Colonial system: events and facts. Stages of formation and collapse of colonial systems Formation of the colonial system in Western Europe

Great geographical discoveries of the middle XV- middle XVII in. were associated with the process of primitive accumulation of capital in Europe. The development of new trade routes and countries, the plunder of newly discovered lands contributed to the development of this process, marked the beginning of the creation of the colonial system of capitalism, the formation of the world market.

The pioneers of the Great geographical discoveries were in XV in. countries of the Iberian Peninsula - Spain and Portugal. Having won back in XIII in. their territory from the Arabs, the Portuguese in the XIV-XV centuries. continued wars with the Arabs in North Africa, during which a significant fleet was created.

The first stage of the Portuguese geographical discoveries (1418-1460) is associated with the activities of Prince Enrique the Navigator, a talented organizer of sea expeditions, in which not only nobles, but also merchants participated. Back in the 20s and 30s XV in. the Portuguese discovered the island of Madeira, the Canary and Azores, moved far south along the western coast of Africa. Rounding Cape Bojador, they reached the coast of Guinea (1434) and the Cape Verde Islands, and in 1462 d Sierra Leone. AT 1471 they explored the coast of Ghana, where they found rich gold placers. Opening in 1486 Bartolomeo Diashem of the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa created a real opportunity for preparing an expedition to India,

Long sea voyages became possible in the second half XV in. as a result of significant advances in science and technology. To end XVI in. the Portuguese were ahead of other countries not only in the number of discoveries. The knowledge they gained during their travels gave the navigators of many countries valuable new information about sea currents, tides, and the direction of the winds. The mapping of new lands spurred the development of cartography. Portuguese maps were highly accurate and contained data on areas of the world previously unknown to Europeans. Reports on Portuguese sea expeditions and Portuguese navigation manuals were published and republished in many countries. Portuguese cartographers worked in many European countries. At the beginning XVI in. the first maps appeared on which the lines of the tropics and the equator and the scale of latitudes were plotted.

Based on the doctrine of the sphericity of the Earth, the Italian scientist, astronomer and cosmographer Paolo Toscanelli compiled a map of the world, on which the shores of Asia were marked on the western coast of the Atlantic Ocean: he believed that it was possible to reach India by sailing west from the shores of Europe, Italian scientist incorrectly imagined the extent of the Earth along the equator, making the mistake of ia 12 thousand, km, Later they said that it was a great mistake, which led to a great discovery.

By the end XV in. navigational devices have been significantly improved<компас и астролябия), позволявшие более точно, чем раньше, определять положение корабля в открытом море. Поя-лился новый тип судна - каравелла, которая благодаря системе парусов могла идти и по ветру, и против ветра, достигая скорости 22 km in hour. The ship had a small crew (! / th crew of a rowing galley) and could take on board enough food and fresh water for a long voyage.

In the end XV in. the Spaniards were also looking for new trade routes, 1492 g, the Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus (1451 -1506) arrived at the court of the Spanish kings Ferdinand and Isabella. Little is known about the previous period of Columbus's life. He was born in Genoa in the family of a weaver, in his youth he took part in sea voyages, was an experienced pilot and captain, read a lot, knew astronomy and geography well, Columbus offered the Spanish monarchs his project approved by Toscanelli - to reach the shores of India, sailing west through Atlantic. Prior to this, Columbus had vainly proposed his plan to the Portuguese king, and then to the English and French monarchs, but was refused. The Portuguese by this time were already close to opening a route to India through Africa, which predetermined the refusal of the Portuguese king Alphonse V. France and England did not have at that time a sufficient fleet to equip the expedition.

In Spain, the situation was more favorable for the implementation of Columbus's plans. After the conquest in 1492 Granada and the end of the last war with the Arabs, the economic situation of the Spanish monarchy was very difficult. The treasury was empty, the crown no longer had vacant lands to sell, and revenues from taxes on trade and industry were negligible. A huge number of nobles (hidalgo) were left without a livelihood. Raised by the centuries of the Reconquista, they despised all economic activity - the only source of income for most of them was war. Without losing their desire for quick enrichment, the Spanish hidalgos were ready to rush into new conquest campaigns. The crown was interested in sending this restless noble freemen away from Spain, across the ocean, to unknown lands. In addition, Spanish industry needed markets. Due to its geographical position and the long struggle with the Arabs, Spain in XV in. was cut off from the Mediterranean trade, which was controlled by the Italian cities. Extension at the end XV in. Turkish conquests made it even more difficult for Europe to trade with the East. The route to India around Africa was closed to Spain, since the advance in this direction meant a collision with Portugal,

All these circumstances were decisive for the adoption of the Columbus project by the Spanish court. The idea of ​​overseas expansion was supported by the tops of the Catholic Church. It was also approved by scientists from the University of Salamanca, one of the most famous in Europe. An agreement (surrender) was concluded between the Spanish kings and Columbus, according to which the great navigator was appointed viceroy of the newly discovered lands, received the hereditary rank of admiral, the right to Vio part of the income from the newly discovered possessions and] / in part of the profits from trade.

3 august 1492 a flotilla of three caravels sailed from the harbor of Paloe (near Seville), heading southwest. Having passed the Canary Islands, Columbus led the squadron in a northwesterly direction and after a few days of sailing reached the Sargasso Sea, a significant part of which is covered with algae, which created the illusion of the proximity of the earth. The flotilla hit the trade winds and moved quickly forward. For several days the ships wandered among the algae, but the shore was not visible. This gave rise to superstitious fear among the sailors, a mutiny was brewing on the ships. At the beginning October after two months of sailing under pressure from the crew, Columbus changed course and moved to the southwest. At night 12 October 1492 one of the sailors saw the land, and at dawn the flotilla approached one of the Bahamas (the island of Guanahani, called San Salvador by the Spaniards). During this first journey (1492-1493), Columbus discovered the island of Cuba and explored its northern coast.

Mistaking Cuba for one of the islands off the coast of Japan, he tried to continue sailing west and discovered the island of Haiti (Hispaniola), where he found more gold than in other places. Off the coast of Haiti, Columbus lost his largest ship and was forced to leave part of the crew in Hispaniola. A fort was built on the island. Having strengthened it with cannons from the lost ship and leaving food and gunpowder supplies to the garrison, Columbus began to prepare for his return voyage. Fortress in Hispaniola - Navidad (Christmas) - #t * la the first Spanish settlement in the New World.

Open lands, their nature, appearance and occupations of their inhabitants

cm did not resemble the rich lands of Southeast Asia described by travelers from many countries. The natives had copper-red skin, straight black hair, they walked naked or wore pieces of cotton cloth on their hips. There were no signs of gold mining on the islands, only some of the inhabitants had gold jewelry. Having captured several natives, Columbus explored the Bahamas in search of gold mines. The Spaniards saw hundreds of unfamiliar plants, fruit trees and flowers. AT 1493 Mr. Columbus returned to Spain, where he was received with great honor.

The discoveries of Columbus worried the Portuguese. AT 1494 g. through the mediation of the pope, an agreement was concluded in the city of Tor desillas, according to which Spain was transferred the right to own lands to the west of the Azores, and Portugal - to the east.

Columbus made three more trips to America: in 1493-1496, 1498-1500 and in 1502-1504, during which the Lesser Antilles were discovered, the island of Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Trinidad and others, and the coast of the Central America. Until the end of his days, Columbus believed that he had found the western mud in India, hence the name of the lands "Western India" came from, which was preserved in official documents until the end. XVI However, in subsequent travels they did not find rich deposits of gold and precious metals there, income from new lands only slightly exceeded the costs of their development. Many doubted that these lands were India, and the number of Columbus' rags was growing. Especially great was the discontent of the conquistador nobles in the New World, whom the admiral severely punished for disobedience. AT 1500 Mr. Columbus was accused of abuse of power and sent to Spain in shackles. However, the appearance in Spain of the famous navigator in chains and under arrest caused indignation among many people belonging to various strata of society, including those close to the queen. Soon Columbus was rehabilitated, all his titles were returned to him.

During the last trip, Columbus made great discoveries: he discovered the coast of the mainland south of Cuba, explored the southwestern shores of the Caribbean Sea for 1500 km. It has been proven that the Atlantic Ocean is separated by land from the "South Sea" and the coast of Asia. Thus, the admiral did not find a passage from the Atlantic to the Indian.

While sailing along the shores of the Yucatan, Columbus encountered more advanced tribes; they made colored fabrics, used bronze utensils, bronze axes, and knew how to melt metals. At that moment, the admiral did not attach importance to these lands, which, as it turned out later, were part of the Mayan state - a country with a high culture, one of the great American civilizations. On the way back, Columbus' ship was caught in a strong storm, Columbus with great difficulty reached the coast of Spain. The situation there was unfavorable. Two weeks after his return, Queen Isabella, who patronized Columbus, died, and he lost all support at court. He did not receive an answer to his letters to King Ferdinand. The great navigator tried in vain to restore his rights to receive income from newly discovered lands. His property in Spain and Hispaniola was described and sold for debts. Columbus died in 1506 g, forgotten by everyone, in complete poverty. Even the news of his death was published only 27 years later.

The opening of the sea route to India, the colonial seizures of the Portuguese. The tragic fate of Columbus is largely due to the success of the Portuguese. AT 1497 Vasco da Gama's expedition was sent to explore the sea route to India around Africa. Rounding the Cape of Good Hope, the Portuguese sailors entered the Indian Ocean and opened the mouth of the Zambezi River. Moving north along the coast of Africa, Vasco da Gama reached the Arab trading cities of Mozambique - Mombasa and Malindi. In May 1498 With the help of an Arab pilot, the squadron reached the Indian port of Kali-kut. All sailing to India continued 10 months. Having bought a large cargo of spices for sale in Europe, the expedition set off on the return journey; it took a whole year, during the journey 2/3 of the crew died.

The success of Vasco da Gama's expedition made a huge impression in Europe. Despite heavy losses, the goal was achieved, huge opportunities for the commercial exploitation of India opened up before the Portuguese. Soon, thanks to their superiority in armaments and naval technology, they managed to oust the Arab merchants from the Indian Ocean and seize all maritime trade. The Portuguese became incomparably more cruel than the Arabs, exploiting the population of the coastal regions of India, and then Malacca and Indonesia. From the Indian princelings, the Portuguese demanded the cessation of all trade relations with the Arabs and the expulsion of the Arab population from their territory. They attacked all ships, both Arab and local, robbed them, brutally exterminated the crews. Albuquerque, who was first a squadron commander and then became Viceroy of India, was especially ferocious. He believed that the Portuguese should fortify themselves along the entire coast of the Indian Ocean and close all exits to the ocean to Arab merchants. The Albuquerque squadron smashed the defenseless cities on the southern coast of Arabia, terrifying with their atrocities. Arab attempts to oust the Portuguese from the Indian Ocean failed. AT 1509 their fleet at Diu (the northern coast of India) was defeated.

In India itself, the Portuguese did not capture vast territories, but sought to capture only strongholds on the coast. They widely used the rivalry of local rajas. With some of them, the colonialists entered into alliances, built fortresses on their territory and placed their garrisons there. Gradually, the Portuguese took over all trade relations between individual areas of the Indian Ocean coast. This trade gave huge profits. Moving further east from the coast, they took possession of the transit routes for the trade in spices, which were brought here from the islands of the Sunda and Moluccas archipelagos. AT 1511 Malacca was captured by the Portuguese, and in 1521 their trading posts arose in the Moluccas. Trade with India was declared a monopoly of the Portuguese king. Merchants who brought spices to Lisbon received up to 800% of the profit. The government artificially maintained high prices. Every year, only 5-6 ships of spices were allowed to be exported from the huge colonial possessions. If the imported goods turned out to be more than needed to keep prices high, they were destroyed.

Having seized control of trade with India, the Portuguese stubbornly sought a western route to this richest country. In the end XV early XVI in. As part of the Spanish and Portuguese expeditions, the Florentine navigator and astronomer Amerigo Vespucci traveled to the shores of America. During the second trip, the Portuguese squadron passed along the coast of Brazil, considering it an island. AT 1501 Mr. Vespucci took part in an expedition that explored the coast of Brazil, and came to the conclusion that Columbus discovered not the coast of India, but a new materia, which was named America in honor of Amerigo. AT 1515 The first globe with this name appeared in Germany, and then atlases and maps.

Opening of the western route to India. First round-the-world trip. Vespucci's hypothesis was finally confirmed as a result of Magellan's trip around the world (1519-1522).

Fernando Magellan (Magaillansh) was a native of the Portuguese nobility. In his early youth, he participated in sea expeditions, while in the service of the Portuguese king. He made several trips to the Moluccas and thought that they lay much closer to the shores of South America. Having no exact information about the extent of the newly discovered continent, he considered it possible to reach them by moving to the west and skirting the newly discovered continent from the south. At that time, it was already known that to the west of the Isthmus of Panama lies the "South Sea", as the Pacific Ocean was called. The Spanish government, which at that time did not receive large incomes from newly discovered lands, reacted with interest to the Magellan project. According to the agreement concluded by the Spanish king with Magellan, he was supposed to sail to the southern tip of the American mainland and open the western route to India. The titles of the ruler and governor of the new lands and a twentieth of all income that would go to the treasury complained to him.

20 September 1519 A squadron of five ships left the Spanish harbor of San Lucar, heading west. A month later, the flotilla reached the southern tip of the American mainland and for three weeks moved along the strait, which now bears the name of Magellan. In the end november 1520 The flotilla entered the Pacific Ocean, the voyage through which lasted over three months. The weather was excellent, a fair wind was blowing, and Magellan gave the ocean such a name, not knowing that at other times it can be stormy and formidable. For the entire journey, as Magellan's companion Pigafetta wrote in his diary, the squadron met only two deserted islands. The crews of the ships suffered from hunger and thirst. The sailors ate the skin, soaking it in sea water, drank rotten water, and suffered from scurvy without exception. Most of the crew died during the voyage. Only 6 Martha 1521 seafarers reached three small islands from the Mariana group, where they were able to stock up on food and fresh water. Continuing his journey west, Magellan reached the Philippine Islands and soon died there in a skirmish with the natives. The remaining two ships under the command of d "Elcano reached the Moluccas and, capturing a cargo of spices, moved west. The squadron arrived in the Spanish port of San Lucar 6 September 1522 d. From the crew to 253 Only 18 returned.

New discoveries aggravated the old contradictions between Spain and Portugal. For a long time, experts on both sides could not accurately determine the boundaries of the Spanish and Portuguese possessions due to the lack of accurate data on the longitude of the newly discovered islands. AT 1529 d, an agreement was reached: Spain renounced its claims to the Moluccas, but retained the rights to the Philippine Islands, which got their name in honor of the heir to the Spanish throne, the future King Philip I. However, for a long time no one dared to repeat the journey of Magellan, and the path across the Pacific Ocean to the shores of Asia was of no practical importance.

Spanish colonization of the Caribbean. The conquest of Mexico and Peru "In 1500-1510. expeditions led by members of the travels of Columbus explored the northern coast of South America, Florida and reached the Gulf of Mexico. By that time, the Spaniards had captured the Greater Antilles: Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, Puerto Rico, Lesser Antilles (Trinidad, Tabago, Barbados, Guadeloupe, etc.), as well as a number of small islands in the Caribbean. The Greater Antilles became the outpost of the Spanish colonization of the Western Hemisphere. The Spanish authorities paid special attention to Cuba, which they called “the key to the New World.” Fortresses, settlements for immigrants from Spain were built on the islands, roads were laid, plantations of cotton, sugar cane, and spices arose. The gold deposits found here were insignificant. To cover the cost of sea expeditions, the Spaniards began the economic development of this area. Enslavement and merciless exploitation of the indigenous population of the Greater Antilles, as well as epidemics brought from the Old World, led to a catastrophic reduction in the population. In order to replenish labor resources, the conquerors began to bring Indians from small islands and from the coast of the mainland to the Antilles, which led to the devastation of entire regions. At the same time, the Spanish government began to attract immigrants from the northern regions of Spain. The resettlement of peasants was especially encouraged, who were given plots of land, they were exempted from taxes on 20 years, they were paid bonuses for the production of spices. However, the labor force was not enough, and from the middle XVI in. African slaves began to be imported to the Antilles.

FROM 1510 A new stage in the conquest of America began - the colonization and development of the interior regions of the continent, the formation of a system of colonial exploitation. In historiography, this stage, which lasted until the middle XVII c., is called conquista (conquest). The beginning of this stage was laid by the invasion of the conquistadors on the Isthmus of Panama and the construction of the first fortifications on the mainland (1510). AT 1513 Mr. Vasco Nunez Balboa crossed the isthmus in search of the fantastic "country of gold" - El Dorado. Having reached the Pacific coast, he hoisted the banner of the Castilian king on the shore. AT 1519 The city of Panama was founded - the first in the Americas. Here detachments of conquistadors began to form, heading deep into the mainland.

In 1517-1518. the detachments of Hernando de Cordoba and Juan Grijalva, who landed on the coast of Yucatan "in search of slaves, encountered the oldest of the pre-Columbian civilizations - the Mayan state. Magnificent cities surrounded by fortress walls, rows of pyramids, and temples richly decorated with carvings with images of the gods appeared before the shocked conquistadors n cult animals.In the temples and palaces of the nobility, the Spaniards found a lot of jewelry, figurines, vessels made of gold and copper, chased gold discs with types of battles and scenes of sacrifice.The walls of the temples were decorated with rich ornaments and frescoes, distinguished by the subtlety of work and richness of colors.

The Indians, who had never seen horses, were intimidated by the very sight of the Spaniards. The rider on the horse seemed to them a huge monster. Firearms were especially feared, to which they could only oppose a bow, arrows and cotton shells.

By the time the Spaniards arrived, the territory of Yucatan was divided among several city-states. Cities were political centers around which agricultural communities united. The rulers of the cities collected payments and taxes, were in charge of military affairs, foreign policy, they also performed the functions of high priests. The Mayan community was the economic, administrative and fiscal unit of society. The cultivated land was divided into plots between families, the rest of the land was used jointly. The main labor force was free communal peasants. Within the community, the process of property stratification and class differentiation has already gone far. Priests, officials, hereditary military leaders stood out. Slave labor was widely used in their economy, debtors, criminals and prisoners of war were turned into slavery. In addition to collecting taxes, rulers and priests used the labor service of community members to build palaces, temples, roads, and irrigation systems.

The Maya are the only peoples of pre-Columbian America who had a written language. Their hieroglyphic writing resembles the writing of Ancient Egypt, Sumer and Akkad. Maya books (codices) were written with paints on long strips of "paper" made from plant fiber, and then placed in cases. The temples had significant libraries. The Maya had their own calendar, they knew how to predict solar and lunar eclipses.

Not only the superiority in arms, but also the internal struggle between the city-states made it easier for the Spaniards to conquer the Mayan state. The Spaniards learned from local residents that precious metals were brought from the country of the Aztecs, which lies north of the Yucatan. AT 1519 A Spanish detachment led by Hernan Cortes, a poor young hidalgo who arrived in America in search of wealth and glory, set out to conquer these lands. He hoped to conquer new lands with small forces. His squad consisted of ml from th 400 infantry soldier, 16 riders and 200 Indians, had 10 heavy guns and 3 light guns.

The state of the Aztecs, whose conquest went to Kor-foc, stretched from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. Numerous tribes conquered by the Aztecs lived on its territory. The center of the country was the Valley of Mexico. Here ** there was a large agricultural population, a perfect system of artificial irrigation was created by the labor of many people.

K1snia, high yields of cotton1, corn, vegetables were grown, the Ztecs, like other peoples of America, did not tame domestic

Evotnyh, did not know wheel traction, metal tools, the noble system of the Aztecs in many ways resembled the state of _ Aya. The main economic unit was the neighboring community. There was a system of labor conscription of the population in favor of the State Ministry for the construction of palaces, temples, etc. The craft of the Aztecs *has not yet separated from agriculture, they lived in the community as farmers, chshk and artisans, ”a stratum of representatives of the nobility and people - caciques, who had large plots of land and used the labor of slaves, stood out. Unlike the Maya, the Aztec state achieved significant centralization, the transition of the hereditary power of the supreme ruler was gradually carried out. However, the lack of internal unity, the internecine struggle for power among the representatives of the highest military nobility and the struggle of the tribes conquered by the Aztecs against the conquerors facilitated the victory of the Spaniards in this unequal struggle. Many conquered tribes switched to their I Yuronu and participated in the struggle against the Aztec rulers. So, during the last siege of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlane, 1 thousand Spaniards and 100 thousand Indians. Despite this, the siege lasted 225 days. The final conquest of Mexico dragged on for more than two decades. The last Maya stronghold was captured by the Spaniards only in 1697 g., i.e. through 173 years after their invasion of ml Yukatai. Mexico justified the hopes of the conquerors. Rich deposits of gold and silver were found here. Already in 20- years XVI in. swayed the development of silver mines. The merciless exploitation of the Indians in the mines, in construction, mass epidemics led to a rapid decline in the population. Per 50 years, it decreased from 4.5 million to 1 ml man.

Simultaneously with the conquest of Mexico, the Spanish conquistadors were looking for the fabulous country of Eldorado and on the coast of South America. AT 1524 The conquest of the territory of present-day Colombia began, where the port of Saita-Marta was founded. Hence the Spanish conquistador X and less Quesada, moving up the river Magdalena, reached the possessions of the tribes of the Chibcha-Muiskha, who lived on the plateau of Bogotá. Hoe farming, pottery and weaving were developed here.

processing of copper, gold and silver. Chibcha were especially famous as skilled jewelers who made jewelry and dishes from gold, silver, copper and emeralds. Gold disks served as their equivalent in trade with other areas. Having conquered the largest Chibcha Muisca principality, Jimenez Quesada founded in 1536 city ​​of Santa Fe de Bogota.

The second stream of colonization was from the Isthmus of Panama south along the Pacific coast of America. The conquerors were attracted by the fabulously rich country of Peru, or Viru, as the Indians called it. Rich Spanish merchants from the Isthmus of Panama took part in the preparation of expeditions to Peru. One of the detachments was led by a semi-literate hidalgo from Extremadura, Francisco Pizarro, 1524 g. together with his fellow countryman Diego Almagro, he set sail south along the western coast of America and reached the Gulf of Guayaquila (modern Ecuador). Fertile densely populated lands stretched here. The population was engaged in agriculture, bred herds of llamas, which were used as beasts of burden. The meat and milk of llamas were used as food, and durable and warm fabrics were made from their wool. Returning to Spain in 1531 BC, Pizarro signed a surrender with the king and received the title and rights of adelantado - the leader of the conquistador detachment. The expedition was joined by his two brothers and 250 hidalgo from Extremadura. AT 1532 Mr. Pizarro landed on the coast, quickly conquered the backward scattered tribes living there and captured an important stronghold - the city of Tumbes. Before him opened the way to the conquest of the state of the Incas - Tahuantisuyu, the most powerful of the states of the New World, which at the time of the Spanish invasion was experiencing a period of its highest rise. Since ancient times, the territory of Peru was inhabited by Indians - Quechua. AT XIV in. one of the Quechuan tribes - the Incas - was conquered by numerous Indian tribes living in the territory of modern Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. Back to top XVI in. part of the territory of Chile and Argentina was part of the Inca state. From the tribe of conquerors, a military nobility was formed, and the word "Inca" acquired the meaning of a title. The center of the Inca power was the city of Cusco, located high in the mountains. Carrying out their conquests, the Incas sought to assimilate the conquered tribes, resettled them inland, planted the Quechua language, and introduced a single religion - the cult of the Sun God. The Temple of the Sun in Cusco was a pantheon of regional gods. Just like the Maya and the Aztecs, the main unit of Inca society was the neighborhood community. Along with family allotments, there were "fields of the Inca" and "scorch of the Sun", which were worked together, and the harvest from them went to the maintenance of rulers and priests. From the communal lands, the fields of the nobility and elders were already distinguished, which were their property and were inherited. The ruler of Tauantisuyu, the Inca, was considered the supreme owner of all lands.

AT 1532 BC, when several dozen Spaniards undertook a campaign deep into Peru, a fierce civil war was going on in the state of Tahuantisuyu. The tribes of the northern Pacific coast conquered by the Incas supported the conquerors. Almost without resistance, F. Pizarro reached the important center of the Inca state - the city of Cajamarca, located in the highlands of the Andes. Here the Spaniards captured the ruler of Tahuantisuya Atagualpa and imprisoned him. Although the Indians collected a huge ransom and filled the dungeon of the captive leader with gold and silver jewelry, ingots, and vessels, the Spaniards executed Atagualpa and appointed a new ruler. AT 1535 Mr. Pizarro made a campaign against Cuzco, which was conquered as a result of a hard struggle. In the same year, the city of Lima was founded, which became the center of the conquered territory. A direct sea route was established between Lima and Panama. The conquest of the territory of Peru lasted for more than 40 years. The country was shaken by powerful popular uprisings against the conquerors. In remote mountainous areas, a new Indian state arose, conquered by the Spaniards only in 1572 G.

Simultaneously with the campaign of Pizarro in Peru in 1535-1537. ade l.stado Diego Almagro began a campaign in Chile, but soon had to return to Cuzco, which was besieged by the rebellious Indians. An internecine struggle began in the ranks of the conquistadors, F. Pizarro, his brothers Hernando and Gonzalo and Diego d Almagro died in it. The conquest of Chile was continued by Pedro Valdivia. The Araucan tribes living in this country put up stubborn resistance, and the conquest of Chile was finally completed only in end XVII in. FROM 1515 The colonization of La Plata began, the lands along the rivers La Plata and Paraguay were conquered. Detachments of conquistadors, moving from the southeast, entered the territory of Peru. AT 1542 here two streams of colonization joined.

If at the first stage of the conquest the conquerors seized precious metals accumulated in previous times, "then with 1530 in Mexico and on the territory of Peru and modern Bolivia (Upper Peru), the systematic exploitation of the richest mines began. The richest deposits of precious metals were discovered in the Potosi region. In the middle XVI in. the mines of Potosi gave 1/2 of the world's silver production.

Since that time, the nature of colonization has changed. The conquerors refuse from the economic development of the conquered lands. Everything necessary for the Spanish settlers began to be brought from Europe in exchange for the gold and silver of the New World,

Only nobles were sent to the American colonies, whose goal was enrichment. The noble, feudal nature of colonization predetermined the fatal circumstance for Spain that the gold and silver of America fell mainly into the hands of the nobility, accumulated in the form of treasures or spent on supporting Catholic conspiracies in Europe, on the military adventures of the Spanish kings. This new direction of colonial exploitation had a decisive influence on the formation of the Spanish colonial system.

Due to the peculiarities of the historical development of the country (see Chapter 4), Spanish feudalism was characterized by some specific features: the supreme power of the king over the reclaimed lands, the preservation of free peasant communities, the labor conscription of the population in favor of the state. An important role in the economy, along with the labor of feudally dependent peasants, was played by the slave labor of Muslim prisoners. At the time of the conquest of America, the socio-economic and administrative system of Spain turned out to be compatible with those forms of social organization that existed in the early class states of the New World.

The Spaniards preserved the Indian community in Mexico, Peru and in a number of other areas where there was a dense agricultural population. They used various forms of labor service for the community members in favor of the state to attract Indians to work in the mines. The Spaniards retained the internal structure of communities, crop rotations, and a tax system. Harvests from the "fields of the Inca" now went to pay taxes to the Spanish king, and from the "fields of the Sun" - to the church tithe.

The former elders remained at the head of the communities<касики, ку-раки), их семьи освобождались от налогов и повинностей, но должны были обеспечить своевременную уплату налогов и рабочую силу для рудников. На службу испанскому королю привлекалась местная знать, которая слилась с испанскими завоевателями. Потомки многих из них были затем отправлены в Испанию.

All newly conquered lands became the property of the crown. Beginning with 1512 laws were passed prohibiting the enslavement of Indians. Formally, they were considered subjects of the Spanish king, had to pay a special tax "tributo" and serve a labor service. From the first years of colonization, a struggle unfolded between the king and the conquistador nobles for power over the Indians, for the right to own land. During this fight at the end 20- 1990s XVI a. there was a special form of exploitation of the Indians - the encomienda. It was first introduced in Mexico by E. Cortes. The encomienda did not give the right to own land. Its owner - the encomendero - received the right to exploit the community Indians who lived on the territory of the encomiecda.

It was entrusted to the zhkomendero to contribute to the Christians' mission of the population, to monitor the timely payment of "tributo" and the performance of labor service in the mines, in construction, and in agricultural work. With the creation of the encomienda of the Indi-G*»*, the community was included in the Spanish colonial system, the community's lands were declared its inalienable property. The development of forms of colonial exploitation was accompanied by a strong bureaucratic apparatus of the colonial administration. For the Spanish monarchy, this was a means of fighting j against the separatist tendencies of the colonists. I In the first half XVI in. in general terms, there was a system! management of the Spanish colonies in America. Two 1 viceroyalty: New Spain (Mexico, Central America, Venezuela and the Caribbean islands) and viceroy of Peru, covering almost the rest of South America, with the exception of Brazil, Viceroys were appointed from the highest Spanish nobility , they went to the colonies for three years, did not have a family with them, to buy land and real estate there, to act as entrepreneurs. Activities of Viceroys<м*тролироаал "Совет Индий", решения которого имели слету »люна.

Colonial trade was placed under the control of the "Seville Chamber of Commerce" (1503); she carried out the customs clearance<мотр всех грузов, собирала пошлины, держала под наблюдением миграционные процессы. Все остальные города Испании были лн- * нк"кы права вести торговлю с Америкой минуя Севилью. Главной щраслью хозяйства в испанских колониях была горная промышленность. В связи с этим в обязанность вице-королям вменялось обеспечение королевских рудников рабочей силой, своевременного поступ-нния доходов в казну, в том числе подушной лодэти с индейцев. Нице-короли обладали также полной военной и судебной властью.

The one-sided development of the economy in the Spanish colonies had a detrimental effect on the fate of the indigenous population and the future development of the continent. Until the middle of the XVII century. there was a catastrophic decline in the number of indigenous people. In many areas to 1650 g. it decreased by 10-15 times compared to the youngster XVI century, primarily due to the diversion of the able-bodied male population to the mines for 9-10 months a year. This forced the decline of traditional forms of agriculture, a decrease in the birth rate. An important reason was the frequent famine and epidemics that mowed down entire areas. Starting from the middle XVI in. the Spaniards began to “settle the Indians in new settlements closer to the mines, introducing a communal structure into them. In addition to government work, the inhabitants of these settlements had to work the land, provide their families with food and pay "tributo". The most severe exploitation was the main reason for the extinction of the indigenous population. The influx of immigrants from the metropolis was insignificant. Middle and second half XVI in. mainly Spanish nobles moved to the colony, peasant emigration to Peru and Mexico was actually prohibited. So, in Potosi's 1572 there were 120 thousand inhabitants, of which only 10 thousand were Spaniards. Gradually, a special group of Spanish settlers formed in America, who were born in the colony, lived there permanently, having almost no ties with the metropolis. They did not mix with the local population and constituted a special group called Creoles.

Under the conditions of colonization, there was a rapid erosion of Indian ethnic groups and tribal communities, the displacement of their languages ​​by Spanish. This was largely facilitated by the resettlement of Indians from different areas in the villages near the mines. Representatives of different tribes spoke different languages, and gradually Spanish became their main language of communication. At the same time, there was an intensive process of mixing of Spanish settlers with the Indian population - miscegenation, the number of mestizos rapidly increased. Already in the middle XVII in, in many areas, a large mulatto population appears from the marriages of Europeans with black women. This was typical of the Caribbean coast, Cuba, Haiti, where the plantation economy dominated and where African slaves were constantly imported. Europeans, Indians, mestizos, mulattoes, blacks existed as closed racial and ethnic groups, which differed greatly in their social and legal status. The emerging caste system was enshrined in Spanish law. The position of a person in society was primarily determined by ethnic and racial characteristics. Only the Creoles were relatively full-fledged. Mestizos were forbidden to live in communities, own land, carry weapons, engage in certain types of crafts. At the same time, they were exempted from labor service, from paying "tributo" and were in a better legal position than the Indians. This largely explains the fact that in the cities of Spanish America, mestizos and mulattoes made up the majority of the population.

On the coast of the Caribbean Sea and on the islands, where the indigenous people were exterminated at the very beginning of the conquest of America, the Negro and mulatto population prevailed.

Portuguese colonies. The colonial system that developed in the Portuguese possessions was distinguished by significant originality. AT 1500 The Portuguese navigator Pedro Alvares Cabral landed on the coast of Brazil and declared this territory the possession of the Portuguese king. In Brazil, with the exception of certain areas on the coast, there was no settled agricultural population; the few Indian tribes that were at the stage of a tribal system were pushed into the interior of the country. The absence of deposits of precious metals and significant human resources determined the originality of the colonization of Brazil. The second important factor was the significant development of merchant capital. The organized colonization of Brazil began in 1530 city, and it took place in the form of economic development of coastal areas. An attempt was made to impose feudal forms of land tenure. The coast is divided into 13 captaincies, whose owners had full power. However, Portugal did not have a significant surplus population, so settlement of the colony was slow. The absence of peasant settlers and the paucity of the indigenous population made it impossible for the development of feudal forms of economy. The most successful areas developed where a plantation system arose based on the exploitation of blacks from Africa. Starting from the second half XVI in. the importation of African slaves is growing rapidly, 1583 g, lived throughout the colony 25 thousands of white settlers and millions of slaves. White settlers lived mainly in the coastal strip in rather closed groups. Here miscegenation has not received a large scope; the influence of Portuguese culture on the local population was very limited. The Portuguese language did not become dominant, a peculiar language of communication between the Indians and the Portuguese arose - "lengua geral", which was based on one of the local dialects and the main grammatical and lexical forms of the Portuguese language. Lengua Geral was spoken by the entire population of Brazil for the next two centuries.

Colonization and the Catholic Church. An important role in the colonization of America was played by the Catholic Church, which, both in Spanish and Portuguese possessions, became the most important link in the colonial apparatus, the exploiter of the indigenous population. The discovery and conquest of America was considered by the papacy as a new crusade, the purpose of which was to be the Christianization of the indigenous population. In this regard, the Spanish kings received the right to manage the affairs of the church in the colony, lead missionary activities, and establish churches and monasteries. The church quickly turned into the largest landowner. The conquistadors were well aware that Christianization was called upon to play a large role in consolidating their dominance over the indigenous population. XVI in. representatives of various monastic orders began to arrive in America: the Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinians, and later the Jesuits, who gained great influence on La Plata and in Brazil.

Groups of monks followed the detachments of the conquistadors, creating their own villages - missions; mission centers were churches and houses that served as dwellings for monks. Subsequently, schools for Indian children were created in the missions, and at the same time a small fortified fortress was built, which housed the Spanish garrison. Thus, the missions were both the outposts of Christianization and the border points of the Spanish possessions.

In the first decades of the conquest, Catholic priests, carrying out Christianization, sought to destroy not only local religious beliefs, but also to eradicate the culture of the indigenous population. An example is the Franciscan Bishop Diego de Landa, who ordered the destruction of all the ancient books of the Mayan people, cultural monuments, the very historical memory of the people. Soon, however, Catholic priests began to act in other ways. Having carried out Christianization, spreading Spanish culture and the Spanish language, they began to use elements of the local ancient religion and culture of the conquered Indian peoples. Despite the cruelty and destruction of the conquest, the Indian culture did not die, it survived and changed under the influence of Spanish culture. Gradually, a new culture took shape based on the synthesis of Spanish and Indian elements.

Catholic missionaries were forced to promote this synthesis. They often erected Christian churches on the site of former Indian shrines, used some images and symbols of the former beliefs of the indigenous population * including them in Catholic rites and religious symbols. So, not far from the city of Mexico City, on the site of a destroyed Indian temple, the Church of the Virgin Mary Gwad ate upekay was built, which became a place of pilgrimage for the Indians. The church claimed that the miraculous appearance of the Mother of God took place at this place. Many ichon, special rituals, were dedicated to this event. On these icons, the Virgin Mary was depicted with the face of an Indian woman - "a dark-skinned Madonna", and in her very cult, echoes of former Indian beliefs were felt.

Geographical discoveries in the Pacific Ocean. In the second half XVI- early XVII in. Spanish navigators made a number of Pacific expeditions from the territory of Peru, during which the Solomon Islands were discovered<1567), Южная Полинезия (1595) и Меланезия <1605), Еще во время путешествия Магеллана возникла идея d существовании ""Южного материка"» частью которого были вновь открытые острова Юго-Восточной Азии. Эти предположения высказывались в географических сочинениях начала XVII c., the mythical continent was mapped under the name "Terra incognita Australia * 1<неизвестиая южная земля), В 1605 A Spanish expedition set off from Peru, it included three ships. During the voyage to the coast of Southeast Asia, islands were discovered, one of which A, Kiros, who was at the head of the squadron, mistook for the coast of the southern mainland. Abandoning his companions to the mercy of fate, Quiros hurried back to Peru, and then went to Spain to announce his discovery and secure the rights to manage new lands and receive income. The captain of one of the two ships abandoned by Kyros - the Portuguese Torres - continued sailing and soon found out that Kyros was mistaken and discovered not a new mainland, but a group of islands (New Hebrides) ♦ To the south of them stretched an unknown land - true Australia. Sailing further west, Torres passed through the strait between the coast of New Guinea and Australia, later named after him. Having reached the Philippine Islands, which were the possession of Spain, Torres informed the Spanish governor of his discovery, this news was transmitted to Madrid. However, Spain did not have at that time the forces and means for the development of new lands. Therefore, the Spanish government kept all information about the discovery of Torres secret for a whole century, fearing the rivalry of other powers.

In the middle XVII in. exploration of the coast of Australia began the Dutch. AT 1642 Mr. A. Tasman, sailing from the coast of Indonesia to the east, circled Australia from the south and passed along the coast of the island called Tasmania.

Only through 150 years after the journey of Torres, during the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), when the British, who fought against Spain, captured Manila, documents about the discovery of Torres were found in the archives. AT 1768 the English navigator D. Cook explored the islands of Oceania, rediscovered the Torres Strait and the east coast of Australia; subsequently, the priority of this discovery was recognized by Torres.

Consequences of the Great geographical discoveries. Great geographical discoveries of the XV-XVII centuries. had a huge impact on world development. It is known that many earlier Europeans visited the coast of America, traveled to the shores of Africa, but only the discovery of Columbus laid the foundation for constant and diverse relations between Europe and America, opened a new stage in world history. A geographical discovery is not only a visit by representatives of any civilized people to a previously unknown part of the earth. The concept of "geographical discovery" includes the establishment of a direct connection between the newly discovered lands and centers of culture of the Old World,

The great geographical discoveries significantly expanded the knowledge of the Europeans about the world, destroyed many prejudices and false ideas about other continents and the peoples inhabiting them.

The expansion of scientific knowledge gave impetus to the rapid development of industry and trade in Europe, the emergence of new forms of the financial system, banking and credit. The main trade routes moved from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean.

The most important consequence of the discovery and colonization of new lands was the "price revolution", which gave a new impetus to the initial accumulation of capital in Europe, accelerated the formation of the capitalist structure in the economy,

However, the consequences of colonization and the conquest of new lands were ambiguous for the peoples of the metropolises and colonies. The result of colonization was not only the development of new lands, it was accompanied by monstrous exploitation of the conquered peoples, doomed to slavery and extinction. During the conquest, many centers of ancient civilizations were destroyed, the natural course of the historical development of entire continents was disrupted, the peoples of the colonized countries were forcibly drawn into the emerging capitalist market and, through their labor, accelerated the process of formation and development of capitalism in Europe.

Features of the formation of the colonial system

In a slave society, the word "colony" meant "settlement". Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome had colonies-settlements on foreign territory. Colonies in the modern sense of the word appeared in the era of the great geographical discoveries at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. As a result of the Great geographical discoveries, the formation of colonial system. This stage in the development of colonialism is associated with the formation of capitalist relations. Since that time, the concepts of "capitalism" and "colonialism" have been inextricably linked. Capitalism becomes the dominant socio-economic system, colonies are the most important factor accelerating this process. Colonial plunder and colonial trade were important sources of primitive capital accumulation.

A colony is a territory deprived of political and economic independence and dependent on metropolitan countries.

Initial period

The period of primitive accumulation of capital and manufacturing production predetermined the content and forms of relations between the colonies and metropolises. For Spain and Portugal, the colonies were primarily sources of gold and silver. Their natural practice was frank robbery up to the extermination of the indigenous population of the colonies. However, the gold and silver exported from the colonies did not accelerate the establishment of capitalist production in these countries. Much of the wealth plundered by the Spaniards and the Portuguese contributed to the development of capitalism in Holland and England. The Dutch and English bourgeoisie profited from the supply of goods to Spain, Portugal and their colonies. The colonies in Asia, Africa and America captured by Portugal and Spain became the object of colonial conquests by Holland and England

Period of industrial capitalism

The next stage in the development of the colonial system is associated with the industrial revolution, which begins in the last third of the 18th century. and ends in developed European countries around the middle of the 19th century. There comes a period exchange of goods, which draws the colonial countries into world commodity circulation. This leads to double consequences: on the one hand, the colonial countries turn into agrarian and raw materials appendages of the metropolises, on the other hand, the metropolises contribute to the socio-economic development of the colonies (the development of the local industry for the processing of raw materials, transport, communications, telegraph, printing, etc.). ).

By the beginning of the First World War, at the stage of monopoly capitalism, the colonial possessions of three European powers were formed:

At this stage, the territorial division of the world is completed. The leading colonial powers of the world are intensifying the export of capital to the colonies.

Colonialism in the XVI-XVII centuries.

Colonization of the African continent.

In the colonial policy of the European powers of the XVI-XVII centuries. African continent occupies a special place. Slavery existed in Africa for a number of centuries, but it was mainly patriarchal in nature and was not so tragic and destructive before the arrival of Europeans. slave trade the Portuguese began in the middle of the 15th century, then the British, Dutch, French, Danes, and Swedes joined it. (The centers of the slave trade were located mainly on the West coast of Africa - from Cape Verde to Angola, inclusive. Especially many slaves were exported from the Golden and Slave Coasts).

Colonialism of the period of industrial capitalism. The role of colonies in the economic development of metropolitan areas

Under the new historical conditions, the role of the colonies in the economic development of the metropolises is growing considerably. The possession of colonies contributed to industrial development, military superiority over other powers, maneuvering resources in the event of wars, economic crises, etc. In this regard, all colonial powers seek to expand their possessions. The increased technical equipment of the armies makes it possible to realize this. It was at this time that the "discoveries" of Japan and China took place, the establishment of British colonial rule in India, Burma, Africa was completed, Algeria, Tunisia, Vietnam and other countries were seized by France, Germany began to expand in Africa, the United States - in Latin America, China, Korea, Japan - in China, Korea, etc.

At the same time, the struggle of the mother countries for possession of colonies, sources of raw materials, and strategic positions in the East is intensifying.

The main periods of the formation of the colonial system

Aggressive policies have been pursued by states since antiquity. Initially, merchants and knights exported goods from the colonies to the metropolis, used labor for slave farms. But since the middle of the 19th century, the situation has changed: the colonies are turning into markets for the industrial products of the metropolis. Instead of the export of goods, the export of capital is used.

All the time of colonial conquests can be divided into three periods:

1. XVI-mid XVIII century - trade colonialism based on the export of goods to Europe;
2. from the middle of the 18th century to the end of the 19th century - colonialism of the era of industrial capital, characterized by the export of manufactured goods from European countries to the colonies;
3. the end of the 19th-beginning of the 20th century - the colonialism of the era of imperialism, a distinctive feature of which is the export of capital from the metropolises to the colonies, stimulating the industrial development of dependent states.

By the beginning of the 20th century, the largest industrial powers were completing the territorial division of the world. The whole world was divided into metropolises, colonies, dependent countries (dominions and protectorates).

The main features of the colonial system at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries

In the 1870s, the colonial system of imperialism took shape in the world. It was based on the exploitation of the economically lagging countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America.

Definition 1

The colonial system of imperialism is a system of colonial oppression by developed imperialist states of the overwhelming majority of the less economically developed countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, created at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries.

During the period from 1876 to 1914, the European powers increased their colonial possessions many times over.

Remark 1

Before the First World War, the British colonial empire took over 9 million square kilometers, where approximately 147 million people lived. The French empire increased by 9.7 million square kilometers and 49 million people. The German colonial empire annexed 2.9 million square kilometers with 12.3 million inhabitants. The United States seized 300 thousand square kilometers of land with 9.7 inhabitants, and Japan - 300 thousand square kilometers with 19.2 million people.

The entire territory of the African continent was divided. Those countries that the colonial powers could not completely enslave were placed in the position of semi-colonies or divided into spheres of influence. These states include China, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan and many other countries in Asia and Latin America.

In the era of imperialism, the colonial countries remain raw material appendages of the mother countries and function as a market for the sale of surplus industrial goods. The export of capital in the colonies begins to predominate when it does not find a sufficiently profitable application in the mother countries. The high profitability of investing capital in the economy of the colony is explained by the cheapness of raw materials and labor.

The struggle of the mother countries for the colonies

Remark 2

By the beginning of the 20th century, the struggle of the metropolises for colonies intensified. Since there are practically no undivided plots left, the war for the redivision of the world is escalating. Young states such as the German Empire demanded a "place in the sun" for themselves. Following Germany, Japan, the United States and Italy make similar demands on established colonial empires.

The war of 1898 between the United States and Spain is considered the first war for the redivision of the world. The Americans managed to capture part of the islands that previously belonged to the Spanish crown: the Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico, Coupon, Hawaii. The United States tried to bring the entire American continent under its control. The Americans crowded out competitors in China, creating spheres of their influence. Germany joined the struggle for the redivision of the world. She expanded into Turkey, the Middle East, North Africa and the Far East. Japan pressed Russia and gained a foothold in Korea and Manchuria.

The contradictions between the old rivals (England and Russia, England and France) threatened to escalate into a grandiose war. The world was on the verge of the First World War.

Prerequisites for new European colonialism, periodization of the process of formation of the colonial system, characteristics of the stages. Great geographical discoveries and the beginning of colonial conquests in Afro-Asian countries. 16th century - century of Spain and Portugal in the colonial expansion. The main directions and methods of the colonial activity of European countries. The Rise of Trade Colonialism: Trade "from Asia to Asia". Christian missions in the East. Formation and activities of European East India companies in the East in the XVII-XVIII centuries. East India Companies in "trade from Asia to Asia". The principle of "trading with a sword in hand." The problem of the early capitalist stage in the history of colonialism. The development of the capitalist world-system and the Asian world-economy. Mercantilism and colonial expansion. Slave trade. Reasons for the transformation of the nature of European colonialism by the beginning of the 19th century. (socio-economic, military-political, ideological). The formation of industrial capitalism in Europe (XIX century) and its influence on the development of the colonial system. Decolonization of the New World and the changing geography of colonialism. Free trade: its influence on the nature of colonial expansion, features of the interaction between metropolises and colonies. colonial empires. Forcibly opening East Asian countries and imposing unequal relations on Asian countries. The transformative impact of European capitalism on traditional Afro-Asian societies. Formation of Orientalism. The nature and forms of the anti-colonial struggle. "Imperialist" division of the world in the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries: background, content, contradictions between colonial powers, results. The struggle of the imperialist powers for colonies as an integral part of the prerequisites of the First World War.

Topic 3. The problem of modernization of Afro-Asian countries in modern times

The problem of transformation of Afro-Asian societies in modern times in foreign and domestic historiography. The paradigm "European challenge - Asian response". Theories of "traditional society" and "modernization". "Early modernism" - endogenous sources of modernization in non-European countries. The problem of synthesis of "traditional" and "modern" in the studies of Russian historians. Factors that caused the beginning of the process of modernization in the countries of the East. The phenomenon of "protective modernization": content, specifics, results. Colonial upgrade option. Economic and social components of the modernization process in the Afro-Asian countries and their specificity: the birth of capitalism, the development of science and technology, the formation of new social strata. Changes in socio-political thought: enlightenment, reformism, nationalism. National liberation movement as part of the modernization process. The era of "awakening of Asia": Asian revolutions in the early twentieth century. The specificity of the Japanese version of the modernization of the Meiji era.

Section II. History of individual countries

Topic 1. China

Civilizational features of Chinese society. Factors shaping the traditional culture of the Han people: natural environment, autarkic agriculture, family and clan ties. Holism of Chinese consciousness. Three teachings ("san jiao"). Confucianism and its role in the design of Chinese society. Individual - society - state. Personality in Traditional China. Imperial Doctrine. The state, the role of the bureaucracy, the peculiarity of its formation. Shenshi Institute as the most important stabilizing mechanism of the imperial system. The social prestige of learning. The problem of correlation between elite and mass consciousness. Syncretism of folk beliefs. The ideas of egalitarianism in the mass peasant consciousness. The ethnocentric model of ecumene in the ideas of the Han people. Chinese vassal-tributary system.

China in the late 16th - early 17th centuries Manchu conquest. New trends in economic, socio-political and cultural development. Concepts of "growth without development" and "early Chinese modernism" in historical literature. crisis in the first half of the 17th century. and the factors that caused it. Insurgency in China. Li Zicheng. Fall of the Ming Dynasty. Consolidation of the Manchu tribes at the beginning of the 17th century, the creation of a state, relations with China. Manchu conquest of China. Defeat of the rebel movement. The role of the Chinese elite in the establishment of the Qing Dynasty. Wu Sangui. Fight against the Southern Ming. Zheng Chenggong. "Three tributary princes" (sanfan) and their action against the Qing. Consequences of the Manchu conquest of China.

China during the reign of the Qing Dynasty (mid-17th - mid-19th centuries). The course towards the "pacification" of the country and the "era of prosperity" of the Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong eras. Land and tax measures. The position of cities, the development of crafts and trade. State system of Qing China, official ideology. Class stratification of Chinese society. Manchus and the outside world. The Conquest Policy of the Qing Empire: China's New Frontiers. Closed door policy. Growing crisis phenomena in the empire at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries: economic, demographic, social, political factors. Rebel movement.

The Opium Wars and the Discovery of China. The nature of foreign trade during the period of isolation. Attempts at the peaceful "discovery" of China: English missions. The British East India Company and the opium smuggling trade. The struggle of groups in the Qing Empire in connection with the opium trade. Lin Zexu's activity. The first "opium" war: reason, course, results. Treaty of Nanjing (1842) and additions to it. The second "opium" war of England and France against China. Tianjin (1858) and Beijing (1860) treaties. The final establishment of the Russian-Chinese border during the second "opium" war.

Taiping uprising. Prerequisites for the activation of the opposition movement in the late 18th - early 19th centuries, religious sects and secret societies. The personality of Hong Xiuquan, his teachings. The Taiping Rebellion: periodization, characteristics of the stages. State of Taiping tianguo, its military-political and administrative-economic activities. "The Land System of the Heavenly Empire". Internecine strife among the Taiping leadership and the weakening of the Taiping tianguo Hong Zhengang's New Composition to Help Governance. Defeat of the Taipings. Assessments of the Taiping uprising in Russian and Chinese historiography.

"Movement for the Assimilation of Barbarian Affairs". Reasons for the birth of the movement, the activities of Wei Yuan and Feng Guifen. Decree of Emperor Xianfeng (1861) and the beginning of the "self-empowerment" policy. Self-Strengthening Reforms: Their Direction and Content. The role of regional leaders. Li Hongzhang. The rise of regionalism. Features of the birth of Chinese capitalism. Changes in the ruling Manchu family: the nomination of Empress Dowager Cixi. The end of the policy of "self-reinforcing", its results.

China and the powers in the 80-90s. 19th century Strengthening the economic and military-political expansion of foreign powers. Franco-Chinese war. Burmese problem. Ili crisis. The Sino-Japanese War and the division of the country into spheres of influence. Fight for concessions. Foreign sector in the economy.

The birth of Chinese nationalism. Socio-economic, ideological shifts in the traditional structure of China. The role of the country's southeastern regions in shaping the prerequisites for the emergence of nationalism. The impact of an external factor. The reformist direction of Chinese nationalism. Kang Yuwei: personality and ideas. "100 Days" of Emperor Guangxu's Reforms. Palace coup on September 21, 1898 and its consequences. revolutionary direction of Chinese nationalism. Sun Yat-sen: goals, methods of struggle for their realization.

The crisis of the Qing dynasty at the beginning of the twentieth century. The Yihetuan uprising: causes, ideology, course. Power intervention. "Final Protocol" 1901 "New Policy" (1901-1911): the content of the reforms and their results. Growing social tension. The activities of the liberal opposition in exile. Tongmenghui and Sun Yat-sen's Three Folk Principles. Revolts in the southern provinces.

Xinhai Revolution. Uchan uprising. "New Army". Northern and southern political centers. Proclamation of China as a republic. National Assembly and Provisional Constitution. Formation of political parties. The Kuomintang and the Parliamentary Elections of 1912. The "Second Revolution" in the Southern Provinces. Establishment of Yuan Shikai's dictatorship. Dujunat Institute. The results of the revolution and its assessment in historiography.

China during the First World War. China and the Warring Powers at the Beginning of the War. Occupation of Shandong by Japan and "21 Demands" to China. anti-Japanese movement. Monarchist aspirations of Yuan Shikai and their collapse. The victory of militaristic tendencies in the political life of China. Military factions of the North and South, their struggle for power. China's entry into the war. The results of the First World War for China.

Theme 2. Japan

Civilization specifics of Japanese society. The impact of natural rheographic factors on the formation of personality and society. "rice field culture". Features of the landscape, cultural and economic complexes and the intensity of information processes. "ie" as a model of relations in society. "oya-ko": hierarchy, paternalism, group consciousness, ethics of relations. The role of Shinto in shaping the "picture of the world" of the Japanese: nature-centrism, the cult of ancestors, mythology, the doctrine of supreme power, aesthetic principles. External factor in the formation of the Japanese socio-cultural system. Perception of the achievements of mainland (Chinese) culture. Methods of perception of "foreign": development of an adaptation mechanism. Buddhism and Confucianism: originality of perception and place in Japanese culture.

Japan in the period of the Tokugawa shogunate (XVII-XVIII centuries): domestic and foreign policy. Completion of the unification of the country and the formation of a new political system under the shoguns Ieyasu, Hidetada and Iemitsu. State structure: bakuhan system, forms of control of the shogun over the daimyo. The shogun is the emperor. The ideological system of the shogunate. Class division of Japanese society: si-no-ko-sho. Tokugawa foreign policy. "Closing Japan": causes, consequences. Persecution of Christians. Relations with the Dutch.

Socio-economic development of Japan in the XVII-XVIII centuries. Rural and agricultural development. home industry. The growth of commodity-money relations. Urban development during the Tokugawa period. Types of Japanese cities. Role of Edo, Osaka and Kyoto. Japanese merchants and merchant associations. Commercial and business houses, their role in economic life, the establishment of "special relations" with the bakufu. Chonindo. The problem of the endogenous formation of the capitalist order in Japan in historical literature. The growth of crisis phenomena in the XVIII century. Reforms of the Kyoho and Kansei years.

Crisis of the Tokugawa Shogunate. Socio-economic situation in Japan at the beginning of the XIX century. Manifestations of the economic crisis. Decomposition of the class structure. social protest movement. The reforms of the Tempo years. Administrative reforms in the principalities. The rise of the anti-shogun movement. Spiritual Opposition to the Shogunate: The Role of the Mito School, Schools of National Science and Rangaku. The growth of the political influence of the southwestern principalities. Japan's relations with foreign powers in the first half of the 19th century. "Discovery" of Japan and its consequences. Bakumatsu period. Civil War and the Meiji Restoration.

Modernization of the Meiji era. Internal and external prerequisites for transformations. Reforms: administrative, class, military, agrarian (characteristics, assessment). Features of the industrial development of Japan in the 70-90s. 19th century Political transformations: "jiyu minken undo"; formation of the first political parties; constitution of 1889, electoral law and parliament, nature of political power. The formation of the imperial system: the Kokutai doctrine, the state religion of Shinto and the ideology of tennoism. Reforms in the sphere of education, culture, life. The peculiarity of the modernization of the Meiji era: the role of the state and bureaucracy, the slogan "wakon-yosai". Discussion in the historical literature about the nature of transformations in Japan.

Foreign policy of Japan in the late XIX - early XX century. Formation of the objectives of Japanese foreign policy. The first territorial acquisitions and policy towards Korea. Japan's struggle to abolish unequal treaties. The war with China and its impact on society, participation in the suppression of the Yihetuan uprising, the Russo-Japanese war. The economic policy of Japan at the beginning of the twentieth century. Japan during the First World War: the strengthening of political and economic influence in the East Asian region. Japanese pan-Asianism.

Theme 3. India

Indian civilization: main features. Hinduism as a civilizational core, its organizational-regulatory and communicative-integrating role. Dialectism, cyclicity and holism of Hindu thinking. Doctrine of Karma. Brahminist ideology of social order. Castes and caste groups as the main agents of socialization. Channels of social mobility. Features of the personal genotype of the Hindu: homo hierarchicus. The absence of a pan-Indian statehood and the tradition of political amorphism as a result of the discrepancy between religious, cultural and political centers. Muslim conquests and the rise of statist tendencies. The nature of the Indian community, the reasons for its stability. The ability of Indian civilization to adapt foreign cultural experience and the limits of this adaptation. The interaction of the Brahmin religious and cultural tradition with the Muslim socio-cultural type in the era of the Great Moguls.

The collapse of the power of the Great Moguls (mid-17th - mid-18th centuries). From Akbar's "peace for all" to Aurangzeb's Muslim centralization: confrontation between centripetal and centrifugal tendencies. The crisis of the jagira system, the evolution of the zamindari institution. Anti-Mughal movements: Jat uprisings, Maratha and Sikh liberation struggles. Increased separatism of provincial governors. External factor in the weakening of the empire: the invasion of Nadir Shah, the aggressive campaigns of Ahmed Shah Durrani.

The conquest of India by England (mid-18th - mid-19th centuries). Establishment of a European trade monopoly on sea routes to India. The role of the East Indian companies in trade with the countries of the East and the creation of strongholds on the Indian coast. Anglo-French struggle for India and its results. The conquest of India by the English East India Company: the main stages. Sepoy army and tactics of "subsidiary agreements". Resistance of the peoples of India. Reasons for defeat.

English colonial regime (mid-18th - mid-19th centuries). English possessions in India under the control of the East India Company. The evolution of colonial government in the second half of the 18th century: the act of government of India 1773, the law of W. Peet, Jr. 1784. Changes in the status of the East India Company: Acts of Parliament of 1813, 1833 and 1853. Land tax reforms, the policy of the colonial authorities towards the Indian community. Activities of the British in the field of justice and education.

Indian popular uprising 1857-1859 The consequences of the completion of the industrial revolution in the metropolis for India. Exacerbation of contradictions between Indian traditional society and the policy of the East India Company. The ideological preparation of the uprising: the role of Indian Muslims. The course of the uprising, the main centers, participants. The role of the sepoy units of the Bengal army. Defeat of the uprising. Debate in the literature about the nature of the uprising.

The system of colonial administration and economic exploitation of India in the second half of the 19th century. Changes in the colonial apparatus: the transition of India under the control of the parliament and government of Great Britain. Administrative reforms, reorganization of the colonial army, strengthening of ties with vassal princes, agrarian measures. Changes in economic policy: the export of capital to India, the scope of its application.

The transformation of Indian society in the second half of the XIX century. The specifics of the genesis of national capitalism. The role of Indian commercial and usurious castes in the formation of the Indian capitalist structure. The emergence of new social strata, the special role of intellectuals. Enlightenment. Socio-political and religious-philosophical thought: the main ideas of the representatives of the Muslim community (Abdul Latif, Karamat Ali, Sayyid Ahmad Khan). The East-West problem, relations with England and the ideas of Hindu reformism in the views of Ramakrishna and Vivekananda. Early Indian nationalism: main currents, their characteristics. Formation of the Indian National Congress.

India at the beginning of the 20th century Growing dissatisfaction with the policies of the colonial authorities. Viceroy Curzon and partition of Bengal. The liberation movement 1905-1908: campaigns under the slogans of "swadeshi" and "swaraj", the position of the INC. The gap between moderate nationalists and supporters of B.G. Tilaka. The Formation of Religious-Political Parties: The Birth of Indian "Communalism". Suppression of the anti-English movement. Morley–Minto Law (1909). India during the First World War: political and economic situation. The course of the metropolis to strengthen its position. The revival of the activities of moderate nationalists: the Home Rule movement, the Lucknow congresses of the INC and the Muslim League. Actions of Radical Nationalists: Ghadr Organization, Provisional Indian Government in Kabul.

Topic 4. Ottoman Empire

Muslim civilizational supersystem. Assessment of the role of Islam in the formation of the basic values ​​of Muslim civilization: a historiographical aspect. Religious and Rational in the History of Social Thought of Muslim Intellectuals: Ideas of the Mu'tazillites and Representatives of the "Golden Age" of Arab Philosophy. The assertion of a religious-orthodox, conservative-protective trend. The universal character of Islam in the organization of society. The ideal of the ummah as a fusion of the sociopolitical and religious community, its divergence from local forms of ethnic and social stratification. The image of the ruler as a stronghold of the ideal of Islam, the purity of the Ummah and the guarantor of the existence of the community. Autonomy of political elites, their typology. The role and place of the Muslim clergy. Socio-psychological type of personality in the Muslim East. The significance of the principle of al-Qadar in the development of a stereotype of behavior, its impact on the mass consciousness. Channels of social mobility. Koran, Sharia and business activity of a Muslim. Economic concepts of Islam. The impact of religion on culture. feature of Muslim statehood. Relationships with non-Muslims. The combination of the imperial system with the status autonomy of subordinate religious communities. Adaptive possibilities of Islam, its ability to integrate alien elements.

Ottoman Empire in the 17th - the first half of the 18th centuries. Reasons for the decline of the Ottoman Empire in historiography. Structural crisis of the empire: main features. The crisis of the military system and its consequences. The evolution of agrarian relations. State of craft and trade. Transformation in the composition of the Ottoman ruling elite: the growing role of the ayans. Crisis of the military organization. Decomposition of the Janissary army. The beginning of the military defeats of the Ottomans. Change in the nature of relations between the Porte and the European powers. Franco-Turkish Treaty of 1740

Deepening the crisis of the empire in the second half of the XVIII century. The crisis of the imperial order. Changes in the relationship between the center and the periphery: the growth of centrifugal tendencies. Approval of independent and semi-independent rulers in Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Lebanon. The emergence of the first state of the Saudis in Arabia. The situation in the Balkans: socio-economic shifts, the formation of the idea of ​​liberation and national revival among the Christian peoples conquered by the Turks. "Eastern question": background, essence, participants and their interests, geographical area.

The era of reforms. Reforms of Selim III as an example of "protective modernization". Nizam-i-jedit system, its evaluation. Reasons for the defeat of the initial stage of the modernization of the empire. Mahmud II's transformations: successes and failures. Exacerbation of the "Eastern Question" during the struggle of the Greeks for independence. Turkish-Egyptian conflicts: causes, course, results. Tanzimat. Gulkhanei hatt-i-sheriff of 1839 and the reforms of the first stage of the tanzimat. Ottomanism. The role of M. Reshid Pasha. The Crimean War and its impact on the alignment of forces in the "Eastern question". Hatt-i-Humayun 1856, 50s-60s transformations 19th century Significance of the reforms of the Tanzimat period.

The birth of the constitutional movement. Background: the growth of contacts with the West, socio-economic changes, the role of intellectuals in shaping a new view of the imperial order and the surrounding world, the development of educational ideas. I. Shinasi and N. Kemal. "New Ottomans": the nature of society, the main stages of activity, the idea of ​​\u200b\u200btransforming the state system, the concept of Ottomanism.

Midhat Pasha and the Constitution of 1876 Aggravation of the situation in the Balkans: the “Bosnian crisis”. Financial insolvency Ports. Midhat Pasha and his role in the political events of the mid-1870s. "The Year of the Three Sultans". Constitution of 1876: circumstances of its proclamation, main provisions, assessment. The failure of the international conference in Istanbul and the aggravation of the "Eastern question". Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878 Treaty of San Stefano and Treaty of Berlin.

Ottoman Empire in the late XIX - early XX centuries. The state of the economy: the dominance of traditional ways, the specifics of the emergence of centers of capitalism. The role of non-Turkish ethnic groups in entrepreneurship. Activities of foreign capital: areas of application. The problem of the Ottoman debt and the establishment of financial control over the Porte. The struggle of the powers for railway concessions. Personality of Sultan Abdul-Hamid II. Zulum mode: main features. Incitement of national hatred. Ideas of pan-Islamism in the policy of the Sultan. Foreign policy of Abdul-Hamid II. Evolution of the "Eastern Question".

Young Turk movement and revolution of 1908-1909. The Formation of Opposition to the Zulum Regime: the Unity and Progress Organization. Ittihadist Congresses of 1902 and 1907, their decisions. Speech by the “army of the movement” and the restoration of the constitution of 1876. Ittihadist program, parliamentary elections. An attempt at a counter-revolutionary coup and the deposition of Abdul-Hamid II. Assessment of the events of 1908-1909: a discussion in the literature.

Ottoman Empire under the rule of the Young Turks. Domestic policy of the Young Turks. The struggle for power between the Young Turkish political parties. The coming to power of the triumvirate. The foreign policy of the Young Turks: rapprochement with Germany, the Balkan Wars, the loss of Libya. The crisis of the doctrine of Ottomanism, the birth of the idea of ​​Turkism (Ziya Gekalp). Exacerbation of contradictions between the great powers on the "Eastern question". Circumstances of the entry of the Ottoman Empire into the First World War. The course of hostilities. The situation in the Arab provinces: the strengthening of anti-Turkish sentiment. "The Great Arab Revolution" of 1916. Secret negotiations between England and France on the division of the Arab countries. London's course towards cooperation with the World Zionist Organization: the Balfour Declaration on the Establishment of a Jewish "National Home" in Palestine. Economic and socio-political situation in the country at the end of the war. Surrender of Turkey: Armistice of Mudros.

Topic 5. Egypt, Sudan

Egypt under the rule of Muhammad Ali. The situation in Egypt at the end of the 18th century: the strengthening of the positions of the Mamluks. Expedition of Bonaparte (1798-1801) and its results. The rise to power of Muhammad Ali. Fight against the Mamluks. Transformations of Muhammad Ali in the field of agrarian relations, trade, industry. Military, administrative reforms. Changes in the sphere of culture and education. Introduction of a system of comprehensive state control. Transformation results. Foreign policy of Muhammad Ali: relations with the Sultan, the conquest of Eastern Sudan and punitive expeditions to Arabia. Position during the Greek uprising. Turkish-Egyptian conflicts and the surrender of 1841

Egypt after Muhammad Ali: a new stage of modernization (50-70s of the 19th century). Struggle in the ruling elite after the death of Muhammad Ali. Abbas-Khilmi: a course towards the revival of antiquity and the old Ottoman order. The Politics of Said and Ismail: Liberal Reforms 1854-1879. Arabization of the army and state apparatus. Egypt as an autonomous province of the Ottoman Empire.

The construction of the Suez Canal and the financial enslavement of Egypt. Anglo-French rivalry in Egypt. French project for the construction of a maritime shipping canal. The role of F. de Lesseps. Construction of the Suez Canal. The international significance of the canal, the consequences of its construction for Egypt. Financial bankruptcy, the establishment of Anglo-French control over Egyptian finances. Formation of the "European cabinet".

liberation movement in Egypt. The activities of the "European cabinet" and the growth of discontent in the country. Activation of currents of socio-political and religious thought. Enlightenment movement. The birth of nationalist organizations. The mood in the Egyptian army, the position of the "fellah officers". The personality of A. Orabi. Army performances in 1879 and 1881: changes in the alignment of political forces. "Revolution" September 9, 1881 Watanists come to power. position of the European powers. The Anglo-Egyptian War of 1882. Evaluation of Orabi Pasha's Revolt in Historical Literature.

Egypt under British rule. occupation regime in Egypt. Lord Kromer's policy: resolving the issue of the Egyptian debt, the regime of the Suez Canal, the course towards the development of cotton growing. Colonial capitalism: main features. Formation of political parties and organizations of the modern type. "Hadeve Fronde". M. Camille. Socio-political upsurge 1906-1912 The beginning of the war between England and Turkey and the establishment of a protectorate over Egypt. Importance of Egypt for England during the First World War.

Eastern Sudan. General characteristics: ethno-social composition of the population, religion, economy, policy of the Turkish administration. Strengthening the tax exploitation of the population of Sudan in the 1870s. Growing discontent in the country, the role of the religious factor. Personality of Muhammad Ahmed. The uprising of the Mahdists (1881-1898): periodization, characteristics of the stages. Formation of an independent Mahdist state. English intervention, Battle of Omdurman. Establishment of an Anglo-Egyptian condominium.

Topic 6. Countries of the Arab West (Maghrib)

Maghreb countries: common and special. Dei rule in Algiers. French Intervention: Causes, Cause, Course of Conquest, Pockets of Resistance. Characteristics of the French colonial regime in Algeria. The beginning of the transformation of Algerian society. Features of anti-colonial protest at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries: traditionalists and "Musulfrans". Hussein Tunisia. Attempts of Europeanization (30-50s of the 19th century). Power interests in Tunisia. Establishment of a French protectorate. Morocco: ethno-political and socio-economic situation. The struggle of European powers for the division of Morocco. Invasion of France, protectorate treaty. Two "Moroccan crises". Libya: the reign of the Karamanli dynasty, the second conquest of Tripolitania by the Turks, the Senussiyya order and its relations with the Turkish authorities. Italy's aggression in Libya, the role of the Senusites in organizing resistance to the colonialists. The results of the colonial division of the countries of North Africa.

Topic 7. Iran

Iran in the 18th century The role of ancient statehood, the institution of hereditary monarchy, imperial traditions and Shiism in the formation of the socio-cultural exclusivity of the Iranians. Peculiarities of Shiite dogmatics: the doctrine of the Imamat. The cult of martyrs. Shiite shrines. Geographical factor in the history of Iran. Influence of nomadic invasions on statehood, economy, culture and ethnic processes. Decline of the Safavid Empire. The conquest of Iran by the Afghans, the consequences. The nomination of Nadir Khan, his struggle for the liberation and unification of the country. State of Nadir Shah Afshar. The era of civil strife: the Zends and the Qajars. Rise to power of the Qajar dynasty.

Political and socio-economic development of Iran (the first half of the 19th century). The first Qajar shahs, their characteristics. The organization of the central government, the system of administrative control of the country. Clergy: its financial situation, role in worship, education and the political and legal system of the state. Ethnic composition of the population, the role of the nomadic factor. State of agriculture, forms of land ownership. The nature of the relationship: peasant - landowner. City, craft, trade.

The foreign policy of the Qajars. Activation of the policy of European powers in Iran at the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. Russian-Iranian wars and their results. Herat conflict: causes, course, results. Positions of foreign powers in Iran by the middle of the 19th century.

Babid movement. Internal and external preconditions. Periodization. Personality of the Baba. The main provisions of his doctrine of a just society. The social composition of the Babis. Gathering in Bedasht: disengagement among the supporters of the Báb. Radical direction: representatives, ideas, methods. Suppression of the Babid movement, consequences. Motion evaluation: a discussion in the literature.

Attempt of reforms "from above" in Iran. The coming to power of Mirza Tagi Khan: the situation in the country. Tagi Khan's reforms: administrative-political and military transformations. Economic policy. Cultural and educational reforms. Attitude to the policy of Tagi Khan of Russia and England. Activation of opponents of reforms: resignation of Mirza Tagi Khan. Reasons for the failure of Iran's modernization.

Iran in the second half of the 19th century The transformation of Iran into a semi-colony. England and Russia: forms and methods of penetration into Iran. Anglo-Russian agreement on the division of Iran (1907): background, content, consequences. The nature of economic and social processes in Iran in the last third of the XIX - early XX century. Features of the genesis of the capitalist structure, the role of the external factor. The initial process of formation of Iranian nationalism. The first nationalists and their ideas. Mass movement for the elimination of the English tobacco monopoly.

Iran at the beginning of the 20th century Constitutional Movement 1905-1911 in Iran: prerequisites, participants in the movement and their goals, the role of the Shiite clergy, characteristics of the stages, results of the movement, its assessment in historiography. Iran during the First World War: Iran and the Warring Powers; struggle within the country regarding position in the war. "National Defense Committee" in Qom and "National Government" in Kermanshah. Anglo-Russian agreement on Iran (1915). Strengthening the national liberation movement. Revolution of 1917 in Russia and Iran.

The Renaissance, which originated in the second half of the XIV century. and fully came into its own from the middle of the 15th century, was the greatest progressive upheaval that broke the framework of the old orbis terrarum, laid the foundations for later world trade, for the transition of handicraft to manufacture, an unprecedented rise in productive forces; and laid the foundation for the development of modern European nations on the basis of bourgeois societies.
By the end of the XV century. Europe, ahead of the East both in the sphere of material and spiritual culture, becomes the bearer of the progressive tendencies of world history. The great geographical discoveries of the 15th-16th centuries contributed to a significant expansion of European politics.
Already from the middle of the XV century. Portuguese navigators began moving south along the western coast of Africa, and in 1488 Bartolomeu Dias rounded its southern tip. In 1498 Vasco da Gama's ships entered the Indian port of Calicut. As a result of the successful struggle against the Arabs and Egyptians, the Portuguese soon became the undisputed masters of the western Indian Ocean. Then they come into contact with China and in 1557 found the first European colony on Chinese territory in Macau. In 1500 they discovered and from 1530 actively colonized Brazil. Thus, a small country, thanks to its military and naval superiority, created a huge colonial empire.
At the same time, Spain is taking vigorous action to find new routes to wealthy India. During this process, Columbus discovers America (1492). The colonization of new lands began with the West Indies, where the first Spanish plantations and gold mines appeared. It was soon discovered that the local Indians turned out to be a physically weak labor force, they could not withstand the difficult conditions, they died or hit the run. Because of this, from 1518, the supply of hardy Negro slaves from Africa to the West Indies begins.
In 1519 - 1521, using the help of the Indian tribes, the detachment of Cortes conquered the rich Aztec empire. In 1532 - 1533. another conquistador - Pissarro took possession of the rich empire of the Incas. Here, on Peruvian soil, the richest mines were found, Peruvian silver poured into Europe.
The Spanish colonial empire became the basis of Spain's political hegemony in Europe in the 16th century.
The great geographical discoveries gradually led to the movement of trade routes and to a change in the balance of power in Europe. The Mediterranean Sea lost its importance as the center of maritime trade, giving way to the Atlantic Ocean, which favored the growth of the world trade authority of Antwerp and the Netherlands as a whole. In the second half of the 16th century, the strengthened Dutch bourgeoisie was able to successfully fight for the country's independence from Spanish domination.
In the XVI century. Spain's colonial expansion also went to the northern shores of Africa, but here it did not achieve much success.
So, Antwerp becomes, as it were, the geographical center of a new emerging world market. Its crafts and manufactories worked mainly for the foreign market, while the manufactories of England and France sold their goods mainly on the domestic market. In 1531, a stock exchange was opened in Antwerp, which became the rate-setting institution of the emerging global financial market. However, the role of the world center of credit and financial operations was later transferred to the Amsterdam Stock Exchange and the Amsterdam Bank. In addition, Amsterdam has become a world center for the redistribution of goods, pricing and exchange rate formation.
In 1609, the long struggle of the Netherlands against Spanish rule ended, and the recognized Republic of the United Provinces appeared on the European political arena. Since that time, the Amsterdam Bank began to play a decisive role in the credit and financial system of the world market. The stock exchange worked intensively, bills of exchange became the main form of credit and payment, industrial development and the growth of productive forces were successfully going on. Trade in weapons and military equipment has become a highly profitable industry. Relying on a developed maritime fleet, a strong Amsterdam market, and a low credit interest rate of an Amsterdam bank, Dutch merchants everywhere suppressed the aspirations of competitors.
In 1602, the Dutch merchants created the monopoly East India Company for trade and colonial development. In 1621, the West India Company was established, which served as a cover for military piracy and smuggling operations in the ocean, as well as the slave trade. The robbery of colonies, the predatory destruction of natural resources and productive forces, the enslavement and actual destruction of entire peoples began.
England also took an increasing part in this process. English merchants were actively looking for new, more and more distant markets for their goods, opening up ways to unknown lands. There are "regulated" and "share" companies. The first, representing merchant corporations of a national scale, received from the royal court special patents for monopoly trade in any area. Participants in such companies did not pool their capital, each trading at their own risk. Individualism bred competition, encouraged the development of initiative and business acumen, so necessary in the daring entrepreneurship of that adventurous era. "Regulated" companies traded mainly in the nearest European markets - in France and Holland.
The search for new markets was taken up by "share" companies. The latter included the Russian Company, which arose in 1554 as a result of R. Chancellor's visit to the Moscow State. In 1588, the Guinean Company was founded, which monopolized the slave trade, which soon became one of the most important sources of enrichment for the nation. In 1600, Queen Elizabeth signed a charter on the creation of the East India Company, marking the beginning of the "legalized" penetration of the British into India.
The struggle for markets led to a clash of English and Spanish interests. For a long time this struggle went on in the vast expanses of the Atlantic. In England, special merchant companies arose to equip pirate expeditions. In the last quarter of the XVI century. they, in fact, waged an undeclared war against the Spaniards, plundering the Spanish colonies and ships that were sailing with a precious cargo from the New World. The British authorities were very condescending towards the predatory activities of pirates, which were beneficial to the state.
In 1578, one of these pirates, Francis Drake, having passed through the Strait of Magellan, robbed the Spanish settlements in Chile and Peru, crossed the Pacific Ocean and, rounding the Cape of Good Hope, returned to England, having completed the second circumnavigation of the world after Magellan (1520). The queen welcomed the lucky adventurer by granting him the title of nobleman. Under Elizabeth, the English navy was significantly upgraded. Instead of bulky ships with a high freeboard, low elongated ships were built, fast and maneuverable. Along with changes in the tactics of naval combat, this allowed England in 1588 to win an important victory over the Spanish Invincible Armada.
In 1589 - 1590. new British expeditions are being equipped to the West Indies and the Pacific Ocean with the aim of driving the Holland out of the "Spice Islands" and the Portuguese out of Indian waters. Piracy becomes one of the methods of creating the foundations of the British colonial empire. The Anglo-Spanish war continued until 1604. It obviously dragged on, became very burdensome, and its end was greeted in England with relief.
The Anglo-Spanish naval war led to the disruption of England's regular trade with Europe, to the closure of part of the English markets on the continent. The losses associated with this began to exceed the profits from piracy and robbery of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies. From the beginning of the 17th century the organization of the English colonies proper, the state-sanctioned seizure of colonial sources of raw materials and markets, acquires special significance.
France also actively participated in the struggle to seize the colonies. Moreover, the French sought to establish their colonies in the very center of the American possessions of Portugal and Spain. But in 1560 the Portuguese destroyed the French settlement that had existed since 1555 near Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), in 1565 the Spaniards defeated the newly founded French Protestant colony in Florida, and in 1583 the combined Spanish-Portuguese forces were liquidated the French colony in Paramba (Brazil). It was obvious that at that time France did not have enough strength to confront powerful rivals. In addition, she had to solve complex political problems in Europe. Bartholomew's Night (1572) again plunged France into the abyss of religious wars.
So, we can rightfully say that the Renaissance was not only the most important progressive upheaval, but also the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries, the era of the primitive accumulation of capital, which prepared the conditions for the first bourgeois revolutions in Europe. The first of them, the Netherlands, leads to the emergence of the bourgeois Republic of the United Provinces, which, in itself, was the most important outcome of the 16th century. 1609 became the year of birth of the first state of the victorious bourgeoisie. The Dutch revolution was of exceptionally great international significance.
Already in the first decade of the XVII century. Holland has achieved an economic growth that surprised all European countries. The Netherlands soon became a great maritime and colonial power, with a number of ships that outnumbered the ships of all the rest of Europe. Amsterdam became the center of the international payment system, the largest banker of the new world market.
Equally impressive and significant was the entry of Holland into the arena of world politics. The United Provinces, which possessed a powerful fleet, were strong enough to set a course for the decisive displacement of the old masters and the creation of their own colonial empire in the places of their former possessions. This was already the beginning of real wars for the redistribution of colonies, the beginning of the era of trade wars of European nations, the beginning of the birth of a new world colonial system, the arena of which was the entire globe.