History of Russia: Russia in the second half of the twentieth century. Scientific and technological revolution of the second half of the twentieth century
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§ 96. Leading capitalist countries in the second half of the twentieth century.
Making the US a leading world power. The war led to dramatic shifts in the balance of power in the world. The United States not only suffered little in the war, but also received significant profits. The country has increased coal and oil production, electricity generation, and steel production. The basis for this economic recovery was large military orders from the government. The USA has taken a leading position in the world economy. A factor ensuring the economic, scientific and technical hegemony of the United States was the import of ideas and specialists from other countries. Already on the eve and during the war, many scientists emigrated to the United States. After the war, a large number of German specialists and scientific and technical documentation were exported from Germany. The military situation contributed to the development of agriculture. There was a great demand for food and raw materials in the world, which created a favorable situation in the agricultural market even after 1945. The explosions of atomic bombs in the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki became a terrible demonstration of the increased power of the United States. In 1945, President G. Truman openly said that the burden of responsibility for the continued leadership of the world fell on America. At the beginning of the Cold War, the United States came up with the concepts of “containing” and “throwing back” communism, aimed against the USSR. US military bases cover a large part of the world. The advent of peacetime did not stop government intervention in the economy. Despite praise for free enterprise, economic development after Roosevelt's New Deal was no longer conceivable without the regulatory role of the state. Under state control, the transition of industry to peaceful lines was carried out. A program for the construction of roads, power plants, etc. was implemented. The Presidential Council of Economic Advisers provided recommendations to government agencies. Social programs from Roosevelt's New Deal era were retained. New policy was called "fair course". Along with this, measures were taken to restrict the rights of trade unions (the Taft-Hartley Act). At the same time, on the initiative of the senator J. McCarthy persecution began against people accused of “anti-American activities” (McCarthyism). Many people became victims of the witch hunt, including such famous people as Charles Chaplin. As part of this policy, the build-up of weapons, including nuclear weapons, continued. The formation of the military-industrial complex (MIC), in which the interests of officials, the top of the army and the military industry were united, is being completed.
50-60s XX century were generally favorable for economic development fast growth, associated primarily with the implementation of the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution. During these years, the country achieved great success in the struggle of the black (African-American) population for their rights. Protests led by M.L King, led to the prohibition of racial segregation. By 1968, laws were passed to ensure equal rights for blacks. However, achieving real equality turned out to be much more difficult than legal equality; influential forces resisted this, which was expressed in the murder of Quing.
Other changes were also carried out in the social sphere.
Became president in 1961 J. Kennedy pursued a policy of “new frontiers” aimed at creating a society of “general welfare” (elimination of inequality, poverty, crime, prevention of nuclear war). Powerfully important social laws were passed to facilitate the poor's access to education, health care, etc.
In the late 60s - early 70s. xx century The US situation is getting worse.
This was due to the escalation of the Vietnam War, which ended in the biggest defeat in US history, as well as the global economic crisis of the early 70s of the twentieth century. These events became one of the factors leading to the policy of détente: under President R. Nixon The first arms limitation treaties were concluded between the USA and the USSR.
In the early 80s of the twentieth century. a new economic crisis began.
Under these conditions, the President R. Reagan proclaimed a policy called the “conservative revolution.” Social spending on education, medicine, pensions was reduced, but taxes were also reduced. The United States has taken a course towards developing free enterprise and reducing the role of the state in the economy. This course caused many protests, but contributed to an improvement in the economy. Reagan advocated increasing the arms race, but in the late 80s of the twentieth century. At the proposal of the leader of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev, the process of a new arms reduction began. It accelerated in an environment of unilateral concessions from the USSR.
The collapse of the USSR and the entire socialist camp contributed to the longest period of economic growth in the United States in the 90s. XX century under the president at Clinton's. The United States has become the only center of power in the world and has begun to claim global leadership. True, at the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st centuries. The economic situation in the country has worsened. Terrorist attacks have become a serious test for the United States 11 September 2001 Terrorist attacks in New York and Washington cost the lives of more than 3 thousand people.
Leading countries of Western Europe.
The Second World War undermined the economies of all European countries. Enormous efforts had to be spent on its restoration. The painful phenomena in these countries were caused by the collapse of the colonial system and the loss of colonies. Thus, for Great Britain, the results of the war, according to W. Churchill, became “a triumph and a tragedy.” England has finally become the “junior partner” of the United States. By the beginning of the 60s of the twentieth century. England lost almost all of its colonies. A serious problem since the 70s. XX century became the armed struggle in Northern Ireland. The British economy could not revive for a long time after the war, until the early 50s. XX century The card system was maintained. The Laborites who came to power after the war nationalized a number of industries and expanded social programs. Gradually, the economic situation improved. In the 5060s. XX century there was intense economic growth. However, the crises of 1974-1975 and 1980-1982. caused great damage to the country. The Conservative government that came to power in 1979, led by M. Thatcher defended the “true values of British society.” In practice, this resulted in privatization of the public sector, reduction of government regulation and encouragement of private enterprise, reduction of taxes and social spending. In France, after World War II, under the influence of the communists, who sharply increased their authority during the years of the fight against fascism, a number of large industries were nationalized, and the property of German collaborators was confiscated. The social rights and guarantees of the people have expanded. In 1946, a new constitution was adopted, establishing the regime of the Fourth Republic. However, foreign policy events (wars in Vietnam, Algeria) made the situation in the country extremely unstable.
On the wave of discontent in 1958, a general came to power C. de Gaulle. He held a referendum that adopted a new constitution that dramatically expanded the powers of the president. The period of the Fifth Republic began. Charles de Gaulle managed to solve a number of pressing problems: the French left Indochina, all colonies in Africa received freedom. Initially, de Gaulle tried to use military force to retain Algeria, which was the homeland of a million French, for France. However, the escalation of hostilities and increased repression against participants in the national liberation war only led to an increase in Algerian resistance. In 1962, Algeria gained independence, and most of the French from there fled to France. An attempt at a military coup by forces opposed to leaving Algeria was suppressed in the country. From the mid-60s of the twentieth century. France's foreign policy became more independent, it left the NATO military organization, and an agreement was concluded with the USSR.
At the same time, the economic situation improved. However, contradictions in the country persisted, which led to mass protests by students and workers in 1968. Under the influence of these protests, de Gaulle resigned in 1969. His successor J Pompidou maintained the same political course. In the 70s XX century The economic situation has become less stable. In the 1981 presidential elections, the leader of the Socialist Party was elected F. Mitterrand. After the Socialists won the parliamentary elections, they formed their own government (with the participation of the Communists). A number of reforms were carried out in the interests of broad sections of the population (shortening working hours, increasing vacations), the rights of trade unions were expanded, and a number of industries were nationalized. However, emerging economic problems forced the government to take the path of austerity. The role of right-wing parties, with whose governments Mitterrand was supposed to cooperate, increased, and reforms were suspended. A serious problem was the strengthening of nationalist sentiments in France due to the massive influx of emigrants into the country. The sentiments of SUPPORTERS of the slogan “France for the French” are expressed by the National Front led by J - M. Le Lenom, which at times receives a significant number of votes. The influence of leftist forces has declined. In the 1995 elections, the right-wing Gaullist politician became president J Chirac.
After the emergence of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949, its government was headed by the leader of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) Adenauer, who remained in power until 1960. He pursued a policy of creating a socially oriented market economy with a significant role of government regulation. After the completion of the period of economic recovery, the development of the German economy proceeded at a very rapid pace, facilitated by US assistance. Germany has become an economically powerful power. In political life there was a struggle between the CDU and the Social Democrats. At the end of the 60s. XX century A government dominated by Social Democrats led by V. Brandtom. Many changes were carried out in the interests of the general population. In foreign policy, Brandt normalized relations with the USSR, Poland, and the GDR. However, the economic crises of the 70s. xx century led to a worsening of the country's situation. In 1982, the leader of the CDU came to power G. Kohl. His government reduced government regulation of the economy and carried out privatization. Favorable conditions contributed to an increase in the pace of development. The reunification of the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic took place. by the end of the 90s. xx century new financial and economic problems arose. In 1998, the Social Democrats led by G. Schroeder.
In the mid-70s. XX century The last authoritarian regimes in Europe have disappeared. In 1974, the military carried out a coup in Portugal, overthrowing the dictatorial regime A. Salazar. Democratic reforms were carried out, a number of leading industries were nationalized, and independence was granted to the colonies. In Spain after the death of the dictator F. Franco in 1975 the restoration of democracy began. The democratization of society was supported by King Juan Carlos 1. Over time, significant successes were achieved in the economy, and the standard of living of the population increased. After the end of World War II, a civil war broke out in Greece (1946-1949) between pro-communist and pro-Western forces, supported by England and the United States. It ended in the defeat of the communists. In 1967, a military coup took place in the country and the regime of “black colonels” was established. While limiting democracy, the “black colonels” at the same time expanded social support for the population. The regime's attempt to annex Cyprus led to its fall in 1974.
European integration. In the second half of the twentieth century. There have been trends towards integration of countries in many regions, especially in Europe. Back in 1949, the Council of Europe came into existence. In 1957, 6 countries led by France and Germany signed the Treaty of Rome to create the European Economic Community (EEC) - a Common Market that removed customs barriers. In the 70s - 80s. xx century the number of EEC members increased to 12. In 1979, the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held. In 1991, as a result of long negotiations and decades of rapprochement between the EEC countries, documents on monetary, economic and political unions were signed in the Dutch city of Maastricht. In 1995, the EEC, which already included 15 states, was transformed into the European Union (EU). Since 2002, a single currency, the euro, was finally introduced in 12 EU countries, which strengthened the economic positions of these countries in the fight against the United States and Japan. The treaties provide for the expansion of the EU's supranational powers. The main policy directions will be determined by the European Council. Decisions require the consent of 8 out of 12 countries. The creation of a single European government cannot be ruled out in the future.
Japan. The Second World War had dire consequences for Japan - economic destruction, loss of colonies, occupation. Under pressure from the United States, the Japanese emperor agreed to limit his power. In 1947, a Constitution was adopted that expanded democratic rights and consolidated the peaceful status of the country (military expenditures according to the Constitution cannot exceed 1% of all budget expenditures). The right-wing Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) is almost always in power in Japan. Japan managed to restore its economy very quickly. Since the 50s XX century its sharp rise begins, called the Japanese “economic miracle”. This “miracle” was, in addition to a favorable environment, based on the peculiarities of the organization of the economy and the mentality of the Japanese, as well as a small share of military expenditures. The hard work, unpretentiousness, and corporate-community traditions of the population allowed the Japanese economy to compete successfully. A course was set for the development of knowledge-intensive industries that made Japan a leader in the production of electronics. Nevertheless, at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. There are significant problems in Japan. Corruption-related scandals around the LDP flared up more and more often. The rate of economic growth has slowed down, competition from the “newly industrialized countries” (South Korea, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia), as well as China, has increased. China also poses a military threat to Japan.
International social movements
After the Second World War on new level development
Mass social movements arose. Especially widely
They gained such momentum in the 70s and 80s. A number of them originated outside
framework of political parties, reflecting the crisis of political
parties as an institution of a democratic society.
Leading social movements spoke out in defense of peace,
democracy and social progress, against all manifestations
reaction and neo-fascism. Social movements of modern times
They make a great contribution to environmental protection,
tion civil rights and freedoms, fight for the participation of workers
those involved in the management of enterprises and the state. Wide
support is provided by social movements for fair
requirements of women, youth, national minorities.
The leading role in many movements belonged to the workers
chim. However, in recent decades social composition many-
These social movements have expanded significantly. In some
some of them include representatives of all social strata
modern Western societies.
Communists. An important role in the victory over fascism was played by
Are they communists? Heroic struggle on the fronts and in behind enemy lines,
active participation in the resistance movement in the enslaved
ical parties in the world. Their influence and numbers are significant
have increased. If in 1939 there were 61 communist
party numbering about 4 million, then by the end of 1945 the communi-
political parties existed in 76 countries that united
hired 20 million people. In the first post-war years, the number
communists has grown even more. In 1950, there were 81
party, and the number of communists grew to 75 million people.
In 1945–1947, the communists were part of the coalition
governments of France, Italy, Austria, Belgium, Denmark,
Iceland, Norway and Finland. Their representatives were
elected to the parliaments of most Western European countries
ropes. Between 1944 and 1949, the Communist parties became the ruling parties in
countries of Central and South of Eastern Europe and in a number of countries
Asia, and later in Cuba.
During the war years (1943) the Comintern was dissolved. However
The dependence of the Communist Parties on the CPSU remained. New tasks
demanded the strengthening of international ties of the communist
com planet. In September 1947, a meeting was held in Poland
representatives of the Communist Parties of the USSR, Bulgaria, Hungary,
Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, France and
Italy. Informational reports were heard at the meeting
communication about the activities of the parties represented at the meeting.
The issue of the international situation was also discussed. IN
of the adopted Declaration, the Communist Parties were faced with fundamental
tasks of the struggle for peace, democracy, national sovereignty
tet, for the unity of all anti-imperialist forces. For coordination
the dynamics of the activities of the communist parties, the exchange of work experience was
a decision was made to create an Information Bureau and establish
publication of a printed organ. At meetings held in June
1948 in Romania and in November 1949 in Hungary, were adopted
documents on the protection of peace, the need to strengthen unity
working class and communists.
Serious disagreements between the CPSU and the Communist Party of the South
Slavia, Stalin’s pressure on other communist parties led to the ex-
according to the Information Bureau of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia. After 1949
The information bureau did not meet. Subsequently, connections between the companies
batches began to be carried out in the form of bilateral and multi-
state-side meetings and international meetings on voluntary basis
on a new basis.
In 1957 and 1966, international councils were held in Moscow
meetings of representatives of communist parties. Most
current problems of the communist movement, democratic
racy, peace and social progress are reflected in
documents adopted at the meetings. However, in subsequent
years, dangerous trends and discrepancies began to appear,
associated with the departure of the leadership of the Communist Party of China from the brand-
Sism-Leninism and proletarian internationalism.
In the 60s there was a significant deterioration in relations
between the CPSU and the Communist Party of China, between the CPC and other com-
Munist parties. The gap between the CPC and the CPSU is difficult
affected the unity of the MKD. Some Communist parties switched to
Maoist positions; in others, Maoist groups emerged. Os-
The third crisis in the ICD arose in connection with the introduction of troops from the states
participants of the Warsaw Pact to Czechoslovakia. 24 compar-
ties, including Italian and French, condemned the military
intervention. After this, it was difficult to convene a meeting
communist and workers' parties in July 1969. Disagreements
continued to intensify. Five Communist parties refused to sign
final document of the Meeting, four parties, including the Italian
Lyanskaya and Australian, agreed to sign only one
section, some signed the document with reservations.
In 1977 General Secretaries influential communist parties
Western Europe - Italian (E. Berlinguer), French
(J. Marchais) and Spanish (S. Carrillo) adopted a declaration
against the MKD's orientation towards the Soviet model of socialism. New
The movement was called “Eurocommunism”. "Eurocommunis-
you" advocated a peaceful path of development of countries towards socialism.
The USCP has been criticized for its lack of democracy and violations
human rights. Countries of “real socialism” are condemned
fought for the subordination of the state to the party. "Eurocommunists"
expressed the opinion that the Soviet Union had lost its revolutionary
lutionary role.
The new trend was supported by many communist parties, including
le Great Britain, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Japan. Not-
which parties - Australia, Greece, Spain, Finland,
Sweden - split. As a result, in these countries education
there were two or even three communist parties.
In recent decades, the divergence of ideas has increased -
but-political orientation of communist parties with re-
al social development. This led to a crisis of opinion
Dovs, politics and organizations of communist parties. More
in all, he struck those parties that were in power and
were responsible for the development of their countries. The crash of the "re-
socialism" in Eastern European countries, leaving the stage
We of the CPSU have made obvious the need for a serious re-
review of traditional views, politics and organization
communist parties, their development of a new ideological
political orientation corresponding to what is happening in
world of profound changes.
Socialists and Social Democrats. Socialist in-
international In 1951, at a congress in Frankfurt am Main
The Socialist International (SI) was founded, which
ry proclaimed himself the successor of the RSI, which existed since
1923 to 1940 The leading role in the creation of SI was played by the British
Chinese Labour, SPD, socialist parties of Belgium,
Italy, France. At first, it included 34 co-
socialist and social democratic parties, numbering
numbering about 10 million people.
In the program declaration “Goals and objectives of democratic
socialism" the goal was put forward: gradually, without class-
to achieve through struggle, revolution and dictatorship of the proletariat
transformation of capitalism into socialism. Peaceful evolution
onny process was opposed to the Marxist-Leninist
the doctrine of class struggle. The declaration stated that
The main threat to peace is the policy of the USSR. Creation of SI
and his strategy in the first post-war decades strengthened
confrontation between two branches of the international labor movement
niya - social democratic and communist.
In the late 50s and especially in the 60s and early 70s, social
democracy has significantly expanded mass support for its
politicians. This was facilitated by objective circumstances,
which favored the implementation of social policy
a lot of maneuvering. Important had an expansion co-
formation of the Socialist International. Joining its ranks of socialist
parties from Asia, Africa and Latin America Led to
“The World Today – Socialist Perspective”
the need for peaceful coexistence of states was recognized
with different social systems, there was a call for inter-
international detente and disarmament. Subsequently, SI all ac-
more actively advocated the strengthening of peace and universal security.
In the 70s, the SI continued to adhere to the ideology and
principles of "democratic socialism". More attention
began to pay attention to the problems of socio-economic gender
workers' lives. SI is more active and more constructively expressive
stood up for peace and disarmament, supported the new “Eastern
policy" by V. Brandt, Soviet-American agreements on
issues of limitation and reduction of armaments, for strengthening
detente, against the Cold War.
In the 1980s, the Social Democrats faced certain
our difficulties. The number of some parties has been reduced. IN
leading Western countries(England, Germany) they were defeated
lost in the elections and lost power to the neoconservatives. Difficulties
The 80s were generated by a number of factors. More acutely manifested
there were contradictory consequences of scientific and technological progress and economic growth.
Economic and other global problems have worsened. Not
managed to stop unemployment, and in a number of countries it adopted
alarming proportions. The active offensive was led by neoconservatives.
tive forces. For many issues of concern SI developed
new strategy and tactics, which are reflected in
program documents of social democratic parties and in
Declaration of Principles of the Socialist International, adopted in 1989.
Final goal, proclaimed by the Social Democrats,
is to achieve social democracy, i.e. in ensuring
all social rights of workers (right to work, education
education, recreation, treatment, housing, social security), in
eliminating all forms of oppression, discrimination, exploitation
man by man, in guaranteeing all conditions for free
development of each personality as a condition for free development
the whole society.
The goals of democratic socialism must be achieved
emphasize social democratic parties, peaceful, de-
by mocratic means, through gradual evolution
society, through reforms, class cooperation. IN
post-war years, the Social Democrats were in power in
a number of countries (Austria, England, Germany, France, Spain, Sweden
tion, Norway, Finland).
Despite the fact that they often made concessions to the bourgeoisie,
zia and large capital, objective assessment of activities
indicates that, first of all, they reflected the
defended the interests of workers. Their contribution to defense is significant
democracy, formation and development of the state, welfare
efforts to improve the financial situation of workers, to
advancement of their countries on the path of social progress, in
promotion of universal peace and international security, improving
relations between the West and the East, in resolving the complex
problems of the “third world”.
In 1992, the 19th SI Congress took place. It took place in Berlin.
The French socialist Pierre Mauroy was elected chairman. IN
In a number of countries, new socialist and social-democratic
political parties, including in the independent states of the CIS.
The parties of the Socialist International are represented by major
ny factions in the parliaments of many Western countries.
listical international. 1200 attended the convention
delegates who represented 143 parties from 100 countries. ABOUT
The importance of the congress is also indicated by the fact that among the delegates
The President of Argentina and eleven presidents were present.
prime ministers. In a unanimously adopted declaration among
many important provisions reflecting modern problems
we the world, special attention was paid to the need to “pri-
give globalization processes social change", "improved
to promote representative democracy”, to defend the “balance
between rights and responsibilities."
Despite the fact that in recent decades the leading
In Western countries, the “neoconservative wave” has intensified, social
democracy has had and is having a noticeable impact on politics
cultural and social life in Western world. Private
business remains regulated, democracy remains universal.
Social rights of workers are ensured by the state.
Trade unions. In the post-war years, the role of
trade unions - the most massive organization of hired workers
a lot of work. By the beginning of the 90s, only those united in international
People's organizations and trade unions numbered over 315 million.
Human. Already in the 50s and 60s, millions of members of the WFTU, created
at the 1st World Trade Union Congress in Paris in September
1945, actively advocated for the improvement of material conditions
workers' lives. Much attention was paid to the fight against unemployment
Botica, system development social insurance, back-
the rights of trade unions. Important place in activities
trade unions were occupied with issues related to the struggle of the people
masses for the prohibition of atomic weapons, the cessation of wars and the re-
regional conflicts, strengthening global security.
The WFTU enjoyed constant support from the national
but liberation movement. Developing strategy and tactics
international trade union movement, restoration
unity of trade unions, the struggle for vital rights of workers,
for peace and national independence of the working people were
sacred are the World Trade Union Congresses: in Vienna (1953),
in Leipzig (1957), in Moscow (1961), in Warsaw (1965), in
Budapest (1969). They played an important role in raising the
authority and growth of influence of the WFTU in the international trade union-
nom movement.
At the World Congress in Budapest (1969) it was approved
Ren "Orientation document for trade union actions." This
the document directed workers to achieve the liquidation
economic and political domination of monopolies, co-
buildings of democratic institutions of power, ensuring ac-
active participation of the working class in economic management. IN
the focus was also on issues of international unity
of the new trade union movement. In the 70s and 80s, the WFTU
has given priority attention to the problems of reduction
reduction of arms and strengthening of peace, ending the race
weapons, supported the peoples of Indochina, Africa
Ricky, Latin America, who are in different years to the department
countries fought to strengthen their independence,
for democratic freedoms. Questions played an important role
unity of action. The WFTU called on other international
trade union centers to joint actions in defense
interests of workers, the fight against unemployment, to fight back
monopoly capital. All those who passed during this period
peace congresses and trade union conferences showed everything
the variety of forms of struggle of the WFTU in defending indigenous in-
workers' concerns.
Important role in the international trade union movement
played by the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions
(ICSP). It includes trade unions of industrial and some
developing countries. For better coordination of activities
of its member trade unions, the ICFTU has created regional organi-
nization: Asia-Pacific, Inter-American, African
Kanskaya As part of the ICFTU, the European Union was created in 1973
Trade Union Confederation (ETUC). ICFTU has become more energetic
but to speak out in support of socio-economic demands
unions of the working people, for strengthening peace and disarmament, against
specific acts of aggression. She welcomed the democratic
Russian revolutions in Eastern European countries, perestroika in
USSR, supported the efforts of the international community to
assistance to them, began to advocate more actively for
cessation of regional military conflicts.
In the post-war years, Western countries intensified their
activities of trade unions influenced by the church. IN
1968 International Confederation of Christian Trade Unions
(MCHP) changed its name. XII Congress of the ICCP post-
new to call the organization the World Confederation of Labor
yes (VKT). The CGT defends human rights and trade union freedoms
Yes, he is fighting to improve the situation of the population in the “third world”,
calls for the activation of women in public life; at-
calls for the fight against all types of exploitation and discrimination
tions. An important place is given to the global problems of modern
ity, especially environmental. The CGT supported change
events in Eastern Europe, welcomes the positive
changes in international relations.
Trade unions, being the most massive organizations
labor movement, contributed to its significant success
boorish, social progress in general.
In the early 90s, the global trade union movement
read, according to various estimates, 500 - 600 million people, which
accounted for 40–50% of the army of hired labor. They don't cover
the entire mass of hired workers in developed Western countries,
including predominantly those employed in traditional industries
material production.
The crisis state of trade unions in modern conditions
is associated with the inadequacy of their activities due to the profound changes
changes that occurred in the nature of work and the structure of work
employment in leading Western countries, under the influence of technology and technology. Prof.
alliances are trying to change their strategy and tactics, to more
broadly to protect the interests of workers, more closely
mania to pay attention to global problems, strengthen cooperation
partnership with other mass democratic movements.
Other mass social movements. In the post-war
years, in almost all countries there was an outflow from traditional political
political parties and trade unions. Disappointed members of these
organizations sought to gain more freedom, did not want
put up with rigid ideological guidelines. Especially
this was typical for student youth. Appeared
many different groups that volunteer
united into movements not associated with strict discipline
noah, nor a general ideology.
In conditions of crisis phenomena in the socio-economic
and political spheres in the 70s arose new movements,
covering people of different social strata, different ages,
comrades and political views.
Mass social movements in the 70s and 80s had
whether different orientation. The most common and
had a significant impact on socio-political
life of the Western world were environmental and anti-war
ny movements.
Representatives of the environmental movement in many countries
they actively oppose over-industrialization, non-
rational exploitation of natural resources. Particular attention
obsession with problems associated with danger
outgrowing ecological crisis into environmental cata-
stanza that can lead to the death of human civilization
villization. In this regard, the environmental movement advocates
is for banning nuclear weapons testing, limiting
and cessation of military activities, disarmament. Eco-
gical movement considers disarmament and related
with him the conversion of military production as the most important
potential source of additional resources, mother-
nal and intelligent, to solve environmental problems
blem. Among the mass social movements, environmental
currents are the most organized and developed in
theoretical and practical plans. They created many
in some countries political parties"green" and international
native organizations (Greenpeace), a single faction in the Euro-
parliament. The green movement supports active
cooperation within the UN, many non-governmental
ny organizations.
Among the mass movements in Western countries, an important
one hundred is occupied by the anti-war movement. Even during the Second World War
during the war it consolidated on democratic anti-
fascist basis, which became the basis in the post-war period
mass peace movement. At the II World Con-
Congress in Warsaw (1950) establishes the World Peace Council
(SCM), which organizes the campaign to sign the Stock
Holm Proclamation, which qualified atomic war as
crime against humanity. In the mid-50s in the country
In the West, anti-nuclear pacifism has received widespread development.
In the second half of the 50s, many Western countries created
There are mass anti-nuclear organizations or their coalitions. IN
in the early 70s, the movement against war gained special momentum
in Vietnam. In the second half of the 70s - early 80s, students
members of the anti-war movement actively opposed it
throne bomb, deployment of American and Soviet missiles
medium range in Europe.
In the 60s and 70s, the women's movement intensified. In line with the youth
reliable rebellion, a neo-Finist movement arose, speaking out
fallen from the position of the latest concepts of “mixed”, and not
"sexually divided" society, and "social consciousness"
gender relations”, overcoming “violence against women”. Presentation
Leaders of the women's movement in Western countries actively advocate
are against the monopoly of men on power in society, for equal
representation of women in all spheres of activity and all
social institutions.
Civic activity has increased in recent decades
women. They are increasingly influencing politics
are elected to the parliaments of many countries, occupy high
government posts. Women's interest in global
ny problems of our time. Women are actively involved
in the anti-war movement. All this speaks of an emerging trend.
trends in the increasing role of women in the life of their countries and pre-
turning the women's movement into an influential force in modern times
no democracy.
At the turn of the 60s in the USA and other Western countries
A youth protest movement (hippies) arose. This is the movement
the phenomenon arose as a reaction to the specific features of co-
temporary bureaucracy and totalitarianism, the desire
put all spheres of an individual’s life under bureaucratic
control, the contradiction between the democratic ideology
logic and totalitarian practice, increasingly depersonalized
bureaucratic structure. Hippie style and slogans
became quite widespread in the 70s and 80s
years, having a strong influence on the value world of Western
Yes. Many counterculture ideals became integral part
mass consciousness. The hipster generation launched
passion for rock music, which has now become an essential element
ment of traditional culture.
In a number of Western countries in the 60s - 80s,
extremism, which is traditionally divided into “left” and “right”
vy". Left-wing extremists usually appeal to the ideas of mar-
Sism-Leninism and other leftist views (anarchism, left
radicalism), declaring themselves the most consistent fighters
people “for the cause of the proletariat”, “the working masses”. They are critical
forged capitalism for social inequality, suppression
personality, exploitation. Socialism is for bureaucratization,
oblivion of the principles of “class struggle” (“Red Faction”
Army" in Germany, "Red Brigades" in Italy). Rights
extremists denounce the vices of bourgeois society with extreme
conservative positions for the decline of morals, drug addiction, ego-
ism, consumerism and “mass culture”, lack of “po-
row", the rule of plutocracy. For both right and left
extremism is characterized by anti-communism (“Italian social
movement" in Italy, Republican and National
but democratic parties in Germany, various right-wing
wild and openly fascist groups and parties in the USA).
Some of the “left” extremist organizations are illegally
nal position, wages a guerrilla war, commits ter-
roristic acts.
In the 60–70s, such
movements such as the New Left and the New Right. Presentation
supporters of the “New Left” (mainly student youth groups)
dezh and some of the intelligentsia) differed in different ways
criticism of all contemporary forms of socio-political
structure and organization of economic life from the perspective
extreme radicalism (including terrorism) and anarchism. "But-
high right" (mainly intelligentsia, technocrats and some
some other privileged strata of developed Western
countries) relied on the ideology of neoconservatism.
Modern mass social movements are
is an essential part of the democratic process. A priority-
important to them are the ideas of peace, democracy, social
progress, salvation of human civilization. Public
movements are overwhelmingly pro-
mi nonviolent actions, believing that humane goals are not
can be achieved by inhumane means.
In the 90s of the twentieth century, in the minds of the broad masses
a critical attitude towards modern
processes of globalization. Later it grew into a powerful
resistance especially to economic globalization,
benefits from which the most developed countries of Western Europe receive
pada. Occupying leading positions in the global economy and
the latest technologies, they protect their interests, pro-
driving politics double standards. At the same time, saving
tical, social and other costs of globalization are heavy
place a heavy burden on weak developing economies
countries and the poorest social strata of the population, even in
developed countries.
Under these conditions, a new social movement aimed
everything against the policy of globalization began to be called “anti-Global”
ballistic." Transnational in scope and character
teru, it includes representatives of a wide variety of movements
protest, who are united by rejection of the deepest social
nal-economic inequality of the modern world.
CHAPTER 8. DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND CULTURE
Countries of Eastern Europe in the second half of the twentieth century.
The beginning of the construction of socialism.
During the Second World War, the authority of leftist forces, primarily communists, increased significantly in the countries of Eastern Europe. In a number of states they led anti-fascist uprisings (Bulgaria, Romania), in others they led the partisan struggle. In 1945 - 1946 in all countries new constitutions were adopted, monarchies were abolished, power passed to people's governments, large enterprises were nationalized and agrarian reforms were carried out. In the elections, the communists took strong positions in parliaments. They called for even more radical changes, which the bourgeois democratic parties opposed. At the same time, the process of merging communists and social democrats with the dominance of the former unfolded everywhere.
The presence of Soviet troops in the countries of Eastern Europe provided powerful support to the communists. In the context of the outbreak of the Cold War, a bet was placed on accelerating transformations. This largely corresponded to the sentiments of the majority of the population, among whom there was great authority Soviet Union, and in the construction of socialism, many saw a way to quickly overcome post-war difficulties and further create a just society. The USSR provided these states with enormous material assistance.
In the 1947 elections, the Communists won a majority of seats in the Polish Sejm. The Seimas elected a communist as president B. Beruta. In Czechoslovakia in February 1948, the communists, through multi-day mass rallies of workers, achieved the creation of a new government in which they played a leading role. Soon the President E. Benes resigned, and the leader of the Communist Party was elected as the new president K. Gottwald.
By 1949, power was in the hands of communist parties in all countries of the region. In October 1949, the GDR was formed. In some countries, the multi-party system has been preserved, but in many ways it has become a formality.
CMEA and ATS.
With the formation of the countries of "people's democracy" the process of formation of the world socialist system began. Economic ties between the USSR and the people's democracies were carried out at the first stage in the form of a bilateral foreign trade agreement. At the same time, the USSR strictly controlled the activities of the governments of these countries.
Since 1947, this control has been exercised by the heir to the Comintern Cominform. began to play great importance in expanding and strengthening economic ties Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), created in 1949. Its members were Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia, Albania later joined. The creation of CMEA was a definite response to the creation of NATO. The goals of CMEA were to unite and coordinate efforts in developing the economies of the member countries of the Commonwealth.
In the political field, the creation of the Warsaw Pact Organization (WTO) in 1955 was of great importance. Its creation was a response to the admission of Germany to NATO. In accordance with the terms of the treaty, its participants pledged, in the event of an armed attack on any of them, to provide immediate assistance to the attacked states by all means, including the use of armed force. A unified military command was created, joint military exercises were held, weapons and troop organization were unified.
§ 106. International relations in the second half of the twentieth century.
Berlin and Caribbean crises.
The appearance of the Soviet Union at the turn of the 60s of the twentieth century. intercontinental missiles contributed to the intensification of his foreign policy. The confrontation between the USSR and the USA then swept the whole world. The USSR actively supported the national liberation movements of various peoples and other anti-American forces. The United States continued to actively build up its armed forces, expand the network of its military bases everywhere, and provide economic and military assistance to pro-Western forces around the world on a large scale. The desire of the two blocs to expand their spheres of influence twice in the late 50s - early 60s of the twentieth century. brought the world to the brink of nuclear war.
The international crisis began in 1958 around West Berlin, after the West rejected the demand of the Soviet leadership to turn it into a free demilitarized city. A new escalation of events occurred on August 13, 1961. On the initiative of the leadership of the GDR, a wall was erected around West Berlin concrete slabs. This measure enabled the GDR government to prevent the flight of citizens to Germany and strengthen the position of its state. The construction of the wall caused outrage in the West. NATO and Internal Affairs troops were put on alert.
In the spring of 1962, the leaders of the USSR and Cuba decided
deploy medium-range nuclear missiles on this island. The USSR hoped to make the United States as vulnerable to a nuclear strike as the Soviet Union was after the deployment of American missiles in Turkey. Receiving confirmation of the deployment of Soviet missiles in Cuba caused panic in the United States. The confrontation reached its peak on October 27 - 28, 1962. The world was on the brink of war, but prudence prevailed: the USSR removed nuclear missiles from the island in response to US President Kennedy's promises not to invade Cuba and remove missiles from Turkey.
The Berlin and Caribbean crises showed both sides the dangers of brinksmanship. In 1963, an extremely important agreement was signed: the USA, USSR and Great Britain stopped all nuclear tests, except underground ones.
The second period of the COLD WAR began in 1963. It is characterized by a shift in the center of gravity of international conflicts to the areas of the “Third World”, to the periphery of world politics. At the same time, relations between the United States and the USSR transformed from confrontation to détente, to negotiations and agreements, in particular on the reduction of nuclear and conventional weapons and on the peaceful resolution of international disputes. The largest conflicts were the US war in Vietnam and the USSR in Afghanistan.
The Vietnam War.
After the war (1946-1954), France was forced to recognize the independence of Vietnam and withdraw its troops
Military-political blocs.
The desire of Western countries and the USSR to strengthen their positions on the world stage led to the creation of a network of military-political blocs in different regions. The largest number of them were created on the initiative and under the leadership of the United States. In 1949, the NATO bloc emerged. In 1951, the ANZUS bloc (Australia, New Zealand, USA) was formed. In 1954, the NATO bloc was formed (USA, UK, France, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Thailand, Philippines). In 1955, the Baghdad Pact (Great Britain, Turkey, Iraq, Pakistan, Iran) was concluded, after the withdrawal of Iraq it was called CENTO.
In 1955, the Warsaw Pact Organization (WTO) was formed. It included the USSR, Albania (withdrew in 1968), Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia.
The main obligations of the bloc participants were mutual assistance to each other in the event of an attack on one of the allied states. The main military confrontation unfolded between NATO and the Department of Internal Affairs. Practical activities within the blocs were expressed, first of all, in military-technical cooperation, as well as in the creation of military bases by the USA and the USSR and the deployment of their troops on the territory of the allied states on the line of confrontation between the blocs. Particularly significant forces of the parties were concentrated in Germany and the GDR. A large number of American and Soviet atomic weapons were also located here.
The Cold War caused an accelerated arms race, which was the most important area of confrontation and potential conflict between the two great powers and their allies.
Periods"cold war"ANDinternational crises.
There are two periods in the Cold War. The period 1946-1963 is characterized by growing tensions between the two great powers, culminating in the Cuban Missile Crisis in the early 1960s. xx century This is the period of the creation of military-political blocs and conflicts in the areas of contact between two socio-economic systems. Significant events were the French war in Vietnam (1946-1954), the suppression of the USSR uprising in Hungary in 1956, the Suez crisis of 1956, the Berlin crisis of 1961 and the Caribbean crisis of 1962. The decisive event of the war took place near the town of Dien Bien Phu, where the Vietnamese In March 1954, the People's Army forced the main forces of the French expeditionary force to capitulate. In the north of Vietnam, a government led by the communist Ho Chi Minh (Democratic Republic of Vietnam) was established, and in the south - pro-American forces.
The United States provided assistance to South Vietnam, but its regime was in danger of collapse, as a guerrilla movement soon developed there, supported by the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, China and the USSR. In 1964, the United States began bombing North Vietnam, and in 1965 it landed its troops in South Vietnam. These troops soon found themselves embroiled in fierce fighting with the partisans. The United States used scorched earth tactics and carried out massacres of civilians, but the resistance movement expanded. The Americans and their local henchmen suffered increasing losses. American troops were equally unsuccessful in Laos and Cambodia. Protests against the war around the world, including in the United States, along with military failures forced the United States to enter into peace negotiations. In 1973, American troops were withdrawn from Vietnam. In 1975, guerrillas took its capital, Saigon. A new state has emerged - Socialist Republic of Vietnam.
War in Afghanistan.
In April 1978, a revolution took place in Afghanistan. The country's new leadership entered into an agreement with the Soviet Union and repeatedly asked it for military assistance. The USSR supplied Afghanistan with weapons and military equipment. The civil war between supporters and opponents of the new regime in Afghanistan intensified. In December 1979, the USSR decided to send a limited contingent of troops to Afghanistan. The presence of Soviet troops in Afghanistan was regarded by the Western powers as aggression, although the USSR acted within the framework of an agreement with the Afghan leadership and sent troops at its request. Later, Soviet troops became embroiled in the civil war in Afghanistan. This negatively affected the prestige of the USSR on the world stage.
Middle East conflict.
The conflict in the Middle East between the state of Israel and its Arab neighbors occupies a special place in international relations.
International Jewish (Zionist) organizations chose the territory of Palestine as a center for Jews around the world. In November 1947, the UN decided to create two states in Palestine: Arab and Jewish. Jerusalem stood out as an independent unit. On May 14, 1948, the State of Israel was proclaimed, and on May 15, the Arab Legion, located in Jordan, opposed the Israelis. The first Arab-Israeli war began. Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and Iraq sent troops to Palestine. The war ended in 1949. Israel occupied more than half of the territory intended for the Arab state and the western part of Jerusalem. Jordan received its eastern part and the western bank of the Jordan River, Egypt received the Gaza Strip. The total number of Arab refugees exceeded 900 thousand people.
Since then, the confrontation between the Jewish and Arab peoples in Palestine has remained one of the most pressing problems. Armed conflicts arose repeatedly. The Zionists invited Jews from all over the world to Israel, their historical homeland. To accommodate them, the offensive against Arab territories continued. The most extremist groups dreamed of creating a “Greater Israel” from the Nile to the Euphrates. The USA and other Western countries became Israel's ally, the USSR supported the Arabs.
Declared President of Egypt in 1956 G. Nasser the nationalization of the Suez Canal hit the interests of England and France, which decided to restore their rights. This action was called the triple Anglo-Franco-Israeli aggression against Egypt. On October 30, 1956, the Israeli army suddenly crossed the Egyptian border. British and French troops landed in the canal zone. The forces were unequal. The interventionists were preparing for an attack on Cairo. Only after the USSR threatened to use atomic weapons in November 1956 were hostilities stopped and the intervention troops left Egypt.
On June 5, 1967, Israel began military action against the Arab states in response to the activities of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) led by Ya. Arafat, created in 1964 with the aim of fighting for the formation of an Arab state in Palestine and the liquidation of Israel. Israeli troops quickly advanced into Egypt, Syria, and Jordan. There were protests and demands for an immediate end to the aggression all over the world. Military operations stopped by the evening of June 10. In 6 days, Israel occupied the Gaza Strip, the Sinai Peninsula, the West Bank of the Jordan River and the eastern part of Jerusalem, the Golan Heights on Syrian territory.
In 1973 it began new war. Arab troops acted more successfully; Egypt managed to liberate part of the Sinai Peninsula. In 1970 and 1982 Israeli troops invaded Lebanese territory.
All attempts by the UN and the great powers to end the conflict were unsuccessful for a long time. Only in 1979, with the mediation of the United States, was it possible to sign a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel. Israel was withdrawing troops from the Sinai Peninsula, but the Palestinian problem was not resolved. Since 1987, the occupied territories of Palestine began "intifada" Arab revolt. In 1988, the creation of the State was announced
Palestine. An attempt to resolve the conflict was an agreement between the leaders of Israel and the PLO in the mid-90s. about the creation Palestinian Authority in parts of the occupied territories.
Discharge.
Since the mid-50s. xx century The USSR came up with initiatives for general and complete disarmament. A major step was the ban treaty nuclear tests in three environments. However, the most important steps to soften the international situation were taken in the 70s. XX century In both the USA and the USSR there was a growing understanding that a further arms race was becoming pointless and that military spending could undermine the economy. The improvement in relations between the USSR and the West was called “detente” or “détente.”
A significant milestone on the path to detente was the normalization of relations between the USSR and France and Germany. An important point of the agreement between the USSR and the Federal Republic of Germany was the recognition of the western borders of Poland and the border between the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany. During the visit of US President Richard Nixon to the USSR in May 1972, agreements on the limitation of anti-missile defense (ABM) systems and the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT-l) were signed. In November 1974, the USSR and the USA agreed to prepare a new agreement on the limitation of strategic arms (SALT-2), which was signed in 1979. The agreements provided for the mutual reduction of ballistic missiles.
In August 1975, a meeting on security and cooperation of the heads of 33 European countries, the USA and Canada was held in Helsinki. Its result was the Final Act of the meeting, which established the principles of the inviolability of borders in Europe, respect for independence and sovereignty, the territorial integrity of states, renunciation of the use of force and the threat of its use.
At the end of the 70s. xx century Tensions in Asia have decreased. The SEATO and CENTO blocks ceased to exist. However, the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan and conflicts in other parts of the world in the early 80s of the twentieth century. again led to an intensification of the arms race and increased tension.
International relationshipINendXX beginning of XXIIN.
Perestroika, which began in the USSR in 1985, very soon began to have an increasingly significant impact on the development of international relations. Exacerbation of tension in relations between East and West at the turn of the 70s - 80s. XX century was replaced by their normalization. In the mid-80s. XX century the head of the Soviet Union M.S. Gorbachev put forward the idea of new political thinking in international relations. He stated that the main problem is the problem of the survival of mankind, to the solution of which all foreign policy activities should be subordinated. The decisive role was played by meetings and negotiations at the highest level between M. S. Gorbachev and US Presidents R. Reagan and then G. Bush. They led to the signing of bilateral treaties on the elimination of intermediate-range and shorter-range missiles (1987) and on the limitation and reduction of strategic offensive arms (START-l) in 1991.
The completion of the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan in 1989 had a positive impact on the normalization of international relations.
After the collapse of the USSR, Russia continued its policy of maintaining normal relations with the United States and other leading Western states. A number of important agreements on further disarmament and cooperation were concluded (for example, START-2). The threat of a new war using weapons of mass destruction has sharply decreased. However, by the end of the 90s of the twentieth century. There is only one superpower left - the United States, which lays claim to a special role in the world.
Serious changes occurred at the turn of the 80s and 90s. XX century In Europe. In 1991, the CMEA and OVD were liquidated. In September 1990, representatives of the GDR, West Germany, Great Britain, the USSR, the USA and France signed an agreement to resolve the German question and unify Germany. The USSR withdrew its troops from Germany and agreed to the entry of a united German state into NATO. In 1999, Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic joined NATO. In 2004, Bulgaria, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia joined NATO.
In the early 90s. xx century The political map of Europe has changed.
A united Germany emerged. Yugoslavia broke up into six states, and independent Czech Republic and Slovakia emerged. The USSR collapsed.
With the threat of global war decreasing, local conflicts in Europe and the post-Soviet space have intensified. Armed conflicts broke out between Armenia and Azerbaijan, in Transnistria, Tajikistan, Georgia, the North Caucasus, and Yugoslavia. The events in the former Yugoslavia were especially bloody. Wars, mass ethnic cleansing, and flows of refugees accompanied the formation of independent states in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia. NATO actively intervened in the affairs of these states on the side of anti-Serbian forces. In Bosnia. And in Herzegovina, and then in Kosovo (an autonomous region within Serbia), they provided military and diplomatic support to these forces. In 1999, NATO, led by the United States, without UN sanction, committed open aggression against Yugoslavia, starting bombing that country. As a result, despite military victories, the Serbs in Bosnia and Kosovo were forced to agree to a settlement on the enemy's terms.
Story. General history. Grade 11. Basic and advanced levels Volobuev Oleg Vladimirovich
Chapter 4 THE WORLD IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XX - BEGINNING OF THE XXI centuries
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