's magnetic field turned out to be stronger than the Earth's, but weaker than that of Jupiter. The mass of Saturn was clarified. Based on the nature of the gravitational field, it was concluded that internal structure Saturn is similar in structure to Jupiter. According to measurements infrared radiation Scientists have determined the temperature of the visible surface of Saturn. It turned out to be equal to 100 K, and this fact indicated that the planet radiates approximately twice as much heat as it receives from the Sun. In the high latitudes of Saturn, the presence of auroras was assumed.
For the first time, images of Titan, the largest of Saturn's family of moons, were obtained, but, unfortunately, the resolution was very low.
The photographs of the rings looked unusual. The side of the rings not illuminated by the Sun was facing the apparatus, so the instruments recorded light that was not reflected from the rings, but passed through them.
Pioneer 11 left the solar system, but weak signals from it are still picked up by earthly antennas.
Better images were obtained during the flyby of two Voyagers, which, under the influence of Jupiter's gravity, changed their trajectories and headed towards Saturn. Images of the planet's cloud cover show swirling streaks, eddies, halos and spots different colors- yellow to brown, reminiscent of formations on Jupiter. A red spot with a diameter of about 1250 km was also discovered, as well as rapidly disappearing dark oval formations. Voyager 1 showed for the first time that the ring system of Saturn consists of thousands of individual narrow rings, discovered six new satellites and, passing at a distance of 4030 km from Titan, established that the main component of its atmosphere is nitrogen, and not methane, as previously thought . Interesting data have also been obtained about some of Saturn’s other satellites: Tethys, Mimas, Dione, Rhea and Enceladus. Voyager 1 completed its main tasks and set off beyond the solar system.
Voyager 2 did not come the closest to Saturn. In the system of its rings there were even more individual rings, consisting of countless ice particles, large and small fragments. Voyager 2 discovered the largest crater in the entire system on the moon Tethys
Saturn with a diameter of 400 km and a depth of 16 km. After the encounter with Saturn, Voyager 2's flight path was changed so that it would pass near Uranus in January 1986.
New studies of Saturn, its rings and moons are planned in a project called Cassini. The launch of the device is scheduled for October 1997. Following a complex trajectory, the device will reach the outskirts of Saturn in June 2004 and will conduct research for four years. The most interesting thing in the project is the descent of a special probe into the atmosphere of Titan.
Uranus Research
Only one spacecraft, Voyager 2, has visited the vicinity of Uranus, flying at a distance of 81,200 km from the outer cloud cover. The trajectory of the device was almost perpendicular to the plane in which the satellites are located, so only Miranda, the smallest satellite known before this flight, was photographed at close range. The magnetic field strength of Uranus turned out to be greater than that of Saturn, and the intensity of the radiation belts is the same as that of the Earth's belts. In the ultraviolet region of the spectrum, a glow from the atmosphere of Uranus was recorded, extending 50 thousand kilometers from the planet.
Like other giant planets, vortices, jet streams, spots (but much fewer of them) were discovered in the atmosphere of Uranus, and methane clouds were recorded in its depths. Helium turned out to be three times less than previously expected: only 15%. Atmospheric circulation occurs at high latitudes at a higher speed than at the equator.
The nine rings of Uranus were known from ground-based observations of the planet's occultations of stars. Voyager 2 discovered a tenth ring 3 km wide and several incomplete rings of a dark color. The particles that make up the rings are about 1 m in diameter.
Images of five previously known satellites and ten new, small ones were obtained. Several large craters and a mountain about 6000 m high were discovered on Oberon, and numerous craters and valleys were discovered on Titania. The surface of Umbriel is very smooth, with craters and a bright spot visible on it. Ariel's heavily cratered surface, with traces of various geological processes, is reminiscent of Saturn's moon Enceladus. The surface of Miranda turned out to be the most complex, dotted with furrows, ridges and faults several kilometers deep. Such active tectonic activity was unexpected on a satellite whose diameter is less than 500 km.
Under the influence of Uranus's gravitational field, Voyager 2's trajectory changed again, and it headed towards Neptune.
Neptune Research
By the time of its encounter with Neptune on August 25, 1989, Voyager 2 had covered a distance of 4.5 billion kilometers. Despite the long journey, which took 12 years, and numerous trajectory corrections during the flight from Jupiter to Saturn and Uranus, Voyager found itself at the minimum distance from Neptune (less than 5 thousand kilometers) at the exact time calculated on Earth.
In color images synthesized from weak signals from Voyager, the visible surface of Neptune is a dense cloud layer blue color with stripes and white and dark spots. A powerful whirlwind storm the size of our planet is spinning counterclockwise. Neptune has a magnetic field; the axis of the magnetic poles is deviated by 50° from the planet's rotation axis. Voyager 2 also detected five faint rings around Neptune.
Based on ground-based studies, only two satellites were known: Triton and Nereid, orbiting Neptune in the opposite direction. Voyager discovered six more satellites ranging in size from 200 to 50 km, rotating in the same direction as Neptune. Triton and Nereid exhibit phenomena in the ultraviolet that are reminiscent of terrestrial auroras.
Triton has a very thin shell of gas, the top layer of which consists of nitrogen. Methane and solid particles of nitrogen formations were found in the lower layers. Along with craters, active volcanoes, canyons and mountains are discovered on its surface.
Voyager 2 continues to explore space beyond the solar system. Scientists hope to receive information from this spacecraft until 2013.