History of pedagogy. Development of education in Western Europe in the 17th – 18th centuries

"Azbukovnik" XVII century

“In enlightenment alone we will find a salutary antidote to all the misfortunes of mankind.” N.M. Karamzin.

In the 17th century The culture of modern times was emerging in Russia. IN mid-17th century century, public and private schools were created.

Private schools

The Code of the Stoglavy Council of 1551 read: “In the reigning city of Moscow and throughout the city... the archpriest and the eldest priest and with all the priests and deacons, whenever in your city... elect good spiritual priests and deacons and deacons, married and pious... who can use others , and teach literacy and honor and writing, and teach those priests and deacons and deacons in school houses, so that the priests and deacons and all Orthodox Christians in every city give up their children to them for learning to read and write and for the teaching of book writing and church singing saltychnago and reading naloinogo..."

A. Ryabushkin "School of the 17th century"

Teachers in schools in the 17th century were clergy, and they received payment in food products for their work. The students visited them in the morning and afternoon. The children of people of “every rank... and dignity, the glorious and the ill-born, the rich and the poor, even down to the last farmers,” studied.

Since the main teachers at that time were the clergy, it is natural that primary education in Rus' was of a church character. Classes began and ended with prayer. The education system thought out in this way harmoniously solved two problems - it gave the younger generation the basics of literacy and knowledge and educated them in the spirit of Christian morality.

Fraternal schools

Morozov "Rural school"

But Rus' already needed good organized schools. Schools formed by Orthodox brotherhoods became like this; they were called “fraternal schools.” The oldest brotherhoods are Lviv, Vilna, Kiev, Mogilev, Lutsk, Pinsk, Orsha.

Children of all ranks were accepted into fraternal schools. The schools were supported by fraternities (that is, they were public). Although each school lived according to its own charter, they had much in common.

In many ways, the organization of the school resembled the modern one: prefects were appointed who helped the teacher in maintaining discipline, being on duty, issuing books, cleaning classrooms, and sometimes even replacing teachers.

B. Kustodiev "School in Muscovite Rus'"

From educational subjects- reading, writing, singing, counting, basics of religion, some information on Sacred history, an idea of ​​grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, music, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy of that time. The students learned a lot by heart and thereby gained knowledge of the basics of poetry, as well as examples of appeals to dignitaries and benefactors. In 1634, V. Burtsev’s primer, a very famous textbook at that time, was published and then reprinted several times. The primer cost one kopeck, which was cheap at the prices of that time. At the same time, the grammar of Meletius Smotritsky, a Ukrainian scientist, was published, from which Mikhail Lomonosov also studied. At the end of the century, a primer was published by Karion Istomin, a monk of the Chudov Monastery of the Moscow Kremlin, as well as practical guide for counting - a multiplication table - “A convenient calculation, with which every person buying or selling can very conveniently find out the number of any thing.” Over the second half of the century, the Printing House printed 300 thousand primers, 150 thousand educational psalters and books of hours. They also studied from handwritten books.

In the 60s Priest Ivan Fomin, at his own expense, built a school in Barashi at the Church of the Presentation.

Epiphanius Slavinetsky headed the Greek-Latin school at the Chudov Monastery.

D.L. Mordovtsev examined alphabet books (reading manuals for children) from 1660-1679, which indicate that they can be considered the predecessors of modern textbooks and at the same time methodological manuals for teachers because they contain teaching methods, rules for students, instructions on behavior in church, at school, at home and on the street.

"Azbukovnik" XVII century

But still, fraternal schools could not compete with Catholic ones. Therefore, there was a need to create high school. This became the fraternal school in Kyiv - the Kiev-Mohyla Academy. This is the first higher education institution on the territory of Ukraine educational institution. It was created by Metropolitan Peter Mogila in 1632 on the basis of the school of the Epiphany Brotherhood (since 1615) and the school at Kiev-Pechersk Lavra (1631).

Fedor Mikhailovich Rtishchev

F.M. played a major role in the formation of Russian schools. Rtishchev - statesman, educator, philanthropist, who founded a number of hospitals, schools and almshouses, whom his contemporaries called a “gracious husband.”

F.M. Rtishchev at the monument "1000th anniversary of Russia in V. Novgorod"

F. M. Rtishchev played a significant role in the history of Russian education. Not far from Moscow, in the Plenitsa tract, with the permission of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and the blessing of Patriarch Joseph, in the small church that existed there in the name of Andrei Stratelates, Fyodor Rtishchev built a church there in the name of the Transfiguration of the Lord and in 1648, at his own expense, established a school monastery. 30 monks, summoned by Rtishchev from several Little Russian monasteries, settled there. Soon, a learned brotherhood was formed at the monastery (the Rtishchev Brotherhood), which was engaged in translating books, and then a school was opened, where grammar, Slavic, Latin and Greek languages, rhetoric and philosophy were taught to those interested. In 1685, the school, founded by Fyodor Rtishchev, was transferred to the Zaikonospassky Monastery and served as the basis of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy.

Historian V. O. Klyuchevsky wrote that Fyodor Mikhailovich Rtishchev belonged to those people who “from their historical distance they will not cease to shine, like beacons in the darkness of the night, illuminating our way”.

It is known that in 1685 there was a “school for teaching children” in Borovsk, near retail space, and in Moscow, on Nikolskaya Street, a special building for the school was built. Later a school was organized at the Printing Yard. When the school opened, there were 30 students taken from different classes, and then the number reached 232. Monk Timothy taught Greek at this school.

As already mentioned, the basis for it was the school founded by F. Rtishchev.

It was founded in 1687. Initially it was located within the walls of the Moscow Zaikonospassky Monastery. In 1814 it was transformed into the Moscow Theological Academy (transferred to the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, where it exists to this day).
The history of the Academy can be divided into 3 stages.

1st stage (1687-1700) - Hellenic-Slavic school of the Likhud brothers, who adhered to the Orthodox-Greek direction;

2nd stage (1700-1775) - Slavic-Latin Academy. This period is characterized by the influence of Western European philosophers (W. Leibniz and X. Wolf);

Stage 3 - the predominance of Orthodoxy.

Until the middle of the 18th century. teaching was conducted in Latin. The purpose of the academy was to prepare educated people for the state and church apparatus; it served as a censor of books of spiritual content and could carry out trials of apostates from Orthodoxy. Only persons who had graduated from school were appointed to government positions (this restriction did not apply to the children of “nobles”). The new educational institution was granted immunity: removal of orders from the court, excluding cases of a criminal nature; teachers and students were subject to the school jurisdiction, and the “guardian” (rector) was subject to the court of the patriarch. The leaders and teachers of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy were the Greek scientists Ioannikis and Sophronius Likhud, invited from Constantinople. After 1694, when the Likhuds were removed at the insistence of the Jerusalem Patriarch Dosifei, their Russian students taught. In the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, which combined the features of higher and high school, subjects of the medieval scholastic school were taught: Slavic, Greek and Latin languages, grammar, literature, rhetoric, psychology, physics, etc., as well as theology. The main place was occupied Greek language.

Professional education

Professional education began to take shape in Russia in the middle of the 17th century with the advent of embassy, ​​medical, and printing schools. For example, in the Typographic School at the Printing House Order, founded in 1681, by 1684 194 people were studying. The school was simultaneously a primary school and a training school for printers of the Printing House.

During the 17th century, significant changes took place in the area education.

For many centuries, wary hostility towards Catholicism, which Rus' initially adopted from Byzantium, spread to European “Latin learning.” Even in 1600-1611. the Frenchman Margeret, who lived in Moscow at that time, testified that “the people hated foreign sciences, especially Latin” (“State Russian state"). However, the objective need for assimilation European culture and education took its toll. In just a few decades, they not only stopped being proud of ignorance, but it was precisely in it that they began to see the source of the unrest that shook Russia. This is what he wrote in 1660. Paisiy Ligarid: “I was looking for the root... of the spiritual illness that struck the Russian kingdom of Christ... and finally I came up with and found that all the evil came from the fact that there are no public schools and libraries.” Enlightener Yuri Krizhanich in his “Political Thoughts” he saw ignorance main reason and Russia's economic lag.

In the second half of the 17th century, four main approaches to education emerged: Old Believer-teacher(Archpriest Avvakum); Byzantine-Russian(Epiphany Slavinetsky, Fyodor Rtishchev, Karion Istomin); Latinophile(Simeon Polotsky, Sylvester Medvedev); Slavic-Greek-Latin(Likhud brothers). Supporters of Greek saw in it a source of strengthening Orthodoxy in the fight against the Latin heresy, while their opponents saw in Latin the basis of secular culture. The listed approaches largely formed the content of the later (19th century) dispute Westerners And Slavophiles, which has not stopped today.

Already Tsar Alexei the Quiet, not satisfied with the elementary primary education received by his sons, he ordered them to be taught Latin and Polish and even called Simeon of Polotsk to be their tutor. Tsar Fedor Alekseevich(1661-1682) sent students to the “German school” to study pharmacy.

During the 17th century, schools and other educational institutions became widespread not only in Russia, but also in Ukraine and Belarus, which were under the rule of the Polish-Lithuanian state. In the struggle for liberation, they established fraternities from representatives of the most diverse classes, and on their basis - fraternal schools. Even the charters of Lviv and Lutsk schools have been preserved. " Grammar of the Slovenian language", published in 1618 by the teacher of the Kyiv fraternal school Melenty Smotrytsky(c. 1578-1633), in 1648 it was published in Moscow.

School Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood, which opened in 1615, turned in 1645 into the first higher educational institution in Russia - the Kyiv Fraternal College, which later (under Peter I) received the status of an academy. From its walls came Epiphany Slavinetsky and Simeon of Polotsk, who organized Greek-Latin schools in Moscow, most of the rectors and prefects of the famous Slavic-Greco-Latin Academy were its students, Peter I relied on the Kyiv Academy in his reform activities.

In Russia itself, one of the first Greco-Latin schools was opened in 1649 at the Chudov Monastery, although not for long, since its leader was exiled to Solovki on charges of unbelief. In the same 1649, the okolnichy, teacher of Tsarevich Alexei Alekseevich Fedor Rtishchev(1626-1673) founded at his own expense a school at St. Andrew's Monastery, headed by Epiphany Slavinetsky. Rtishchev himself became his listener. In the 60s The school of the Spassky Monastery opened, where the government sent young clerks to study Greek and Latin. First Public School advanced education, Typographic School, opened in 1681 by decree of Fyodor Alekseevich.

In 1687, somewhat delayed due to the death of the Tsar and the unrest of the Streltsy, it was founded in Moscow Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. According to S. Polotsky’s plan, only Orthodox Christians and Russians were to be accepted into it. It taught both spiritual and secular sciences (physics, logic, jurisprudence, philosophy, languages). The main teachers of the academy were Greek monks, doctors of the University of Padua, brothers Likhud, Ioannikiy(1639-1717) and Sophrony(1652-1730). They selected teachers and taught logic and rhetoric themselves. Soon the Old Russian clergy achieved their removal and deportation to a provincial monastery. Only five years later the brothers were allowed to settle in Novgorod, where they immediately opened a Slavic-Greek-Latin school, modeled on the Moscow one.

Despite everything, the development of education has taken end of XVII century irreversible. As historian S. Smirnov writes, thanks to the academy, “Russians came to terms with the idea of ​​​​the benefits of science.”

The spread of education was greatly facilitated by the growth printing. In 1634 the first " Primer» Vasily Burtsev(costing only 1 kopeck, it quickly sold out), in 1648 “ Grammar» M. Smotritsky, in 1687 - " Reading for training" - multiplication table. During the 17th century, the Printing Yard in Moscow (which employed about 200 people in the middle of the century) published 300 thousand primers and 150 thousand religious books (483 titles in total), books of secular and scientific nature, the publication of handwritten books did not stop. In the 60s In the 17th century, a bookstore opened in Moscow, where one could buy “Merry Polish Stories”, and “The Chronicle of Pseudodorotheus”, and “Books of Military Formation” and “Chronograph”, and bestiaries based on European models, and “Disgrace (that is, a review - V.T.) of the entire universe, or a new atlas,” and new maps of Russia, which greatly expanded during the 17th century.

Historical thought developed, the geography of not only aggressive but also exploratory campaigns expanded. The Yana and Indigirka rivers were discovered, expeditions reached Kolyma and Baikal. In 1648 the expedition Semyon Dezhnev And Fedota Popova passed through the Arctic Ocean to the Pacific, discovering that Asia was separated from America by a strait, in 1647-1651. Erofei Khabarov sailed along the Amur up to the mouth, in 1697-99. Cossack Pentecostal V. Atlasov explored Kamchatka.

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School of the 17th century Education in the 17th century in Russia underwent serious changes. Transformations took place both in the education system and in everyday life ordinary people and literature, painting. If before this knowledge was mainly available to the children of noble people from individual tutors, now education is given in educational institutions. Education becomes available to everyone, regardless of class

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Teachers in schools in the 17th century were clergy. Education in the 17th century in Russia can be briefly described as primary. The teachers in the schools of the 17th century were clergy, and it was the priests who spread the idea of general education, universal literacy with its own rules. For their work they received payment in products. The students visited them in the morning and afternoon. The children of people of “every rank... and dignity, the glorious and the ill-born, the rich and the poor, even down to the last farmers,” studied. The education system harmoniously solved two problems - it gave the younger generation the basics of literacy and knowledge and educated them in the spirit of Christian morality. The main goal of education in the 17th century in Russia was to educate a moral person, knowledgeable Christianity and proficient in reading and writing.

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The emergence of the opportunity to publish printed books the best way influenced education in the 17th century. The advent of the ability to produce printed books had the best impact on education in the 17th century. In Moscow, they began printing primers that even the poorest segments of the population could buy. Such books, costing only 1 kopeck, were very popular. In 1634, a primer written by deacon V. Burtsev, a very famous textbook at that time, was published and then reprinted several times. 2,400 pieces were sold out within one day.

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St. Andrew's Monastery in Moscow. In the mid-17th century, 30 monastic scientists were invited from Kyiv. They were supposed to open an educational institution (school) at the St. Andrew's Monastery in Moscow. But many noble people were distrustful of such an education system. Despite the sidelong glances, schools at monasteries began to appear everywhere. In the newly opened educational institutions, in addition to Russian grammar, Latin and Greek were taught. Prefects were always elected in the classes. They had heavy weight in the team and could even serve as a substitute teacher. For those educated in the 17th century, strict discipline was at the core of learning.

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"Brotherly Schools" Rus' needed well-organized schools. Schools formed by Orthodox brotherhoods became like this; they were called “fraternal schools.” Children of all ranks were accepted into fraternal schools. The schools were supported by fraternities (that is, they were public). Although each school lived according to its own charter, they had much in common. In many ways, the organization of the school resembled the modern one. Education in the 17th century completely coincided with the norms in force in schools in Western Europe and Greece. The main subjects were writing, reading, counting, and singing. In addition to secular education, lessons on the basics of religion were mandatory. But, the conditions historical development required further modifications. Therefore, there was a need to create a higher school.

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Peter I. Educational reforms in Russia in the 18th century are associated with the name of Peter I. The young tsar wanted to win for Russia access to ice-free seas. To achieve such a goal, Russia needed a strong army with modern weapons and competent military specialists. To train officers, Peter began to create military schools.

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School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences (Sukharev Tower) In 1701, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was created in Moscow Training program: arithmetic, astronomy, geography, mathematical geography. Previously, students could take two primary school, where they taught reading, writing, and counting. The school trained sailors, architects, engineers, and servicemen. The students received food money and could live at the school or in rented apartments. There is a fine for absenteeism. Escaping from school carries the death penalty.

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L.F. Magnitsky is the author of the textbook “Arithmetic,” an educated mathematician and an excellent teacher who devoted all his strength and abilities to the school. The main teacher there was Leonty Magnitsky (1669-1739), the author of the textbook “Arithmetic,” an educated mathematician and an excellent teacher who devoted all his strength and abilities to the school.

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The first gymnasium in Russia was founded in Moscow on May 2, 1703 by Lutheran pastor Ernst Gluck. 10 Slide The first gymnasium in Russia, Gluck, was founded in Moscow in 1703. Children (minors) of “any condition” were accepted into the gymnasium.

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princes Golitsyns Bestuzhev-Ryumin Among them were the children of officials, wealthy merchants, foreigners, as well as court nobility (princes Golitsyns, Prozorovsky, Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Buturlin, Golovin). The training was free. The main attention in the gymnasium was paid to the study foreign languages, and general education subjects, as well as: dancing, fencing, horse riding, “complements”, were mandatory for all students.

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In 1714, a decree was issued on the introduction of compulsory educational service for children of the nobility, children of clerks and clerks. In 1714, a decree was issued on the introduction of compulsory educational service for children of the nobility, children of clerks and clerks. This was due to the fact that there were few literate youth, therefore, before starting vocational training, had to deal with general education.

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In 1715, the Maritime Academy was organized. The famous navigator A.I. Chirikov In 1715, the Maritime Academy was organized, where mathematics, geography, navigation, artillery, and other sciences were studied. Students took part in sea voyages. Studying at the academy was prestigious because of the opportunity to receive a good education and officer rank. Among its first graduates are famous navigators.

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Catherine II. . A.A. Prozorovsky, A.I. Rumyantsev A.A. Prozorovsky A.A. Prozorovsky A.A. Prozorovsky, At the beginning of the 18th century, the first military educational institutions appeared in Russia, designed to train future officers in the most complex military professions, which, by decree of Empress Anna Ioannovna, should have been trained. (Future field marshals P.A. Rumyantsev, A.A. Prozorovsky, M.F. Kamensky, generals M.N. Volkonsky, P.I. Repnin, I.I. Weimarn, M.V. Kakhovsky studied there , Prosecutors General A.A. Vyazemsky, A.A. Bekleshov, General Engineer M.I. Mordvinov, Admiral I.L. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, diplomat A.M. Obreskov, director of the first Russian theater A.P. , Russian tragic writers M.M. Kheraskov, V.A. Ozerov, M.V. Kryukovsky and many others.)

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In 1752, the Marine Corps was established in St. Petersburg cadet corps In 1752, the Naval Cadet Corps was established in St. Petersburg. Several generations of Russian sailors emerged from its walls, glorifying Russia with their military exploits and scientific discoveries.

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Graduates of the Naval CorpsI.F. Kruzenshtern, F.F. Bellingshausen, Yu.F. Lisyansky Graduates of the Naval Corps - Kruzenshtern, Bellingshausen, Lisyansky.

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Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov (1711–1765) Moscow University. Special meaning The Russian scientist Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) played a major role in the development of Russian education and pedagogy in general. Who was one of the initiators of the creation of Moscow University.

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He was the first in the history of Russian pedagogy to introduce school exercises, homework and exams. He was a supporter of the class-lesson system. He was the first to give lectures to students in Russian, and was the first in the history of Russian pedagogy to introduce school exercises, homework and exams. He was a supporter of the class-lesson system.

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St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy 1798, this date is considered the founding day of the St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy, which became a leading educational and scientific center Russian Empire on the training of doctors and the development of medicine.

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Among the graduates of the Academy there are many famous scientists and doctors V.M. BEKHTEREV E.S. BOTKIN Among the graduates of the Academy there are many famous scientists and doctors such as.S. Botkin, V.M. Bekhterev.

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Peter I decided to create primary schools throughout Russia, Peter I decided to create primary schools throughout Russia: schools for soldiers’ children at army regiments, admiralty schools, where children of sailors, carpenters, and artisans could learn “literacy and numbers.” Similar mining schools were created in the Urals and Karelia. Thus, in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century, an education system began to be created at the state level.

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Russian Empress Elizabeth Great Ivan Ivanovich Betsky The second half of the 18th century is different increased interest to educational issues. This was largely determined by the reign of Catherine II, a European-educated person. In 1763, Ivan Ivanovich Betsky (1704–1795) became her main adviser on educational issues, who created many works on pedagogical topics and contributed to the opening of many educational institutions, including the first women's secondary education institution.

It should be said right away that education in Russia in the 17th century was not centralized or in any way systematized. At least at the beginning of the century. But towards the end of the 17th century, colossal changes occurred in the country.

General characteristics of the formation of Russia in the 17th century

The 17th century is significant in that for a full calendar century Rus' was considered a kingdom, and the Romanovs ascended the throne. And if at the beginning of the century there was monstrous turmoil and discord throughout the whole country, then by the end of the century the situation had stabilized so much that Peter the Great began his vigorous activity.

It is culture Russia XVII century, education, architecture, painting and literature received a powerful impetus for development along a new path - the path of secularism.

In a society where people lived in a traditional way of life with a theocentric consciousness, worldly vanity gradually begins to invade. The first blow to this consciousness was dealt by the dispute between the “Josephites” and the “non-possessors.” The followers of St. took over. Joseph Volotsky, which ultimately, after 400 years, led the country to the revolution of the 17th year.

The second split is the emergence of the Old Believers.

It is impossible for modern people to imagine the depth of these shocks, because the consciousness of the people of that time was radically different. This can be judged from the travel notes of Metropolitan Macarius of Antioch (from Syria). Traveling around Russia in the 1650s, he paid attention to what was unusual and foreign to him. But for us it was native.

Yes, there are quite a lot of similar memories, but almost all of them were created by Europeans, and their culture, although different from ours, is very close. European travelers simply did not notice many phenomena due to everyday life.

In particular, the Arab metropolitan was surprised by the fact that:

· All children in Rus' are already old men;

· In markets, sellers do not bargain;

· In winter, prices decrease significantly;

· 1st and last week of Lent, no one works in the cities;

· The poor are allowed to eat fish during church fasts;

· Sunday services in church they last 8-10 hours.

Would a European notice this? Hardly. For Europeans were not allowed into many places because they were Catholics.

But even for us, these realities of everyday life seem incredible, although there are explanations for everything.

Culture in Russia in the 17th century

The first half of the 17th century was more stabilizing; society was just adapting to the new king. But then, a number of events characteristic of the Renaissance occurred, only with a Russian “tailor”.

1. After a series of travels to the edge of the Russian kingdom, descriptions of the territories from Poyarkov, Dezhnev, Khabarov appeared in Moscow. People did not even know that such fish and animals existed that the discoverers saw.

2. Innocent Gisel, for the first time, organized all the available information on the history of Rus', and published it with the title “Kiev Synopsis”. This book presented all the available facts in historical sequence, and all subsequent historians and researchers drew information from it. Even before early XIX centuries, it was used as a textbook.

3. First appeared literary sources, the presentation of material in which was carried out in a new manner, not chronicle or hagiographic. Education in the 17th century in Russia was unsystematic, and books were mainly church books. The first book is “The Autobiography of Archpriest Avvakum.” Unlike previous lives of saints, the book of Habakkuk was written in folk language, and in fact it can be considered journalism. Following this, satirical books began to be published: “About Ersha Ershovich”, “Shemyakin’s Court”, etc. This laid the foundation for modern Russian literature.

4. In architecture, from church traditions, the “Russian patterned” style arose.

It still serves as a descriptive archetype of Russian classics.

But for three and a half centuries this architectural style gave rise to many directions of architecture.

4.1. "Naryshkin Baroque". This style, which appeared at the very end of the 17th century, never had time to develop to its full potential, and yet it had wonderful prospects.

4.2. A peculiar transfer of this style into urban architecture. At this time, the walls of the Moscow Kremlin appeared, in the form in which we see them now. In many cities, stone fortresses also appear. Monasteries are overgrown with stone fences and become impregnable outposts.

4.3. Paints were integrated into urban architecture. According to the descriptions of European travelers of that time, European capitals, in comparison with Moscow and other Russian cities, looked like faded gray spots on the terrain. The cities of the Russian kingdom blazed with a glow of colorful colors and delighted foreigners.

5. Painting gave rise to the extremely interesting “Parsun” style, which lasted very briefly, but remained in history as a unique example transition period. Essentially, this is a portrait work of art created using materials and icon painting technology. But unlike the icon, the man’s face was turned not to God, but to the created world.

Education of the 17th century in Russia

As sad as it may be, education was the worst in Russia in the 17th century. Information on this issue very little has been preserved, but based on related information, historians agree that approximately 50-60% of the urban population were literate. It was much worse in the village maximum amount those who can read and write did not rise above 5%.

Education was home-based; the first schools in Rus', as we understand them now, will appear only in the next century.

As a result, literature had a very weak distribution and was mainly of a church orientation.

But among the first samples educational literature, it should be noted “Burtsev’s ABC”.

This is a real masterpiece of ancient Russian printing. There were 2 editions of the ABC, and the second was supplemented with illustrations that made it possible to present the described object in analogy with the image.

Surprisingly, for modern man, these analogies are almost completely incomprehensible. Words, terms and objects of that time have sunk into oblivion. And behind them, in the archives of dictionaries, the ornate Old Russian speech was drowned.

But according to this primer, children studied almost in the middle of the 19th century.

But gradually the situation begins to change. Through the efforts of the theologian Simeon of Polotsk, who was located behind the rows of icons in the Spassky Monastery, a school for clerks was opened. This is the first professional educational institution in Rus'. It trained officials for state needs in the “Order of Secret Affairs.”

And the “Order of Secret Affairs” was the embryo of the modern FSB. By the way, it was during the time of Simeon of Polotsk that the rules for the expression “Word and Deed” were formed.

Towards the end of the 17th century, through the efforts of Sylvester, a student of Simeon of Polotsk, the Slavic-Greek-Latin School (now the Academy) was established. Spinning off from it, the Moscow Theological Academy and Moscow State University began their history.

Yes, in this area Russia seriously lagged behind Europe. There, universities, or institutions of higher education, were located not only in the capitals, but also in many other cities. However, a start had been made.

Results of the 17th century

Such powerful advances in Russia in culture in general, and in education in particular, became possible largely due to the increasing secularization of the church. Many elements of church culture began to enter everyday life. And without any restrictions.

History has preserved the controversial decision of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich to place icons in washing departments baths For this purpose, completely metal icons were even produced.

The basis for this decision were the words of St. Paul in 1 Thessalonians 5:17: “Pray without ceasing.”

And no hint of tolerance even appeared. After all, both Muslims and Jews came to the bathhouse.

But as in a system of communicating vessels, stray winds of change also began to enter the church. The main effect of these changes was the autocephaly of the Russian Orthodox Church and the emergence of the Old Believers.

And literally at the beginning of the 18th century, Peter the Great abolished the patriarchate and placed the church in the category of one of the divisions of the government apparatus.

As one of the Optina elders who survived the 30s said: “The Russian Church did not oppose the enslavement of Christians in the 17th century and did not confess its beliefs in open confrontation with the authorities. For this in XVIII Russian Orthodox Church they put her on a par with the bureaucracy, and again she did not go to confession. For this, in the 20th century, the Bolsheviks forced all believers to confession.”

Changes in the economy and political life Russia led to the fact that education and culture in the 17th century reached a completely new level. Only during this period was culture able to move away from the canons dictated by religion and turn to more mundane values ​​of human life.

The most important event for the country was the beginning of printing in 1533. The first published book with imprint data was the work “Apostle”. It was published by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. But only almost a hundred years later, in 1633, the first primer, compiled by Vasily Burtsev, was published. Further, in 1648 Miletius Smotrytsky’s “Grammar” was published. And in 1670 they began to publish a new alphabet.

New educational institutions were opening in the country. Thus, in 1665, a school was opened to train clerks for service in government agencies at the Zaikonospassky Monastery, and in 1680, the school was organized at the Printing Yard. On the initiative of Sylvester Medvedev, the Slavic-Latin School (since 1701 - an academy) was opened. This was the first higher educational institution in Russia.

The government provided serious support for the spread of literacy among the townspeople. Foreign scientists were invited to the country to teach secular disciplines and monks to teach spiritual sciences.

The culture of Russia in the 17th century also received considerable development. The 17th century was the time of the emergence of new genres in literature: everyday satirical stories (“The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”), drama, poetry. The last 2 genres were founded by Simeon of Polotsk. He also became the author of the first plays staged in the Russian court theater, which was founded in 1670. The founder of another direction in literature, biographical, was Archpriest Avvakum, the author of the well-known “Life”.

The 17th century brought a lot of new things to painting. In the second half of the 17th century, secular portraiture arose, which introduced elements of similarity between images and the persons from whom portraits were painted. Its founder, Ushakov, worked in the Kremlin Armory, as well as at the art center. He depicted the most prominent people of the era on the icon “Our Lady of Vladimir”.

A new architectural style emerged, resulting from the fusion of Baroque and the traditions of Russian architecture. It was called the Naryshkin (Moscow) baroque. The architecture of that period was characterized by colored decor, multi-tiered structures, and symmetrical compositions. Most vivid examples: Churches of the Savior Not Made by Hands in Ubory (1679) and the Intercession in Fili (1693). The 17th century is the time of construction of the first stone buildings household use. An example would be the Moscow Gostiny Dvors and the Pogankin Chambers (Pskov).

The development of science and new technologies was spurred by the needs of a rapidly developing state. Russian masters of that period were characterized by serious knowledge of mathematics, chemistry, and physics. Proof of this is the “Charter of Military, Cannon and Other Affairs.” Anisiya Mikhailova. The development of new territories (expeditions of Khabarov, Dezhnev and others) leads to rapid development of geography.