History of geographical maps. From the history of maps When 1 geographical map was created

Topic 1. HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF CARTOGRAPHY

Plan
1. Cartography of ancient times.
2. Cartography of the Middle Ages (V - middle of the 17th century).
3. Cartography of the New Age.
4. Cartography of modern times.
5. Historical process in cartography.

1.1. CARTOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT TIME

The origins of cartography date back to ancient times. Even in primitive society, long before the advent of writing, schematic drawings (drawings) of the location of hunting and fishing areas with directions to them, etc. appeared. These drawings were depicted on rocks, cave walls, birch bark, bone or clay plates.

Rice. 1.1. Chukchi map on leather

Rice. 1.2. "Relief" maps of the Greenland Eskimos

Rice. 1.3. Hunting ground plan (3rd century BC)

In ancient Mesopotamia, the development of irrigated agriculture made it necessary to describe and depict irrigation systems (the oldest cartographic images). The expansion of the state necessitated the construction of new cities, fortifications, water supply systems and other things that required the preparation of their plans. The flourishing of the state in Mesopotamia led to the expansion of trade relations and aggressive campaigns, contributing to the expansion of the geographical horizon and the depiction of new lands on plans and maps. Clay tablets of Babylon, papyrus images of ancient Egypt are historical evidence of the development of methods of cartographic representation in the ancient world.

Rice. 1.4. Babylonian clay tablet depicting a map of the world (5th century BC)

Rice. 1.5. Egyptian "Map of Gold Mines"

Greek thinkers, who created the first natural science theories about the origin and structure of the world, first imagined the Earth as a round or oval disk floating on the surface of a boundless ocean. But already in the V century. BC e. Parmenides put forward a purely speculative assumption about the sphericity of the Earth. Convincing evidence of this hypothesis was given in the writings of the great ancient scientist Aristotle (384-322 BC), who noted that mathematicians who calculated the length of the earth's circumference consider its value to be 400 thousand stadia (i.e., approximately 60 thousand km, which is one and a half times more than actual exchanges).
The closest to reality determination of the length of the earth's meridian, made in ancient times, belongs to Eratosthenes (276-194 BC), an outstanding astronomer and geographer, head of the Library of Alexandria. He calculated the length of the meridian at 252,000 stadia, which (with a stage length of 157.5 m used in his time) corresponds to 39,700 km, that is, very close to the actual value of the meridian (40,009 km).
In his work "Geography" (known in fragments), Eratosthenes considered in detail the question of the figure of the Earth, provided data on the size and shape of its inhabited part - the ecumene, and showed the latter on the map.
Figure 1.6 shows a map of Eratosthenes. He created it according to his ideas about the inhabited part of the land around the Mediterranean (Inland) Sea: Southern Europe, North Africa and the western part of Asia. To compile his map, Eratosthenes used the coordinates of a dozen points. The meridians on it are not drawn at regular intervals, but through certain points, for example, through Alexandria, Carthage. Parallels are also drawn. Nevertheless, the grid of parallels and meridians allowed Eratosthenes, using known distances, to correctly show the relative position of continents, mountains, rivers and cities.

Rice. 1.6. Map of Eratosthenes

Following Eratosthenes, other scientists of the ancient world also included a graphic representation of the Earth in the tasks of geography. Since that time, for almost two millennia, geography and cartography (the latter term came into use only in the middle of the 19th century) developed inseparably, although the ratio of the two components - descriptive and cartographic - was not the same for different authors.
A major step in the further improvement of the images of the Earth was made by the greatest astronomer of antiquity Hipparchus (about 190-126 BC), who proposed to build maps on a grid of meridians and parallels, determining the position of points on the earth's surface in latitude and longitude; to designate them, he began to use the division of the circle borrowed from the Babylonians into 360 degrees and then into minutes and seconds.

Rice. 1.7. Map of Hipparchus (detail), 150 BC

The scientific foundations of cartography were laid by the famous ancient Greek mathematician, astronomer, cartographer and geographer Claudius Ptolemy (I-II centuries AD). His famous "Guide to Geography" was essentially a guide to the compilation of geographical maps. It included a map of the world and 26 maps of various parts of the land, a description of map projections known at that time, including the conic and pseudoconic projections developed by him. His cards were considered the best at the time. So many terrestrial geographical objects were applied to them that one might think that the land occupies almost the entire earth's surface. Nevertheless, detailed detailed images of the Earth's surface were worth their weight in gold among Greek sailors. An accurate depiction of the coastline was vital to them. After all, ships that went on long voyages to unknown shores risked crashing against rocks and reefs without a correct detailed map.

Rice. 1.8. World map compiled by Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century

There were also various informative drawings on the maps, as well as explanatory texts up to the 18th century, which told about what nationalities live in the described territory, what language they speak and what their customs are. Old maps are very interesting for various studies in the field of geography, because. they usually accurately marked sea currents and wind directions. Various images on the cards are especially interesting to study. In addition to travel stories, on the maps you can see pictures illustrating ancient myths, and later - biblical tales. For example, many cards depict divine images, sea monsters, and many-armed people. The latter, for example, are often found on the maps of travelers who managed to get to India.
One of the most common illustration themes on medieval maps is the depiction of wind directions. On some cards - this is the head of an old man blowing in one direction or another, on others - a cherub. Often, from the expression on the face of the depicted “wind”, one could draw conclusions not only about its direction, but also about its strength and character. As time passed, other images of directions appeared, and the wind rose and compass replaced the heads of the winds.
On the world map of Claudius Ptolemy (Fig. 1.9), geographical coordinates are presented in the form of a geographical grid with equal intervals, calculated in degrees, where latitudes were measured from the equator, and longitudes were measured from the westernmost point of the then known world.

Rice. 1.9. World map of Claudius Ptolemy with parallels and meridians

No less than sailors, merchants who went to overseas countries on trade business also needed accurate maps. They needed to know exactly where the big cities with rich fairs and bazaars stood. Settlements were shown on them with conventional signs.
Ancient Greek geographers distinguished only two parts of the world - Europe and Asia. At that time, countries located to the north and west of Greece were classified as Europe, and the eastern territories were classified as Asia. During the domination of the Romans on the southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, the name of the third part of the world - Africa - appeared on the maps.
In ancient Rome, maps were widely used for military and economic purposes for transport links with remote provinces and countries. By decision of the Senate, under Julius Caesar, measurements of roads were started, marked every mile with stone pillars indicating distances. The results of these measurements, completed under Augustus, allowed Mark Vipsanius Agrippa (circa 63-12 BC) to prepare materials for creating a map of the world known to the Romans, completed after the death of Agrippa (not preserved).
There are road maps designed to be used on the go. A copy of one of these maps, found in the 16th century, has survived to our time. The German historian Peutinger and in the literature therefore received the name "Peutinger's table".

Rice. 1.10. Part of the Peutinger Table, a Roman road map from the 4th century BC.

The map depicts the Roman Empire and other countries known at that time from the British Isles to the mouth of the Ganges inclusive. From the north and south, the continents are washed by the ocean. Its content: settlements - cities, fortifications, parking of the Roman legions, road network, rivers, mountains, lakes and forests. For settlements, perspective conventional signs are used. Breaks on the roads indicate the position of the stations, the distances between which are signed along the roads. The original map in the form of a stripe seems strange and primitive; the image is intentionally compressed from north to south. This is like a perspective drawing when looking at the flat surface of the Earth from the south. The Mediterranean, Black and other seas are stretched along the map in the form of narrow ribbons. Rivers and roads are forced to follow the same direction. But, given the peculiarity of the construction of the map, it is fair to give it the highest rating - it is remarkable for the details of the image, the abundance of information and its realism.
The land policy of Rome needed to be filmed when organizing new settlements and colonies, when allocating land to veterans (choosing a place, planning settlements, laying out land plots, laying roads, etc.) and in general in the interests of land ownership. A profession of land surveyors arises, for which instructions and manuals are developed that describe the technique of surveying and are accompanied by drawings; these documents have been preserved and from them one can get a clear idea of ​​​​the method of land surveying. The duties of land surveyors also included the compilation of maps showing settlements, rivers, mountains, roads, land plots, etc. It was ordered to prepare maps of military administrative units on bronze in two copies, one of which was intended for the archive in Rome.

1.2. CARTOGRAPHY OF THE MIDDLE AGES (V-XVII CENTURIES)

After Ptolemy, the development of cartography not only stopped, but even went back. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, under the influence of the dominance of the religious worldview, the doctrine of the sphericity of the Earth was rejected; therefore, projections become unnecessary, and the maps of that time have the same primitive look that Anaximander had, differing from his map only in a large number of details and the introduction of new elements (like the “navel of the earth” - Jerusalem, “Earthly Paradise” in the east, mythical the peoples of Gog and Magog - the peoples who will go to war against the people of God, but will be defeated by fire from heaven, etc.).

1.2.1. Early Middle Ages

The early Middle Ages (5th-14th centuries) in Europe were characterized by the dominance of the church. This period is characterized by monastic maps, which were compiled by monks in monasteries and were mainly illustrations for the Bible.
At the same time, in the countries of the Arab East and Armenia, cartography achieved certain successes, primarily in the preservation of monuments of ancient times, in the translation of the Geography Manual by K. Ptolemy and others. For a long time, Muslims were content with textual descriptions and road maps, the first news about the actual geographical maps of the Arabs date back to the 9th century. But even after that, Muslim cartographers followed the fairway set by ancient and medieval European templates for a long time. True, the appearance of their maps is often very unusual for the European eye. As an example, consider the Istakhri map of the 10th century (Fig. 1.11).

Rice. 1.11. Map of Istakhri, X century

On the old map on the left, slightly obliquely, a blue oval figure with three red circles is wedged into a yellow field. This is the Mediterranean Sea with its islands. From below, a blue straight line approaches the oval figure - this is the Nile. The same line goes from above. This, as you might guess, is the mouth of the river. Don. Our Northern Sea of ​​Azov is located somewhere here ... You can see that this part is stupidly torn from the European monastic map. But the right side of the figure was already filled in, probably according to Muslim data. These areas were very well known to them.
To the right of the oval figure, two blue circles with "tails" are drawn. These are the Caspian Sea with the Volga and the Aral Sea with the Syr Darya or Amu Darya. On the right side of the figure, another large water basin is wedged into the land. This is the Indian Ocean. Its arched bay, flaunting close to the Nile, is the Red Sea. A round gulf a little to the right, with two "antennas" - this is the Persian Gulf with the Tigris and Euphrates flowing into it. Another strip to the right is the great Indus River.
Gradually, the Arabs began to gradually accumulate new information about the world around them. Over time, their maps have also improved significantly. This can be seen, for example, from the map of Ibn Said in the 13th century. The zones of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea are shown quite recognizable. The Iberian, Apennine and Balkan Peninsulas, Asia Minor are clearly visible. But, nevertheless, the main attention is paid to the more interesting regions for the Arabs - Asia, Northeast Africa and the Indian Ocean.

Rice. 1.12. Map of ibn Said, 13th century.

The heyday of Arabic cartography is associated with the name of the Arab geographer and cartographer Idrisi (1100-c. 1165), who created a map of the part of the world known at that time on a silver plate measuring 3.5 x 1.5 m, as well as on 70 sheets of paper. An interesting feature of the Idrisi map, as well as other maps compiled by the Arabs, is that the south was depicted on top of the map.

Rice. 1.13. Round map of the world by al-Idrisi, 1154

Later, already in the 20th century, Konrad Miller glued together all the sheets from the "satin" part of the collection of maps and rewrote the Arabic inscriptions in Latin. This map was published in Stutgart in 1928 (Fig. 1.14). Naturally, it has become much more convenient to work with such a card.

Rice. 1.14. Fragment of the "rectangular" map of the world by al-Idrisi in 1154 (published by K. Müller)

1.2.2. Late Middle Ages

The rise in the development of cartography in Europe dates back to the period of the late Middle Ages, when the need arose for geographical maps for the development of trade in the Mediterranean and Black Seas. In this regard, in the XIV century. nautical compass charts-portulans became widespread
One of the most famous, if not the most famous example of the portolans of the Majorcan school of cartography is the Catalan Atlas. Prepared in Palma de Mallorca around 1375 by the Jew Abraham Cresques with his son Yehuda Cresques. commissioned by King Juan I of Aragon. The atlas originally consisted of six sheets of parchment, which were subsequently cut in half and stretched over wooden shields. The first sheets deal with issues of cosmography, astronomy and astrology (in particular, the spherical shape of the Earth is noted). Practical advice to seafarers is also given.
The last four sheets of the atlas (Fig. 1.15) are an expanded portolan map with information on overseas countries according to Marco Polo and John Mandeville.

Rice. 1.15. Unfolded Portolan Chart

Rice. 1.16. Fragment of an unfolded portolan map

Portolan maps depicted in detail the coastline and moorings. To lay the course of the ship, a special grid of compass lines (rhumb points) was drawn on them.

Figure 1.17. Portolan of the Black Sea, 1559

A linear scale was placed on the maps to measure distances. However, compass charts were not suitable for sailing the oceans, so navigators turned to globes, which from the end of the 15th century. began to be made for the purposes of navigation.
The first globe was created by the German scientist Martin Beheim. His model of the Earth was published in 1492, the year that Christopher Columbus set off to the shores of fabulous India by a western route. The globe depicted Europe, Asia, Africa, which occupy about half of the entire surface of the Earth, and there are no North and South America, Antarctica, Australia. The Atlantic and Pacific Oceans are presented as a single water basin, and the East Indian Ocean and the Stormy South Sea are located on the site of the Indian Ocean, separated by a vast archipelago of islands. The outlines of the oceans and continents are far from real, since the creation of the globe was based on information based on the ideas of ancient geographers and data from Arab and other travelers who visited the countries of the East, India and China.

Rice. 1.18. Globe M. Beheim

The development of trade, navigation and colonization during the Renaissance and the Great Geographical Discoveries (XV-XVI centuries) caused a huge demand for geographical maps, in particular world maps, which required the development of new geographical projections and led to a general improvement in cartography.
Since the 16th century, the creation of maps has become the prerogative of scientists. When solving problems, they increasingly used a scientific approach, and in cartography, scientists turned to astronomy and various methods of measuring terrain. By the 17th century, the mythical element had completely disappeared from the maps. Among the cartographers of the 16th century, Gerard Mercator and Abraham Ortelius should be noted, thanks to the efforts of which, when creating maps, it was possible to completely get rid of outdated methods. In 1570, Ortelius published the first atlas, which was called "The Theater of the World". This work became so popular that over the next 50 years its circulation amounted to 31 copies, which is an incredible figure by the standards of that time!

Rice. 1.19. World map from the atlas of Abraham Ortelius 1584

Rice. 1.20. Map of Asia from the atlas of Abraham Ortelius, 1584

G. Mercator was the first person to make accurate measurements an integral part of cartography. He developed several geographical projections, including a conformal cylindrical projection for navigation purposes (currently, the Mercator projection is used to compile marine navigation and aeronautical charts), prepared a large collection of maps, giving it the name "Atlas", published after his death in 1595 d. However, in those days it was dangerous to engage in science, and the great scientist was accused of heresy, although he managed to avoid a violent death.

Rice. 1.21. G. Mercator's world map

The habitual knowledge of Europeans about the northern countries was changed in the 16th century by the Catholic priest Olaf Magnus. As a result of the reform of the church, he was expelled from his native Sweden, and now he really wanted to show the Pope what an amazing land the Catholic Church was losing in Sweden. Magnus creates his famous creation "Map of the Marina", which will later become the main map of Northern Europe for a long time. In addition, Olaf Magnus wrote explanations for his map, the history of the peoples of Northern Europe.

Rice. 1.22. Marina Map (copy 1949)

Of great importance for the development of cartography was the invention in the 15th century. engraving and card printing. The great demand for maps led to the publication of voluminous atlases in many large format volumes. Among them stands out the two-volume atlas of Wagener's nautical charts, published for the first time in the Netherlands at the end of the 16th century. and subsequently reprinted 18 times in several languages.

Rice. 1.23. Map of the coast of Portugal by L. Wagener

At the beginning of the XVII century. great advances were made in astronomy and geodesy, which served as the basis for the further development of cartography: the invention by Galileo of an astronomical telescope, with which they began to determine the geographical coordinates of points by celestial bodies; in 1616, the Dutch scientist Snellius made the first degree measurements based on the triangulation method he invented. By this time, the scale had already been invented. At the end of the XVII century. English scientist I. Newton proved that the Earth is not a ball, but an ellipsoid of revolution. All this made it possible to carry out accurate degree measurements and create maps on a geodetic basis.

1.2.3. Cartography in Russia in the pre-Petrine era

In Russia, almost all land owners had drawings of their possessions. These maps, made on birch bark, were rather approximate and short-lived. From them it was impossible to get an idea about the structure of the territories, their geographical features. At the same time, the beginning of the unification of the Russian lands and their consolidation into a great and strong power required a “visual aid” in the form of a map for studying the country’s territory. In 1525, the first printed map of Russia appeared, it was created with the help of the “Scribal Map of Russia”, compiled by the traveler Dmitry Gerasimov.

Rice. 1.24. Drawing, compiled according to the information of the "Ambassador Demetrius", 1525

With the formation of the Russian centralized state at the end of the 15th century. there was also a need to create a detailed map of the country. Numerous geographical maps, or, as they were then called "drawings", and descriptions for them began to be created for various territories of the country, and subsequently served as the source material for compiling consolidated maps of Russia.
After the unification of the Russian lands, Ivan IV the Terrible in 1552 "ordered the land to be measured and a drawing to be made to the entire state." This was the beginning of a global work of collecting information and creating "drawings". Information was accumulated on territories covering the interior regions along the Northern Dvina, Kama, Volga, Pechora, Oka with their tributaries, as well as part of the Trans-Ural steppes and lands south of the lower reaches of the Don and in the Caspian region.
For several decades, a lot of cartographic and descriptive information was collected, and between 1595 and 1600. appeared "Drawing of the entire Moscow State", called the "Big Drawing".
Unfortunately, the “Big Drawing...” itself has not been preserved, but the description for its second edition “The Book of the Big Drawing”, which is a detailed geographical description of the state, has been preserved.
The annexation of Siberia required a geographical study of its territory. In this regard, Siberian explorers were instructed to compile descriptions and drawings of the new lands they were developing, on the basis of which in 1667, under the Tobolsk voivode Pyotr Godunov, the first summary map of all Siberia was compiled. By decree of the sovereign Alexei Mikhailovich, the stolnik and Tobolsk voivode Pyotr Godunov prepared a drawing “for the testimony of all the ranks of people who ... and towns, and prisons, and tracts, and roads, and lands they know for sure, and what moves from city to city and from settlements to settlements, and to which place ... how many days and how many miles the ride, and where to build between the settlements of Tobolsk district ... military people ..., what fortresses and how many people in which fortress to plant dragoons, to which fortress how many the course of days and weeks through the steppe and waters to China ... ".

Rice. 1.25. Pyotr Godunov's map

The map reflected a fairly realistic scheme of the rivers of Siberia and the Far East, as well as towns and areas of tribal settlement. A copy of the Godunov Map, secretly acquired and printed by the Swedish ambassador in Moscow, became a valuable contribution to European geographical science. Godunov also compiled a "Statement of the Chinese Land and the Deep Indian", which was subsequently translated into Greek and widely distributed.
This is how an old manuscript tells about the first map of Siberia, which for a long time was considered irretrievably lost. By the way, it was its compilers who introduced a system of symbols - "signs by which to recognize cities and prisons, and settlements, and rivers, and lakes, and volosts, and winter quarters, and nomad camps" in the drawing.
Of particular note is the outstanding cartographer of his time from Tobolsk Semyon Ulyanovich Remezov, who summarized a large geographical material in maps and at the end of the 16th century. compiled the "Drawing Book of Siberia" - the first Russian geographical atlas of 23 large-format maps, giving a versatile description of the natural conditions, economy and ethnography of Siberia.

Rice. 1.26. Drawing of the land of the Nerchinsk city of S. Remezov

Rice. 1.27. Ethnographic map of Siberia. S. Remezova

1.3. CARTOGRAPHY OF THE NEW TIME

1.3.1. The development of cartography in Europe (XVIII-XIX centuries)

The further development of capitalist relations in Western Europe, the expansion of economic ties, the colonization of new territories increased the need for new maps of various scales and purposes. Cartographic work occupied a prominent place in the activities of a number of academies of sciences (Paris, Berlin, St. Petersburg).
At the end of the XVIII century. a lot of work on the creation of the geodetic basis of topographic maps for the territory of France was carried out by the astronomer C. Cassini. Thanks to the use of the method of determining points on the earth's surface - triangulation, the accuracy of maps has significantly increased. This method later became widespread in many European countries. In the 19th century in many countries, special military topographic units were organized, which then acquired the status of state cartographic services. As a result of the work of cartographic services, by the middle of the 19th century. in many European countries, topographic maps of their territories were published with the relief depicted in the way of strokes.
Increasing requirements for topographic maps, in particular, in determining the heights of terrain points, angles of inclination led in the second half of the 19th century. to the application of the method of contour lines for the image of the relief. As a result, by the end of the XIX century. many European countries, including Russia, have compiled updated, more accurate and larger-scale topographic maps with a detailed depiction of the relief. The First World War caused a great need for maps and was the impetus for the introduction of new survey methods, in particular aerial photography, which later led to a radical improvement in topographic surveys.
In addition to providing for the army, topographic maps began to be widely used for civilian purposes when conducting various scientific research and compiling thematic maps. Thematic maps (climatic, geological, etc.) appeared as early as the 17th century, but they were few in number. In the 19th century in all major maritime countries (including Russia), the compilation of navigational charts for the purposes of navigation acquired great importance, and special hydrographic services were created. Already by the beginning of the XX century. navigational charts were drawn up for all the seas on which regular ship traffic was carried out.
In the XIX - early XX centuries. many sciences have accumulated a large amount of factual material, which, when displayed on maps, made it possible to identify the relationships of the studied phenomena among themselves and with the environment and establish certain patterns in nature and society. So, A. Humboldt in 1817, on the basis of maps with isotherms, established patterns of temperature distribution on the globe. In the second half of the XIX century. many sciences (geology, meteorology, soil science, oceanography, economic geography, etc.) began to widely use thematic maps in their research. Maps made it possible to identify patterns of placement and interrelations of the studied phenomena, as well as their development and forecasting. Thus, since the 19th century Cartography is characterized by a broad development of thematic mapping.
When compiling various maps and atlases in the XIX century. and subsequently, cartographic and descriptive materials of expeditions organized by geographical societies, including the Russian Geographical Society, organized in 1845, were widely used.
In the 19th century In many countries, for the commercial publication of maps and atlases, along with small map publishing houses, large specialized map publishing companies were created, including A. Ilyin's cartographic publishing house in St. Petersburg (1859).

1.3.2. The development of Russian cartography in the XVIII-XIX centuries.

Russian cartography under Peter I takes the path of scientific development. The main achievements of cartography under Peter 1 were: training for cartographic surveys and mapping; conducting systematic state surveys to create a general map of Russia, organizing expeditions for mapping the seas; publication of maps.
A great contribution to the development of cartography in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century. introduced by the outstanding cartographer of that time, Obersecretary of the Senate I.K. Kirilov is the head of the country's mapping work. He advocated the development of Russian cartography independent of foreign, for displaying his country on maps in its entirety, he planned to create a large "Atlas of the All-Russian Empire" in three volumes of 120 sheets each, but due to his early death he managed to print and prepare for printing only 37 cards.
After the death of I.K. Kirilov, cartographic work in the country was transferred to the Geographical Department of the Academy of Sciences, which prepared and published in 1745 the first complete Atlas of Russia.

Rice. 1.28. Atlas of Russia (detail) 1745

The department has published more than 250 maps, reflecting the results of government surveys and various surveys. Great influence on the development of cartography in the XVIII century. rendered by the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov, who headed the Geographic Department since 1757. He did a lot to train cartographic and geodetic personnel, to improve the accuracy of surveys and cartographic work, to update and improve the compilation of maps.
At the end of the XVIII century. based on the materials of the general survey, atlases of individual provinces and a consolidated atlas of 42 provinces with a general map of Russia were compiled and published, and at the beginning of the 19th century. based on the same materials, a multi-sheet map of Russia was compiled on a scale of 1: 840,000. An outstanding cartographic work of the middle of the 19th century. a three-verst map of European Russia (1:126,000) appeared, on which the relief is depicted using the stroke method. From the second half of the XIX century. on large-scale topographic maps of Russia, horizontal lines began to be used instead of strokes to display the relief.
In the 19th century in Russia, as well as in the countries of foreign Europe, thematic mapping began to develop more and more widely. Thematic maps were created for various branches of knowledge. The works of V.V. Dokuchaev on soil mapping, A.A. Tillo on compiling hypsometric maps of European Russia, P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky on mapping the economy and population.

Rice. 1.29. Dokuchaev's map of the zonal distribution of soils in the Northern Hemisphere

Rice. 1.30. A fragment of a hypsometric map of European Russia, compiled
A. A. Tillo in 1889

1.4. MODERN CARTOGRAPHY

1.4.1. The origin and development of Soviet cartography

In 1919, the Higher Geodetic Directorate was formed, later transformed into the Main Directorate of Geodesy and Cartography (GUGK) under the Council of Ministers of the USSR, which headed all geodetic, topographic and cartographic work in the country.
The priority measures were: the transition to the metric system of measures, the development of the layout and nomenclature of maps and a new scale series, the adoption of a single projection for all topographic maps, the introduction of a system of flat rectangular coordinates and common symbols. Since 1930, aerial photography has been used to create topographic maps, and somewhat later, methods for creating maps in office conditions using various stereophotogrammetric instruments were introduced.
In the postwar period, extensive work was carried out to find cartographic projections (F.N. Krassovsky, V.V. Kavraysky, M.D. Solovyov), work was completed on the calculation of the earth's ellipsoid, named after the leader of the work Krasovsky's ellipsoid (1940), a number of major geographical atlases of the USSR and the world were created, including the Great Soviet Atlas of the World. In 1928, the Central Research Institute of Geodesy, Aerial Photography and Cartography was opened. In accordance with a special government decree, since 1938, school atlases and wall maps on geography and history began to be published.
In the postwar years, extensive work was done to update topographic maps, restore the geodetic reference network in the European part of the USSR, and create maps on a larger scale for intensively developing regions. By the mid-1950s, mapping of the USSR on a scale of 1:100,000 was completed, and by the beginning of the 90s, on a scale of 1:25,000. A huge role in the accelerated mapping of the country belongs to the use of aviation, more advanced aerial photography and material processing instruments. using stereophotogrammetric instruments.
Significant results have been achieved in the field of thematic mapping: geological maps have been created at scales of 1:200,000 and 1:1,000,000;
1:1,000,000, a hypsometric map of the USSR at a scale of 1:2,500,000, etc. A large place in the development of cartography of the post-war period is occupied by complex mapping, which consists in creating a series of wall thematic maps of the USSR at a scale of 1:4,000,000 for higher education, as well as unique atlases, among which stand out: Geographic Atlas for Secondary School Teachers (first edition in 1954), three-volume Nautical Atlas (1953-1958), Physical Geographic Atlas of the World (1964), Atlas of the Antarctic (1966-1969) , a three-volume atlas of the oceans (1974-1981), etc., scientific reference atlases of individual union republics, regions, territories and the ASSR. Further development in the post-war period was the publication of school maps (including contour maps) and atlases.
The successes achieved by Soviet cartography are largely due to the outstanding Soviet cartographer K.A. Salishchev, the founder of Soviet economic cartography N.N. Baransky and their students.

1.4.2. The development of cartography in modern times abroad

After the First World War, work was intensified on the international millionth map of the world and the creation of national atlases in a number of countries. After the Second World War there were certain changes in the organization of cartographic and geodetic work. If before the Second World War, cartographic and geodetic work was mainly carried out by military departments in their interests, then later many types of work were transferred to the jurisdiction of civilian institutions. In many foreign countries, thematic and complex mapping, the study of the resources of the World Ocean and its mapping, the creation of environmental maps, and the publication of national and regional atlases are becoming increasingly important. International relations in cartography are developing, which led to the creation in 1961 of the International Cartographic Association, whose chairman for a number of years was K.A. Salishchev. Prior to this, scientific relations in the field of cartography were carried out within the framework of international geographical congresses, and since 1927 also the International Geographical Union.
The current stage of development of cartography is characterized by great demand and, accordingly, a large amount of work on the creation of electronic (digital) maps. One of the important stages in the creation of digital maps is the digitization of cartographic information. When digitizing, various software tools were used, such as: Macrostation, AutoCAD, MapInfo, Geographic Information System (GIS) ARC / INFO, GIS Object Land, Panorama and others. Modern GIS have a wide range of capabilities that allow you to perform a wide range of operations with graphic objects.
Currently, the creation of digital maps is dictated by the need to create and maintain the State Land Cadastre and the introduction of the Automated System of the State Land Cadastre throughout the state.

1.5. HISTORICAL PROCESS IN CARTOGRAPHY

The historical process in cartography covers the history of the creation of specific works: maps, globes, atlases, as well as the stages of development of cartographic tools, methods and technologies, ideas and concepts. The main milestones in the development of instruments for surveys and measurements on the ground, methods and technologies for compiling maps, which marked turning points in the history of cartography, are highlighted below.

Table 1.1

Development of tools for measurements and surveys on the ground

Key milestones of technological progress	Historical periods
Visual observations and visual assessments	From ancient times
Using surveying instruments to measure lengths and angles	From the 10th century BC.
The advent of astronomical instruments for determining latitudes and longitudes	From the 3rd century BC.
Introduction of optical astronomical and geodetic instruments	From the beginning of the XII century.
The invention of aerial cameras and other means of remote sensing, the use of aerospace surveys	From the second half of the XIX century.
Creation of electronic geodetic equipment	Since the middle of the XX century.
Application of global positioning systems	From the end of the 20th century

The main trend in the development of instruments and tools for surveying and mapping on the ground has always been aimed at expanding spatial coverage, increasing accuracy and efficiency. Visual observations and simple measurements in small areas of the terrain gradually gave way to high-precision geodetic methods and remote sensing of global coverage. It should be noted that the pace of technological progress has been accelerating rapidly in the last two centuries; means of surveying and field mapping are undergoing dramatic changes over historically short periods of time - 30-50 years.
Similar trends are observed in the development of mapping methods - from primitive cartographic drawings on stone and papyrus to modern technologies for constructing maps in computer networks (Table 1.2). And in this case, rapid and fundamental changes that radically change the mapping, occur in the last decades of the XX century.

Development of mapping methods and technologies for issuing maps

Table 1.2

Milestones in the development of methods and technologies	historical periods
Drawing on stone, wood, papyrus, fabric	From ancient times
Making handwritten maps on paper	From the 3rd century BC.
Engraving of maps on stone, metal, introduction of map printing	From the middle of the XV century.
Application of photochemical and photocopying processes	From the second half of the XIX century.
Photogrammetric mapping technologies	Since the beginning of the XX century.
Digital and electronic methods and technologies for mapping, formation of databases and data banks, geoinformation mapping	Since the middle of the XX century.
Mapping in computer networks, virtual mapping	From the end of the 20th century

The main trends in the development of technologies for mapping and publishing maps are associated with the improvement of methods for creating, reproducing and distributing cartographic works among users. At the present stage, the technologies of fast (operational) mapping have acquired special significance. Ultimately, the economic efficiency of cartographic science and production depends on how quickly the created works reach the user and are applied to solve specific problems.
Technical and technological progress directly influenced the development of methods for using maps (Table 1.3).

Table 1.3

Development of methods for using maps

The main directions of using maps	Historical periods
The use of maps for orientation and movement on the ground	From ancient times
Using maps for travel and navigation
Maps as a means of strengthening statehood and military-political security
Maps as a means of accumulating and generalizing knowledge
Maps as a tool for modeling and cognition of the surrounding world	From the first half of the XX century.
Maps as a means of communication	Since the second half of the XX century.
Mapping as a Basis for the Systematic Organization of Spatial Information and Management Decision Making	From the end of the 20th century

This line has always had a fairly clear orientation towards meeting the practical and scientific needs of society, the transformation of cartography from a simple means of orientation into a planning and design tool.
Thus, it can be seen that with the development of tools, methods and technologies, cartography increasingly expands its spatial coverage (today it has already entered outer space), improves the quality, accuracy and, most importantly, the efficiency of creating cartographic works. It gradually embraces ever wider layers of users, penetrates into many spheres of the political, economic, cultural life of society, and this means an increase in the value of cartographic data as information resources.
The study of the historical process leads to important conclusions about the prospects for the development of cartography. It becomes obvious that for many centuries the methods of creating maps and their appearance have changed dramatically, but the purpose and functions have remained almost the same. One notable example is the remarkable Roman road map known as the Peutinger Table. The image on it is strongly deformed in distances and directions, but it is quite accurate in terms of topology. This principle of showing communication routes has been preserved to the present day; it suffices to recall subway maps that do not reflect true distances and directions, but accurately convey the topology of underground roads.
A drawing, a photograph, a printing print, an electronic image - this is always the language of visual images that is most accessible to a person, the most convenient and familiar model of reality for him. Therefore, throughout the history of mankind, the map remains one of the most effective means of understanding the world around us and transmitting spatial information.

Control questions and tasks for self-training of students

1. Tell us about the origin of cartography in ancient times.
2. Who gave the first scientific evidence of the sphericity of the Earth?
3. Who first determined the size of the Earth?
4. Who proposed to apply a degree grid when creating maps?
5. Who first used the terms "geographic latitude" and "geographic longitude"?
6. Tell us about the features of the development of cartography in the Middle Ages (V - the middle of the 17th century).
7. What is the peculiarity of monastic maps?
8. For what purposes were ceilings used?
9. Who is the author of the first globe?
10. Tell us about G. Mercator's contribution to the development of cartography.
11. Tell us about Galileo's contribution to the development of cartography.
12. Tell us about Snell's contribution to the development of cartography.
13. Tell us about Newton's contribution to the development of cartography.
14. What is the merit of P. Godunov and S. Remezov in the development of cartography.
15. Tell us about the development of Russian cartography in the 18th-19th centuries.
16. Tell us about the origin and development of Soviet cartography.
17. Tell us about the development of cartography in modern times abroad.
18. Tell us about the prospects for the development of cartography.

1. Berlyant A.M. Cartography: a textbook for universities / A.M. Berlyant. - M.: Aspect Press, 2002.-336 p. pp. 26 - 29.
2. Berlyant A.M. Cartology: a textbook for universities / A.M. Berlyant, A.V. Vostokova, V.I. Kravtsov. - M. : Aspect Press, 2003. - 477 p. pp. 29 - 32.
3. Zhmoydyak R.A. Cartography: Course of lectures / R.A. Zhmoydyak, L.V. Atoyan. : Minsk 2006. S. 8 - 19.
4. Website of the teacher Eshtokin A.N.

Mankind has always needed cards. Hundreds of years ago, navigators and travelers already plotted the location of the continents, most of the islands, large rivers and mountains. By the beginning of the 20th century, there were practically no “white” places on the world map, but still, the accuracy of the location of most objects left much to be desired.

This is what maps looked like in the 16th century: Francis Drake's round-the-world trip, pay attention to the outlines of the continents

A new round in the development of cartography appeared due to the possibility of aerial photography of the terrain, and later satellite systems. Finally, people were able to solve the thousand-year-old problem - the creation of an ideal orientation object with maximum accuracy. But even then the problems were not over.

It was necessary to create a tool that could process not only satellite images, but also information that, for example, only local residents can know. This is how the OpenStreetMap (OSM) and Wikimapia services appeared. Let's discuss in more detail how the real world is digitized and becomes a map.

Location fixation

The first cards appeared thousands of years ago. Of course, these were unusual maps in the modern sense, but rather diagrams, where straight and wavy lines depicted the bends of the rivers of the seas, the tops of mountains, etc. Recently, a similar schematic map of the districts of Madrid was found, about 14 thousand years old.

Later, a compass, a telescope, a sextant, and other navigational instruments were invented, which, during the period of the Great Geographical Discoveries, made it possible to study on a large scale and put thousands of geographical objects on paper. A striking example of this is the map of Juan de la Cosa, dated 1500. It is the middle of the last millennium that is considered to be the heyday of cartography. Around that time, the basic map projections, mathematical methods and principles of map construction were invented. But still, this was not enough to create accurate maps.

Map of Juan de la Cosa, 1500. It already has the outlines of the New World

A new stage in cartography began with a topographic ground survey of the terrain, and later with aerial surveys. The first photographs of hard-to-reach areas were taken from an aircraft in 1910. Aerial photography of the area is followed by a complex process of image decoding. Each object must be recognized, qualitative and quantitative characteristics identified, and then the results recorded. Simply put, there are three fundamental factors to consider: the optics of the image, its geometry, and placement in space.

Next comes the stage of creating the terrain. For this, the contour-combined and stereotopographic methods are used. At the first, with the help of geodetic instruments, the main heights of the terrain are determined and then the contour lines of geographical objects are plotted on the images. In the second method, two images are superimposed on each other in such a way as to obtain a semblance of a three-dimensional image of the terrain, and then control heights are determined using instruments.

The advent of aerial photography in the 20th century made it possible to create more accurate maps and take into account the terrain.

satellite imagery

Nowadays, ground-based and aerial photography is becoming less and less, and they have been replaced by satellites for remote sensing of the Earth. Satellite imagery opens up a much wider range of possibilities for modern cartographers. In addition to terrain data, satellite images help build stereo images, create digital terrain models, determine the displacement and deformation of objects, and so on.

Satellites can be conditionally divided into ordinary and ultra-high resolution. Naturally, photographing the taiga or the ocean does not require very high-quality photographs, and for certain territories or tasks, satellites photographing in ultra-high resolution are simply necessary. Such satellites, for example, include the Landsat and Sentinel models, which are responsible for the global study of the state of the environment and security with a spatial resolution accuracy of up to 10 meters.

The era of satellite imagery brought the accuracy of maps to a resolution of 10 meters

Satellites regularly transmit terabytes of data in several spectra: visible, infrared, and some others. Information from the spectrum invisible to the human eye makes it possible to track changes in the relief, the state of the atmosphere, the ocean, the appearance of fires and even the growth of crops.

Satellite data is received and processed directly by their owners or official distributors, such as DigitalGlobe, Airbus Defense and Space and others. Based on the Global Land Survey (GLS) data, obtained mainly from the Landsat project, many different services have been created. Landsat satellites have been capturing real-time images of the entire globe since 1972. It is this project that remains the main source of information for all cartographic services when designing small-scale maps.

Satellite imagery offers a wide range of data on the entire earth's surface, but usually companies buy photos and data as an option and for certain areas. For densely populated areas, the images are detailed, while for less populated areas, images are taken in low resolution and in general terms. In cloudy areas, satellites take pictures several times until they achieve the desired result.

On the basis of satellite images and measurements of the area, vector maps are created, which are then sold to companies that print paper maps or create cartographic services (Google Maps, Yandex.Maps). It is very difficult and expensive to create maps based on satellite data on your own, so many corporations buy ready-made solutions based on the Google Maps API or Mapbox SDK and then finalize some details with their own staff of cartographers.

Satellite imagery and OpenStreetMap issues

In theory, in order to create a vector map, a satellite image and a graphic editor or service are enough to draw all objects from the image. But in reality, everything is not quite so: almost always, real objects on the surface of the earth do not correspond to digital data by several meters.

The distortion is due to the fact that all the satellites are photographing at an angle to the Earth at high speed. Therefore, recently, to clarify the location of objects, they began to use photo and video shooting, and even tracking cars. Also, to create accurate maps, orthocorrection is essential - the conversion of satellite images taken at an angle into strictly vertical images.

Map data received from satellites requires manual correction

And this is just the small tip of the iceberg. A new building was built, a ford appeared on the river, and part of the forest was cut down - all this is almost impossible to quickly and accurately detect using satellite images. In such cases, the OpenStreetMap project and similar projects come to the rescue, working on a similar principle.

OSM is a non-commercial project created in 2004, which is an open platform for creating a global geographic map. Anyone can contribute to improving the accuracy of the maps, whether it be photos, GPS tracks, videos, or simple local knowledge. By combining this information and satellite imagery, maps are created that are as close to reality as possible. To some extent, the OSM project is similar to Wikipedia, where people from all over the world work to create a free knowledge base.

Any user can independently edit the maps, and after checking and approving these changes by the project staff, the updated map becomes available to everyone. As a basis for creating maps, GPS tracks and satellite images from Bing, Mapbox, DigitalGlobe are used. Due to commercial restrictions, Google and Yandex maps cannot be used.

Open mapping projects allow anyone to join in creating accurate maps

To bind or move objects from a satellite image, geodata are used. Using a GPS receiver, you need to record as many track points as possible along linear features (road, coastline, railroad tracks, etc.), and then apply them to satellite images. The names of various objects with reference to geolocation are updated by Yelp, TripAdvisor, Foursquare, and others, who independently enter them on OpenStreetMap and Google Maps.

Outcome

Progress does not stand still, and cartography is no exception. Already, services are being created based on machine learning and neural networks that are able to independently add objects, determine densely populated areas and analyze maps. So far, this trend is not yet very visible, but in the near future, people may not have to edit maps in OSM at all. Cartographers believe that the future lies in the automatic creation of maps, where machine vision will be used to model objects with centimeter accuracy.

It is hard to imagine, but many items from the daily life of modern man have existed for hundreds or even thousands of years ago. We have prepared a review in which we presented only the most ancient copies of things familiar to us that have survived to this day. However, it is likely that some of the items listed could have appeared much earlier than the named dates.

The world's oldest recorded melody (3400 years old)

The Hurrian Hymn, written in cuneiform on a clay tablet, is the oldest recorded melody in human history. An artifact dating back to 1400 BC was discovered in the city of Ugarit (Northern Canaan) in what is now Syria. The melody was sung on a lyre to the glory of the Moon God's wife.

World's oldest animation (5000 years old)

The National Museum of Iran has a 10 cm earthenware drinking goblet that depicts five successive scenes of goat movement in a circle. First, the animal jumps in the direction of the tree, then eats the leaves from it. By rotating the cup around the vertical axis, you can see the simplest animation. Scientists date this product to the third millennium BC.

The oldest socks in the world (1500 years old)

These unusual woolen socks of an inhabitant of Ancient Egypt were knitted one and a half thousand years ago between the three hundred and four hundred and ninety-ninth years from the birth of Christ. Socks were worn specifically for sandals, hence their original appearance. Interestingly, even after one and a half thousand years, these socks look quite competitive against the background of even the most.

The oldest shoes in the world (Aged 5500 years)

In one of the caves of Armenia, the oldest leather shoes in the world were discovered. Several layers of sheep dung and grass, under which the find was made, served as a preservative. The shoes are perfectly preserved, having lain in a dry and cool cave for about 5.5 thousand years. It's amazing how strongly the ancient moccasin resembles some models of modern shoes!

The world's oldest pants (3400 years old)

On the territory of an ancient necropolis in Western China, archaeologists have discovered the oldest pants in the world. They are woven of woolen fabric and decorated with intricate ornaments. The pants probably belonged to one of the Asian nomads who lived about 3,400 years ago. According to scientists, this find confirms that it was the nomads who were the first to come up with pants for comfortable riding.

World's oldest bra (500 years old)

This bra was worn in Austria between 1390 and 1485. Although this is the oldest surviving bra, there are earlier descriptions of "breast bags" in the annals. For 500 years, the most far gone from their progenitor, but the first model can also quite pass for a vintage retro classic.

World's oldest handbag (4500 years old)

In Germany, a small handbag was found in a Bronze Age burial dating from 2500-2200 BC. Over thousands of years, the skin and the fabric from which it was made have collapsed. Only dog ​​teeth have survived, which probably served as a decoration and protection for the handbag.

World's oldest sunglasses (800 years old)

The inventors of the world's first sunglasses can be considered the Eskimos. "Snow" glasses, as the Eskimos themselves called them, were made of bone, leather or wood. The thin slits on the goggles were designed to protect the eyes from "snow blindness" caused by bright sunlight. The first such glasses, according to scientists, appeared several thousand years ago. The oldest specimen in existence was made from "only" walrus ivory between 1200 and 1600 AD on Baffin Island in Canada. Of course, ancient glasses do not have the cool features of modern ones, but thanks to their simplicity and reliability, they will quietly exist for another 800 years.

The oldest condom in the world (370 years old)

The oldest surviving condom was found in Sweden, in the city of Lund. The ancient contraceptive, dating back to 1640, was made from pig intestine and could be used over and over again. A Latin instruction has survived to this day, recommending washing the condom in warm milk after each use. 17th-century condoms made from sheep and pig intestines were poor protection against sexually transmitted diseases, so scientists believe they were mainly used to prevent pregnancy. Actually, it dates back to 1564. The Italian physician and inventor Gabriele Fallopio came up with the idea of ​​putting a linen bag soaked in all sorts of chemicals on the male genital organ.

World's oldest chewing gum (5000 years old)

The oldest known chewing gum is considered to be a piece of petrified Neolithic birch resin found in Finland. The chewing gum, which preserved the teeth marks of a Stone Age man, dates back to the end of the fourth millennium BC. Tree resin contains phenols, which have antiseptic properties. Therefore, ancient people chewed resin and tree bark to get rid of oral diseases. In addition, tree resin was often used as glue, for example, to glue broken pottery.

The world's oldest cheese (3600 years old)

In the 20th century, perfectly preserved mummies were found in the Takla Makan desert in northwest China, with small lumps of cheese on their chests and necks. Scientists are sure that this cheese was made on the basis of sourdough. In a similar way, some varieties of cheese and kefir are made in our time. The results of the research showed that the found cheese dates back to approximately 1615 BC, which makes it the oldest cheese on the planet.

The oldest prosthesis in the world (Age 3000 years)

When studying an ancient Egyptian mummy buried about three thousand years ago, archaeologists discovered that instead of missing fingers, wooden ones were attached to her right leg. To confirm their guess, the researchers created an exact copy of the found artifact and tested it with the help of a volunteer with a similar injury. Tests have shown that wooden fingers were used specifically for walking, and not for cosmetic purposes. Thanks to them, a person could not only move freely, but also wear sandals, which were the main footwear in ancient Egypt. The guess of the scientists turned out to be correct: they managed to find the oldest known prosthesis. Today, when even exist, it is hardly possible to surprise anyone with prosthetics of a part of the foot, however, the appearance of such a prosthesis for three thousand years can be safely called a fantastic scientific breakthrough of that time.

World's oldest public flush toilet (2000 years old)

In the ancient city of Ephesus, located in Turkey, the oldest public flush toilet has been discovered. A pit with a drainage system was hidden under the slab with holes for "need". It is noteworthy that a tool resembling an oar was also found there. Probably, on hot days, with the help of this oar, the servants accelerated the cleaning of the toilet pit, pushing its contents to the drain. It should be recognized that the toilet theme is close to humanity like no other, perhaps that is why it constantly invents more and more new ones.

The oldest coin in the world (2700 years old)

The oldest known coin was discovered among the ruins of the same ancient Greek city of Ephesus, once a prosperous center of trade on the coast of Asia Minor. The coin was made over 2700 years ago from an alloy of gold and silver. A metal blank was placed on a matrix with a carved lion's head, after which the master struck with a hammer on the reverse side of the blank. The result was a coin with a raised image of a lion's head on the obverse and an indented impact mark on the reverse.

The oldest map of the world (Aged 2800 years)

A clay tablet from Mesopotamia, dating from the turn of the eighth and seventh centuries BC, is considered the oldest map of the world. It is noteworthy that the map of Babylon contains not only real, but also fictitious geographical objects.

The oldest globe (Age 510 years)

In order for the first known globe, which has survived to this day, to have a spherical shape, it was assembled from the wide parts of two ostrich eggs. Then the engraver painstakingly transferred the well-known map of the Old and New Worlds to the surface of the ball. Scientists believe that this globe was made in Florence, Italy, perhaps even in the workshop of Leonardo da Vinci himself. The first globe is so original that in our time it would not be lost among.

The oldest printed book in the world (637 years old)

The world's oldest printed book appeared in Korea in 1377, a full 78 years before what was long considered the first printed edition. It was a Buddhist document called "Chikchi" containing the biographies of the great Buddhist monks and selected passages from their sermons, helping to comprehend the essence of the great teachings of the Buddha. Today this book is in the National Library of Paris.

World's oldest recorded recipe (over 5,000 years old)

The ancient Sumerians, who lived in the Southern Mesopotamia, left behind the most ancient beer recipe dating back to 3000 BC. With strict adherence to the recipe, a strong beer drink is obtained, in which pieces of bread should float.

The world's oldest musical instrument (42,000 years old)

Scientists claim that the age of a bone flute found in a cave in southwestern Germany is at least 42,000 years old. The first musical instruments were made by ancient people from bird bones and mammoth tusks. It is believed that it was music that allowed Homo sapiens to gain an advantage over Neanderthals.

The oldest anthropomorphic figurine in the world (Age 35,000 - 40,000 years)

The world's oldest anthropomorphic figurine has been discovered in a cave in southwestern Germany. Scientists believe that an unknown sculptor carved it from a mammoth tusk about 35-40 thousand years ago. It is believed that the expressive figure of a woman with grotesquely exaggerated sexual characteristics was used by our ancestors as a symbol of fertility. Of course, this figurine has a huge historical and collectible value, if it were sold, it could well be included in the number.

Bonus: The oldest mineral on earth (4.4 billion years old)

In 2001, a tiny zirconium crystal was found in Australia, which became the oldest mineral on earth. Its age is 4.4 billion years! Currently, it can be seen in the geological museum of the University of Madison in the United States.

Maps are a product that countless people have been working on for over six thousand years. Cartography appeared before writing, and the methods of drawing the earth and sea surface changed along with the entire human civilization: from the first rock paintings to digital online and offline maps containing ethnographic, economic, social information about the inhabitants.

From the first day when maps began to be used for orientation in the world, shortcomings were revealed in them: rivers changed their channels, fires destroyed forests, human settlements wandered from place to place, making it difficult to fix objects on the map. So the history of maps is also the oldest history of fixing bugs in an attempt to create the perfect product.

Today we will decide whether, centuries later, we managed to get closer to the canonical scheme of reflecting the world.

The oldest maps of the world

In the picture above, you see an exact copy of the original piece of mammoth tusk found in the vicinity of the city of Pavlov (Czech Republic). After many years of research, the ornament on the tusk was recognized as the oldest map known to date. Its age is estimated at 25-27 thousand years. The tusk depicts river bends, ridges, ravines of loose loess slopes, rocky peaks and a hunters' house.

Such a map, even for its creators, could not last long. It was necessary to change the drawing every time, make a new map, or find a fundamentally different way to navigate the terrain.

On the left is a bronze Heavenly disc from Nebra. On the right is Murdorf's gold disk (probably a fake). Both disks contain maps of the location of celestial bodies

How to fix the image of the area, if the territory is undergoing constant transformation?

Perhaps it is worth navigating by unchanging objects - the stars. The polar star, which is part of the constellation Ursa Minor, always points north, deviating only one and a half degrees during the night (due to precession, the role of the polar star was assigned to different stars at different times). Knowing where the North Star is located, it is easy to determine the cardinal directions: when you look directly at the star, east will be on the right side, west on the left, and south on the back.

The first constellations were singled out about 16 thousand years ago and fell into various drawings of Paleolithic art. It should be borne in mind that the cartographic feature of the night sky patterns was used as a side effect. A celestial disc from Nebra (≈ 3000 BC) depicting the Sun, Moon and 32 stars was supposedly used to measure the angle between sunrise and sunset at the solstices.

Choice of perspective

Over 6,000 years ago, the first top-down maps appeared. A fresco in the ancient settlement of Chatal-Hyuk is regarded as a detailed plan of the village. The streets in the village were not marked - probably, the isolation of each house was shown with light lines.

A modern reconstruction of the map at Çatal Huyuk. The orange color indicates a presumably real-life volcano. White rectangles - houses covered with flat roofs

A copy of the "Carta Marina", made in 1949

The Carta Marina map of 1539 is notable for the fact that, perhaps for the first time, images of terrible sea creatures began to be of practical use - they correspond to currents, storm fronts, dangerous underwater rocks and shoals.

The 1565 map of Venice is in the style still used in tourist guides.

Equangular Mercator projection, thanks to which it is possible to build nautical charts on which the ship's course is depicted as a straight line

In 1569, the cartographer Gerardus Mercator, in an effort to make the world look "right" on maps, developed a new projection using mathematical formulas. With the Mercator projection, maps take on the form we are used to.

"Map of the World, placed in the Fool's head", 1590. The map depicts the world "dressed" in the traditional surroundings of a court jester: a two-horned cap with bells and a jester's staff

Map by Claes Janson Wischer "Leo Belgicus", 1611. Leo Belgicus is the Latin name for the Dutch lion. Since 1583, the Netherlands has often been depicted as a lion. The map shows the period of the truce between Spain and the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands.

In 1675, John Ogilby depicted the roads as narrow stripes on the map, excluding all other surrounding space, leaving only the objects necessary for orientation. This ancient map has become the prototype of maps in modern car navigators.

The fashion for axonometric projection in maps was established by the French in the detailed plan of Paris, drawn up in 1734–1736. The image above shows the Louvre Palace. To assess the scale of work, open the entire city plan. Almost three hundred years later, the Chinese did something similar for the Baidu search engine.

Have you heard of the "travel map"? On such a map, you need to paint over / erase a piece of the territory that you have visited, revealing the name and full geographical information. The first such map was created in 1761 by John Spilsbury, who came up with the “sliced ​​geographical map”. Each individual piece of the map contained some geographic information. By collecting the necessary plots, it was possible to study the entire world known at that time.

By the 19th century, map makers began to try to visualize economic, social, and political information. However, until the mass introduction of digital maps in the 21st century, additional information on maps quickly became obsolete.

ultramodernity

In the 20th century, maps became incredibly detailed, first from aerial photography, then from space photography. However, satellite imagery, quickly gaining popularity, also quickly turned into a tool for creating diagrams. On the scale of the city, they are practically useless. Above the territory of forests - they are completely useless. Then projects came to the rescue, in which people began to independently mark objects inaccessible for shooting on maps.

Nowadays, cards appear that reflect the interests of a variety of people. For example, Greek researchers have developed a system that converts images of traditional paper maps into three-dimensional city plans. With the help of virtual reality gloves, a blind person can literally feel the map and read data from it (or turn on the voice engine that announces the names of the streets).

Airbnb is experimenting with creating maps whose boundaries are defined by cultural context. On the map above, traditional “tourist” accommodations are highlighted in green, Airbnb accommodations in red. Any template map advises housing in the "green" zone, however, more complete impressions of real life in the city can be gleaned from the "red" territory.

When the white spots finally disappeared, cards with added value quickly gained popularity. For example, on the map of New York, you can see the most criminal areas and areas where you can feel safe.

The second open source project in the Mail.Ru Group (after the Tarantool database) is not by chance the offline MAPS.ME maps based on OpenStreetMap data. The essence of the OSM project (like MAPS.ME) is to give every person in the world a free map with which you can do whatever you want. For thousands of years of the history of cards, it was difficult to imagine such a thing, and pocket cards themselves appeared only in the 19th century. Now, instead of pockets, there is a smartphone, but at least the cards no longer need the Internet. Another difference between OSM and cartography of the past is accessibility. Anyone can make additions to a map on their own almost as easy as editing a Wikipedia article. One of the biggest updates to MAPS.ME this year was the ability to edit maps by users themselves. Thanks to this, we will be able to find shops, fountains, the best places to take a photo on the maps.

The advantages of open (in every sense) cards over commercial solutions are in their versatility. The same terrain map with a different set of data is used in a huge number of situations. With the help of OSM, forest trails and dirt roads, food distribution points in the poorest regions, forest fires ... Anything!

The flaws of the era

Comparing the maps of the past - not only from the Middle Ages, but also two thousand years ago - with modern ones, one involuntarily concludes that the maps have evolved into a utilitarian information product. The design has become much simpler, and the cards themselves, oddly enough, less detailed. Glancing over the three-meter canvas of the Renaissance, you could see dozens, if not hundreds of additional objects along your route. The smartphone offers to reflect only what reflects the UX logic of the map creators: that is, the minimum of available information per unit area.

A digital map does not need to impress with its design, because it seems to be just an add-on above the search bar - we are looking for ATMs, hotels, the shortest route, the nearest attraction. The map has become not a guide to the world, but a tool to save time. Extra information on it only consumes a person's time resource. "People's Maps" solve this issue to the best of their ability, introducing filters - while there is still an opportunity to see the city with all the variety of its objects.

What is data minimization? . This does not mean that some objects disappear from the map: you just need to zoom out. This method has both supporters (maps look clearer on a mobile device) and opponents (unfamiliar terrain needs to be scaled and searched by squares if you don’t know the exact name of the object). The map, at first glance, not overloaded with information, will only suggest the shortest route, and not the one where the most beautiful, safe, quiet path opens.

Modern maps are not made by artists / designers, not even cartographers, but by programmers. This is the requirement of the era, because if you do not adapt the card for any mobile device, simply no one will use it. The map has ceased to be a work of art, has lost the terrible monsters that swallow ships, while becoming surprisingly monotonous.

However, in comparison with ancient maps, modern ones have one significant advantage - they change very quickly. The day when the card will become completely personalized is not far off. For some, it will give details that require understanding of all the details and nuances, for others - only a compressed concentrated fact about the area.

One interesting example of the move towards "personalization" is the (open source) map of Galton's real-life walking distance, built on top of OSM. The map is named after Francis Galton, an English explorer and geographer who in 1881 compiled the Isochronic passage chart, indicating the number of days to travel from Great Britain to various places.

Fragment of a map of "quiet" areas of New York, obtained from the analysis of data on complaints about noise

What does such a card give? In addition to the obvious decision (where you can get in a certain time if you can’t walk on water and pass through walls), you can calculate the rating of a place, taking into account many parameters of objects located in the walking distance.

Sooner or later, a single map of the world will cease to exist, because for different groups of people the world will be filled with different events. Metamorphoses will not affect basic concepts, such as generally accepted borders of states or distances between cities, but a motorist, pedestrian, cyclist and bar lover will be able to find exactly what interests them in the geography of the surrounding space.

And the map will again become a source of discovery.

Humans are always driven by curiosity. Thousands of years ago, the discoverers, going farther and farther into uncharted lands, created the first similarities of geographical maps, trying to put the relief they saw on papyrus sheets or clay tablets.

Probably the oldest found is a map from the Egyptian Museum in Turin, made on papyrus by order of Pharaoh Ramses IV in 1160 BC. e. This map was used by the expedition, which, on the orders of the pharaoh, was looking for a stone for construction. The map familiar to our eyes appeared in ancient Greece half a thousand years before our era. Anaximander of Miletus is considered the first cartographer to create a map of the world known by that time.

The originals of his maps have not been preserved, but after 50 years they were restored and improved by another scientist from Miletus - Hecataeus. Scientists have recreated this map according to the descriptions of Hecateus. It is easy to recognize the Mediterranean and Black Seas and nearby lands on it. But is it possible to determine distances from it? This requires a scale that was not yet on ancient maps. For a unit of length, Hecateus used "days of sailing" by sea and "days of passage" by dry land, which, of course, did not add accuracy to the maps.

Ancient geographical maps had other significant shortcomings. They distorted the image, because a spherical surface cannot be deployed on a plane without distortion. Try to carefully remove the peel of an orange and press it against the surface of the table: this will not work without tearing. In addition, they did not have a degree grid of parallels and meridians, without which it is impossible to accurately determine the location of the object. Meridians first appeared on the map of Eratosthenes in the 3rd century BC. e., however, they were carried out through different distances. The "father of geography" Eratosthenes was not without reason called a mathematician among geographers. The scientist not only measured the size of the Earth, but also used a cylindrical projection to depict it on the map. In such a projection, there is less distortion, because the image is transferred from the ball to the cylinder. Modern maps are created in different projections - cylindrical, conical, azimuthal and others.

The most perfect maps of the ancient era are considered to be the geographical maps of Ptolemy, who lived in the 2nd century AD. e. in the Egyptian city of Alexandria. Claudius Ptolemy entered the history of science thanks to two great works: the "Guide to Astronomy" in 13 books and the "Guide to Geography", which consisted of 8 books. 27 maps were added to the Geography Manual, among them a detailed map of the world. No one created the best either before Ptolemy, or 12 centuries after him! This map already had a degree grid. To create it, Ptolemy determined the geographical coordinates (latitude and longitude) of almost four hundred objects. The scientist determined latitude (distance from the equator in degrees) by the height of the Sun at noon using a gnomon, longitude (degree distance from the initial meridian) - by the difference in time of observations of a lunar eclipse from different points.

In medieval Europe, the works of ancient scientists were forgotten, but they were preserved in the Arab world. There, Ptolemy's maps were published in the 15th century and reprinted almost 50 more times! Perhaps it was these cards that helped Columbus in his famous voyage. The authority of Ptolemy grew so much that even collections of maps were called "Ptolemies" for a long time. Only in the 16th century, after the publication of the "Atlas of the World" by Gerard Mercator, on the cover of which Atlas was drawn holding the Earth, were collections of maps called "atlases".

In ancient China, geographic maps were also created. Interestingly, the first written mention of a geographical map is not related to geography. In the III century BC. e. The Chinese throne was occupied by the Qin dynasty. A rival in the struggle for power, Crown Prince Dan sent an assassin to the ruler of the dynasty with a map of his lands, drawn on silk fabric. The mercenary hid a dagger in a roll of silk. History tells that the attempt failed.

In the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries, images of America and Australia, the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans appeared on world maps. Errors on the maps often turned into a tragedy for sailors. Having explored the shores of Alaska, Vitus Bering's large Kamchatka expedition in the 18th century did not have time to return to Kamchatka by the beginning of autumn storms. The dreamer Bering spent three weeks of precious time in search of the mapped but non-existent Gama Land. His sailboat "Saint Peter", wrecked, with sailors dying of scurvy, landed on a deserted island, where the famous Commander rested forever. “The blood boils in me every time,” wrote one of Bering’s assistants, “when I remember the shameless deception caused by a mistake on the map.”

Today cartography is completely transferred to digital format. To create the most detailed maps, not only ground-based geodetic instruments - theodolite, level, but also airborne laser scanning, satellite navigation, and digital aerial photography are used.

Illustration: depositphotos.com | Kuzmafoto

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