Humanism in Antiquity and the Renaissance. The first humanists of the renaissance What was the humanism of the renaissance

The Dutch humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam (circa 1469-1536), a Catholic writer, theologian, biblical scholar, philologist, was not a philosopher in the strict sense of the word, but made a huge impact on his contemporaries. “He is amazed, praised and extolled,” Camerarius wrote, “everyone who does not want to be considered a stranger in the realm of the Muses.” As a writer, Erasmus of Rotterdam began to gain fame when he was already in his thirties. This fame grew steadily, and his writings deservedly brought him the glory of the best Latin writer of his century. Better than all other humanists, Erasmus appreciated the mighty power of printing, and his activities are inextricably linked with such famous printers of the 16th century as Aldus Manutius in Venice, Johann Froben in Basel, Badius Ascensius in Paris, who immediately published everything that came out from under his pen. Thus, Erasmus of Rotterdam was the first to publish the full text of the Bible in Greek and Latin on the basis of numerous ancient manuscripts at his disposal. Then, under pressure from the church, he was forced to make significant changes to the original printed text of the Bible in subsequent editions. The third edition of the Bible of Erasmus of Rotterdam later became the basis of the so-called "Textus Receprus" (Generally Accepted Text), which practically formed the basis of the canonical text of the Bible approved at the Council of Trent in 1565 by the Catholic Church, the basis of all translations of the Bible into national languages. Also, his famous work “Praise of Stupidity” was translated into European languages ​​and sold in tens of thousands of copies, a figure unheard of at that time. Before the prohibition of his works in 1559 by the Council of Trent, Erasmus was perhaps the most published European author. With the help of the printing press - "an almost divine instrument", as Erasmus called it - he published one work after another and led, thanks to living connections with the humanists of all countries (as eleven volumes of his correspondence testify), a kind of "republic of the humanities", just as Voltaire led the enlightenment movement in the 18th century. Tens of thousands of copies of Erasmus' books were his weapons in the fight against a whole army of monks and theologians who tirelessly preached against him and sent his followers to the stake.

Such success, such wide recognition was due not only to the talent and exceptional ability to work of Erasmus of Rotterdam, but also to the cause to which he served and devoted his whole life. It was a great cultural movement that marked the Renaissance and only relatively recently, only in the last century, received the exact name "humanism". Having arisen on the basis of fundamental economic and social changes in the life of medieval Europe, this movement was associated with the development of a new worldview, which, in contrast to religious theocentrism, placed in the center of its attention a person, his diverse, by no means otherworldly, interests and needs, revealing the wealth inherent in him. opportunities and affirmation of its dignity.

A prominent German humanist was Ulrich von Guten (1488-1523). Comparing his time with the previous Middle Ages, he exclaimed: "The mind has awakened! Life has become a pleasure!!" Addressing religious disputes between Catholics and Protestants, he threw: "Eat each other until you yourself are eaten!"

The French humanist Peter Ramus was murdered by Catholic assassins during the infamous St. Bartholomew's Night in 1592. Ramus was a follower of Calvin and fell victim to religious fanaticism. Even at the beginning of his scientific career, Ramus made a bold thesis: "Everything that Aristotle says is fictitious." He tried to prove the groundlessness of the general foundations of Aristotelian logic, challenged the teachings of the Stagirite .. Ramus rejected both ontology and epistemology, and the ethics of Aristotle. It is characteristic that the criticism of Aristotle's teachings by Peter Ramus did not find support even from the Platonist Giordano Bruno, who called him a "French archipedant" who "understood Aristotle, but understood him poorly."

Also, a certain contribution to the development of humanism in the Renaissance was made by the New Latin poet Hessus, who was born in 1488 in Hesse, which is why he called himself Hessus. He also gave himself the name Helius, because he was born on a Sunday. His real name is Eoban Koch. He enjoyed great fame as a humanist, a friend of Erasmus of Rotterdam and Ulrich von Guten. He was a professor of Latin in Erfurt, a teacher of rhetoric and poetry in Nuremberg and a professor in Marburg. Possessing a great improvisational talent and a thorough knowledge of the Latin language, he did not create anything lasting; she was a stormy, unstable nature, incapable of either energetic work or sincere and lasting devotion to ideas; even the turbulent era of the Reformation attracted him more with its outward side than with the struggle for cherished ideals. Excesses, selfishness and selfish protection of their interests eventually alienated him from the humanists. Of his poetic works, collected in "Eobani Hessi operum farragines duae", more significant are "Sylvae" - a collection of idylls, epigrams and poems, and "Her o lden" - letters from saints from Mary to Kunigunda, where a direct imitation of Ovid is felt. Of his translations, the Psalms (Marburg, 1537, more than 40 editions) and the Iliad (Basel, 1540) are especially famous.

The famous philosopher, orator, scientist, humanist and poet Aeneas Pico de la Mirandola (1463-1494) also contributed to the development of humanism. He knew perfectly all the Romano-Germanic and Slavic languages, and besides - the ancient Greek, Latin, Old Hebrew (biblical hybrid), Chaldean (Babylonian) and Arabic. With his knowledge, Mirandola amazed others at the age of ten. The Spanish inquisitors began to persecute him from this childhood, arguing that "such a great depth of knowledge at such an early age cannot appear otherwise than with the help of a pact with the devil." In a speech prepared for the failed debate on the topic: “On the Dignity of Man” (De hominis dignitate), he wrote: “I put you in the middle of the world,” the Creator said to the first person, “so that you could look around and see everything that surrounds you the more easily, I did not create you as either a heavenly or a gross earthly being, neither mortal nor immortal, only so that you - by your own will and to your honor - become your own sculptor and creator. You can descend to an animal and rise to a god-like being, beasts they carry out of the mother's womb everything that they should have, while the higher spirits at first, or shortly after their birth, are what they remain forever. . Mirandola owns a beautiful and meaningful expression: "Man is the blacksmith of his own happiness" (Homo - fortunae suae ipse faber). Following the figures of the Renaissance, we still call humanitarian education that education that gives a person knowledge of languages ​​(including at least one of the ancient ones: Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Sanskrit or Pali), philosophy, history, art.

Marsilio Ficino exalted a lot in the development of humanism. His philosophical views were strongly influenced by the magical-theurgical works of Trismegistus, Zoroaster and Orpheus. He personally believed that it was they who formed the views of Plato. The meaning of philosophical activity for him is to prepare the soul in such a way that the intellect is able to perceive the light of divine revelation, in this respect philosophy for him coincides with religion. Ficino conceives metaphysical reality according to the Neoplatonist scheme, in the form of a descending succession of perfections. He has five of them: God, angel, soul, quality (= form) and matter. The soul acts as a "connection node" of the first two and the last two steps. Possessing the characteristics of a higher world, it is able to revive the lower levels of being. As a Neoplatonist, Ficino distinguishes between the soul of the world, the soul of the heavenly spheres and the soul of living creatures, but his interests are most of all connected with the soul of a thinking person. In the sequence indicated above, the soul either ascends towards the higher levels, or vice versa descends to the lower ones. On this occasion, Ficino writes: “It (the soul) is that which exists among mortal things, without itself being mortal, since it enters and completes, but is not divided into parts, and when it is connected, it is not scattered, as it is concluded about it. And since, while she governs the body, she also adjoins the divine, she is the mistress of the body, and not a companion. She is the supreme miracle of nature. Other things under God, each in itself, are separate objects: it is at the same time all things. It contains the images of divine things on which it depends; it is also the cause and pattern for all things of a lower order, which it produces in a certain way. Being the mediator of all things, she penetrates everything. And if this is so, it penetrates everything ... therefore it can rightly be called the center of nature, the mediator of all things, the cohesion of the world, the face of everything, the knot and bundle of the world. The theme of the soul in Ficino is closely related to the concept of “platonic love”, which he understands as love for God in all its manifestations.

The humanist of the English Renaissance was W. Shakespeare. He, too, depicted a human person who steps up to fight the feudal world. His "Romeo and Juliet" is the most prominent anthem of love. Their love is not only a passionate feeling that does not recognize any obstacles, but, like any high love, it is a feeling that endlessly enriches the soul. Renaissance humanists argued that reality is the person himself, and not his nickname or some artificial label (according to origin or place in society). In the person himself, his positive qualities and shortcomings are paramount, everything else, including family retellings and family responsibilities, is secondary. "What is a Montague?" - thinks thirteen-year-old Juliet, who, thanks to her feelings, has risen to the understanding of important, inevitable truths. - Is that what the face and shoulders, legs, chest and arms are called? The love of Romeo and Juliet - an irresistible, pure and heroic feeling - lasts only a few days. Power and strength are not on the side of lovers, but on the side of the old forms of life, where the fate of a person is determined not by feelings, but by money, false notions of family honor. But, despite the fact that the heroes die, light and truth, goodness and love triumph in tragedy.

Representatives of the so-called civil humanism - Leonardo Bruni and Matteo Palmieri, who asserted the ideal of an active civil life and the principles of republicanism. In Praise of the City of Florence, History of the Florentine People, and other writings, Leonardo Bruni (1370/74--1444) presents the republic on the Arno as an example of popolan democracy, although he notes aristocratic tendencies in its development. He is convinced that only in conditions of freedom, equality and justice is it possible to realize the ideal of humanistic ethics - the formation of a perfect citizen who serves his native commune, is proud of it and finds happiness in economic success, family prosperity and personal prowess. Freedom, equality and justice here meant freedom from tyranny, the equality of all citizens before the law and the observance of law in all spheres of public life. Bruni attached particular importance to moral upbringing and education, he saw in moral philosophy and pedagogy the practical "science of life" necessary for everyone to achieve earthly happiness. Leonardo Bruni is a humanist and politician, who for many years was the chancellor of the Florentine Republic, an excellent connoisseur of Latin and Greek, who made a new translation of Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics" and "Politics", a brilliant historian, who first turned to a serious study of documents about the medieval past of Florence, - Bruni, highly revered by his fellow citizens, did extremely much for the development of Renaissance culture in the first decades of the 15th century. Under the influence of his ideas, civil humanism was formed, the main center of which throughout the 15th century. remained Florence.

In the works of Bruni's younger contemporary, Matteo Palmieri (1400--1475), especially in the dialogue "Civil Life", the ideological principles of this trend found a detailed exposition and further development. The moral philosophy of Palmieri is based on the concept of “natural sociality” of a person, hence the ethical maxim of subordinating personal interests to collective ones, “serving the common good”.

Humanism had a huge impact on the entire culture of the Renaissance, becoming its ideological core. The humanistic ideal of a harmonious, endowed with the talent of creation, heroized person was reflected with particular completeness in the Renaissance art of the 15th century, which in turn enriched this ideal with artistic means. Painting, sculpture, architecture, which entered the first decades of the XV century. on the path of radical transformation, innovation, creative discoveries, developed in a secular direction. In the architecture of this time, a new type of building was being formed - an urban dwelling (palazzo), a country residence (villa), various types of public buildings were being improved. The functionality of the new architecture is in harmony with its aesthetic principles. The use of the order system established on the ancient basis emphasized the majesty of the buildings and at the same time their proportionality to a person. In contrast to medieval architecture, the external appearance of the buildings was organically combined with the interior. The severity and solemn simplicity of the facades are combined with spacious, richly decorated interiors. Renaissance architecture, creating a human habitat, did not suppress, but elevated it, strengthening self-confidence. In sculpture, Ghiberti, Donatello, Jacopo della Quercia, the Rossellino brothers, Benedetto da Maiano, the Della Robbia family, Verrocchio pass from the Gothic to the Renaissance style. The art of relief reaches a high level, marked by harmonious proportions, plasticity of figures, secular interpretation of religious subjects. An important conquest of the Renaissance sculpture of the XV century. there was a separation from architecture, the removal of a free-standing statue to the square (monuments to the condottieri in Padua and Venice). The art of sculptural portraiture is developing rapidly. The painting of the Italian Renaissance took shape primarily in Florence. Its founder was Masaccio. In his frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel, the glorification of images is inseparable from their life reality and plastic expressiveness (the figures of Adam and Eve expelled from paradise). Titanism manifested itself in art and life. Suffice it to recall the poet, the heroic images created by Michelangelo, and their very creator, the artist, the sculptor. People like Michelangelo or Leonardo da Vinci were real examples of the limitless possibilities of man. Thus, we see that the humanists yearned, sought to be heard, expounding their opinion, “clarifying” the situation, because the man of the 15th century got lost in himself, fell out of one system of beliefs and has not yet established himself in another. Each figure of Humanism embodied or tried to bring his theories to life. Humanists not only believed in a renewed happy intellectual society, but also tried to build this society on their own, organizing schools and giving lectures, explaining their theories to ordinary people. Humanism covered almost all spheres of human life.

THE PHILOSOPHY OF HUMANISM OF THE RENAISSANCE

PLAN:

1. Anthropocentrism and humanism of the worldview in the Renaissance

2. The problem of human individuality. The ideal of man

3. Socio-political ideals of the Renaissance

1. ANTHROPOCENTRISM AND HUMANISM OF THE WORLD VIEW IN THE AGE OF THE RENAISSANCE

Chronologically, the Renaissance covers the 14th-16th centuries, although the first signs of the Renaissance appeared in the cities of Northern Italy as early as the end of the 12th-13th centuries. (Proto-Renaissance). To a large number of different periodizations of the Renaissance, we can add one more - philosophical:

ö humanistic period (XIV-mid-XV centuries) - Dante, Petrarch, Valla;

ö Neoplatonic period (mid-XV-XVI centuries) - Nicholas of Cusa, Pico della Mirandola, Paracelsus;

ö natural-philosophical period (the end of the 16th - the middle of the 17th centuries) - N. Copernicus, G. Galileo, J. Bruno.

The attention of the Renaissance philosophers was directed primarily to the person, it is he who becomes the addressee of philosophical interest.

Thinkers are no longer interested so much in transcendental religious distances as in man himself, his nature, his independence, his creativity, his self-affirmation, and finally, beauty. The origins of such philosophical interest were largely determined by the transition from the feudal-rural to the bourgeois-urban way of life and industrial economy. The very course of history revealed the special role of human creativity and activity.

And although formally the philosophers of that time still put God at the center of the universe, they paid more attention not to him, but to man. Thus, the fundamental principle of the philosophical thought of the Renaissance was anthropocentrism - the view that man is the center and the highest goal of the universe.

This approach has contributed to the development humanism - a view based on the inherent value of a person as a person, his right to freedom, happiness, well-being.

Humanism had a long prehistory in antiquity and the Middle Ages, but as a broad social movement that has the most important political, social and moral applications, it takes shape for the first time precisely in the Renaissance. The dispute was fundamental - about a new worldview, moral and political ideal. Scholasticism was subjected to criticism and reflection, i.e., fruitless thinking divorced from life. In an effort to achieve a just social and state structure in Italy, parliamentary government was introduced. There was also a search for ways to harmonize people's interests. The humanists believed that the basis of human relations is love, friendship, mutual respect, which does not contradict the protection of private interests and individualism. Humanism (in this regard, the work of Dante is indicative) raises the question of the true nobility of man.

The founder of humanism is unanimously considered a poet and philosopher Francesca Petrarch. In his work - the beginning of many ways in which the development of the Renaissance culture in Italy went. In his treatise “On the Ignorance of His Own and of Many Others,” he resolutely rejects the scholastic learning inherent in the Middle Ages, in relation to which he defiantly proclaims his alleged ignorance, since he considers such learning to be completely useless for a person of his time.

In the mentioned treatise, a fundamentally new approach to the assessment of the ancient heritage is manifested. According to Petrarch, it is not blind imitation of the thoughts of remarkable predecessors that will allow to come to a new flowering of literature, art, science, but the desire to rise to the heights of ancient culture and at the same time rethink and surpass it in some way. This line, outlined by Petrarch, became the leading one in the relation of humanism to the ancient heritage.

The humanists of this period, who constituted a very small creative elite, which included representatives of various social groups, along with God exalt man as the creator of the world of culture, deify him as a subject of creative activity, bringing him closer to God. Man in the Renaissance is not considered a passive "image and likeness of God", he becomes a "godlike" being. Equalizing a person with God are two main qualities inherent in him - reason and free will, according to humanists, allowing a person to sort out an infinite number of opportunities for creative self-realization. The life and work of many humanists, for example, Leonardo da Vinci, who was both an artist, the author of the famous Gioconda, and an engineer, whose creative genius anticipated many discoveries of the future (tank, parachute, helicopter), and scientists, serves as an excellent illustration of the words of F Engels, who called the Renaissance an era "which needed titans and which gave birth to titans in strength of thought and character, in versatility and scholarship."

Exalting man, the humanists at the same time sharply criticized scholastic philosophy, insisted on the need to go beyond the limits of "scholastic science" to informal, vital, humanistic knowledge.

So, the Middle Ages end with the XIV century and the two-century Renaissance begins, after which, in the XVII century, the New Age begins. If in the Middle Ages theocentrism dominated, now the hour of anthropocentrism is coming. In the era of modern times, a person is placed at the center of philosophical research. In the philosophy of the Renaissance, there are two centers - God and man. This corresponds to the fact that the Renaissance is the transition from the Middle Ages to the New Age.

Humanism occupies an important place in the system of spiritual values. Its decisive role in the ideological consciousness of European humanity (at least since the Renaissance) can be judged by the fact that not a single philosophical, political, artistic trend or doctrine that claims to be the spiritual and practical leader of European civilization could do without to declare himself a model of humanism. The humanistic ideals that "took root" in the Renaissance, established in the spiritual culture in the form of tradition, have stood the test of time, proving their significance, enduring value.

2. THE PROBLEM OF HUMAN INDIVIDUALITY. IDEAL MAN

The Renaissance is a revolution, first of all, in the system of values, in the assessment of everything that exists and in relation to it. There is a conviction that a person is the highest value. Such a view of a person determined the most important feature of the culture of the Renaissance - the development of individualism in the sphere of worldview, a comprehensive manifestation of individuality in public life.

The main task of the works of philosophers of that time was the task of determining the place of man in the world and the ethical and social problems arising from this task. The collapse of the medieval hierarchy, the liberation of the essential forces of man from all the restrictions and constraints that the church and the class organization of society imposed on him, the unusually rapid growth of cultural achievements, especially in the field of art, were considered by Renaissance philosophers as proof of the central position of man in the universe. In their view, a person became a titan who could handle any transformation of natural and social forces. Hence the humanistic orientation of the entire European Renaissance. The philosophers of the Renaissance placed man much higher than the thinkers of classical Greece, who never tried to place man at the center of being.

Glorifying the power of man and his greatness, admiring his amazing creations, the thinkers of the Renaissance inevitably came to the rapprochement of man with God. In such reasonings of Giannozzo Manetti, Marsilio Ficino, Tommaso Campanella, Pico and others, the most important characteristic of humanistic anthropocentrism appeared - the tendency to deify a person. However, the humanists were neither heretics nor atheists. On the contrary, the overwhelming majority of them remained believers. But if the Christian worldview asserted that God should come first, and then man, then the humanists brought man to the fore, and then talked about God.

The presence of God in the philosophy of even the most radical thinkers of the Renaissance implied at the same time a critical attitude towards the church as a social institution. The humanistic worldview, therefore, also includes anti-clerical views, i.e., views directed against the claims of the church and the clergy to dominance in society.

The writings of Lorenzo Valla, Leonardo Bruni, Poggio Bracciolini, Erasmus of Rotterdam and others contain speeches against the secular power of the Roman popes, exposing the vices of the ministers of the church and the moral depravity of monasticism. However, this did not prevent many humanists from becoming ministers of the church, and two of them - Tommaso Parentucelli and - were even erected in the 15th century. to the papal throne.

Francesca Petrarch believed that the science of man should become the content of true philosophy, and in all his work there is a call to reorient philosophy to this worthy object of knowledge.

With his reasoning, Petrarch laid the foundation for the formation of personal self-awareness of the Renaissance. In different eras, a person realizes himself in different ways. A medieval person was perceived as more valuable as a person, the more his behavior corresponded to the norms adopted in the corporation. He asserted himself through the most active inclusion in a social group, in a corporation, in a God-established order - such is the social prowess required of an individual. The Renaissance man gradually abandons the universal medieval concepts, turning to the concrete, individual.

Humanists are developing a new approach to understanding a person, in which the concept of activity plays a huge role. The value of the human personality for them is determined not by origin or social affiliation, but by personal merits and the fruitfulness of its activity.

A vivid embodiment of this approach can be, for example, the versatile activities of the famous humanist Leon Battista Alberta. He was an architect, painter, author of treatises on art. According to Albert, a person is able to overcome the vicissitudes of fate only by his own activity.

For the head of the school of Florentine Platonists Marsilio Ficino man is the connecting link of the entire cosmic hierarchy. He can embrace with his knowledge all being, for his soul is involved in the world soul - the source of all movement and all life. The boundlessness of man's knowledge makes him related to God. Ficino essentially deifies man, endowing him with absolute freedom and unlimited creative power.

The most famous work in which the humanistic doctrine of the high purpose of man and the exclusivity of human nature has found a complete expression and philosophical justification, of course, should be considered "Speech on the Dignity of Man" Giovanni Pico della Mirandola. In his opinion, a person, not having his fixed place in the hierarchy of the cosmos, is free to form his human essence. Its highest purpose is to be the connecting link of the universe. Endowed with free will and boundless creative power, man is god-like: "... Man is rightly called and considered a great miracle, a living being, truly admirable."

Maybe not so colorful, but just as definitely, other thinkers of the Renaissance, especially its early period, spoke about the high place of man in the world.

However, it would be wrong to idealize humanism, not to notice its individualistic tendencies. Creativity can be considered a true hymn to individualism. Lorenzo Valla. In his main philosophical work "On Pleasure", Valla proclaimed the desire for pleasure as an inalienable property of a person. The measure of morality for him is the personal good. Lorenzo Valla considered death for the fatherland and homeland a dangerous prejudice and argued that the personal life of an individual is a greater good than the life of all people. Such a worldview position looks like an asocial one.

A well-known politician and the largest theorist of Renaissance politics Nicolo Machiavelli argued that in order to achieve the political goals that the sovereign sets himself, all means are acceptable. Unbridled egoism, the absence of any restraining norms in political activity, which the Renaissance demonstrated at every step, lead the French philosopher Michel Montaigne to skepticism about the conviction of Ficino and Mirandolla about the exceptional position of man in the system of the universe. Man, according to Montaigne, is part of nature, and his activity must be subject to the natural laws that govern the universe.

So, considering man as the crown of the universe and so highly appreciating his capabilities and abilities, the philosophers of the Renaissance as a whole correctly reflected the real processes that developed the social and creative activity of the individual. But this was only one side of the Titanism of the Renaissance. Its second side is that individual activity, not bound by any framework and restrictions, gave rise to unbridled egoism, disregard for all moral norms, moral principles in order to achieve the goal. Even the most brilliant figures of this era constantly demonstrated the unattractive properties of the reverse side of renaissance titanism.

3. SOCIO-POLITICAL IDEALS OF THE RENAISSANCE

One of the main conditions for the possibility of realizing the humanistic ideal of man was considered the transformation of society. It was during the Renaissance that the literary genre of utopia received further development and even its own name (translated from Greek - "a place that doesn't exist").

Most notable during this period were the activities of two so-called "utopian socialists": Thomas More and Tommaso Campanella. They are the forerunners of scientific socialism and their work is similar. Both of them, but each in their own way, tried to create a society in which people are equal among themselves, there is no private and even personal property, labor is the duty of all, and division occurs according to need.

According to the opinion, the social utopias of Thomas More and Tommaso Campanella were a reaction to the selfish desire for wealth and power at any cost, which characterized the period of primitive accumulation of capital that coincided with the Renaissance.

The most famous work in which the socio-political ideal of the Renaissance is revealed is the novel "Utopia" by Thomas More. It describes a fictitious state located on the never-existing island of Utopia: “The island of the Utopians in its middle part (for it extends the widest) extends for two hundred miles, over a long distance the island does not narrow very much, but gradually thins towards both ends .. There are fifty-four cities on Utopia; they are all large and magnificent... The nearest ones are twenty-four miles apart. And again, not one of them is so remote that it was impossible to walk from it to another city on foot in one day ... From each city, three old and wise citizens converge annually in Amaurot to discuss the general affairs of the island. For this city is considered the first and main ... "

The concept of "Utopia" has become a household name for various descriptions of a fictional country, designed to serve as a model of the social system, as well as in the expanded sense of all works and treatises containing unrealistic plans for social transformation.

In the history of mankind, Utopia, as one of the peculiar forms of social consciousness, embodied such features as the creation of a social ideal, criticism of the existing system, the desire to escape from the gloomy reality, as well as attempts to imagine the future of society. Initially, Utopia was closely intertwined with legends about the "golden age", about the "islands of the blessed." During the Renaissance, Utopia acquired primarily the form of a description of perfect states, supposedly existing somewhere on earth, or existing in the past; in the XVII-XVIII centuries. various utopian treatises and projects of social and political reforms became widespread.

So, the ideal society in the eyes of the humanists had to be built:

ö in the economic sphere - on the rejection of private property, universal labor service and the centralized distribution of manufactured products;

ö in the political sphere – on democratic principles, the election of all officials;

ö in the social sphere - on the replacement of the estate system, which determined the value of a person by his origin, with such a social hierarchy in which a person's place was determined by the degree of education and social significance of the duties performed by him;

ö in the field of culture - on the creation of a universal and compulsory system of education and upbringing, state support for the development of sciences.

It is difficult to give an unambiguous assessment of such a socio-political ideal: it was characterized by both those elements that were subsequently implemented and are now successfully functioning in many modern countries, and those that have not yet stood the test of time. However, it is obvious that the utopias of the Renaissance offered a system much more perfect than the one that existed at the time of their creation in the states of Western Europe.

On the means of achieving socio-political ideals in the Renaissance, political philosophy gives a vivid idea. Nicolo Machiavelli- Italian politician and historian. He was convinced that "fortune controls half of our actions, but still allows us to control the other half or so." The management of this "half" Machiavelli attributed to a special sphere - the sphere of politics, which is separated from morality. In politics, in his opinion, instead of the 10 commandments serving as the basis of universal morality, a different principle operates - “the end justifies the means”: “... A sovereign, especially a new one, cannot do only what people are considered good for, because for the sake of preserving the state he often you have to break your promises, go contrary to mercy, kindness and piety. So in his heart he must always be ready to change direction if circumstances change or the wind of fortune starts to blow in the other direction, that is, as we said, if possible, do not deviate from good, but if necessary, do not avoid evil. .

In conclusion, it is necessary to note the most important feature of the philosophy of the Renaissance - its non-professional character. For the humanists and thinkers of the Renaissance, philosophy was neither a profession, nor an occupation, nor even a creative hobby. Perhaps that is why, despite the general recognition of the uniqueness of the Renaissance culture as a whole, this period was not considered original in the development of philosophy for a long time and, therefore, worthy of being singled out as an independent stage of philosophical thought.

However, the duality and inconsistency of the philosophical thinking of this time should not belittle its significance for the subsequent development of philosophy, cast doubt on the merits of Renaissance thinkers in overcoming medieval scholasticism and creating the foundations of the philosophy of the New Age.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE:

1. Sovereign. - Mn., 1999

3. Utopia. - M., 1998

4. Fundamentals of Philosophy: Textbook for universities / Ed. E.V. Popov. - M., 1997

5. Monuments of world aesthetic thought: Antiquity. Middle Ages. Renaissance. - M., 1962. - T.1

6., Kislyuk on philosophy. - Kharkov, 2001

7. Anti-Dühring// Works. – T. 20

Kislyuk in philosophy. - Kharkov, 2001, p.249

Fundamentals of Philosophy: Textbook for High Schools / Ed. E.V. Popov. - M., 1997, p.136

Kislyuk in philosophy. - Kharkov, 2001, p.258

Fundamentals of Philosophy: Textbook for High Schools / Ed. E.V. Popov. - M., 1997, p.144

Anti-Dühring// Works. - T. 20, p.346

Fundamentals of Philosophy: Textbook for High Schools / Ed. E.V. Popov. - M., 1997, p.142

Monuments of world aesthetic thought: Antiquity. Middle Ages. Renaissance. – M.,

1962. - V.1, p.506

Martynov: Teaching aid for university students. - Mn.,

Martynov: Teaching aid for university students. - Mn.,

Utopia. - M., 1998, p.53-54

Kislyuk in philosophy. - Kharkov, 2001, p.262

Sovereign. - Mn., 1999, p.76

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Introduction

1. The birth of humanism

2. Basic ideas of humanism

Conclusion

Introduction

The philosophy of the Renaissance is distinguished by its pronounced anthropocentrism. Man is not only the most important object of philosophical consideration, but also turns out to be the central link in the entire chain of cosmic existence. A kind of anthropocentrism was also characteristic of medieval consciousness. But there it was about the problem of the fall, redemption and salvation of man; the world was created for man, and man was the highest creation of God on earth; but man was considered not by himself, but in his relationship with God, in his relationship to sin and eternal salvation, unattainable by his own strength. The humanistic philosophy of the Renaissance is characterized by the consideration of man in his, above all, earthly destiny. Man not only rises within the framework of the hierarchical picture of being, he “blows up” this hierarchy itself and returns to nature, and his relationship with nature and God is considered within the framework of a new, pantheistic understanding of the world.

In the evolution of the philosophical thought of the Renaissance, it seems possible to single out three characteristic periods: humanistic, or anthropocentric, opposing medieval theocentrism with an interest in man in his relations with the world; neoplatonic, associated with the formulation of broad ontological problems; natural philosophical. The first of them characterizes philosophical thought in the period from the middle of the XIV to the middle of the XV century, the second - from the middle of the XV to the first third of the XVI century, the third - the second half of the XVI and the beginning of the XVII century.

In this paper, it will be considered the first period of philosophical thought - the humanistic period.

The objectives of the abstract are:

1. To highlight the conditions under which the onset of the Renaissance became possible.

2. Find out the basic ideas of humanism.

3. Consider the ideas of humanism of the main representatives of this philosophical trend.

1. The birth of humanism

From the 15th century the transitional Renaissance begins in the history of Western Europe, which created its own brilliant culture. In the field of economics, there is a disintegration of feudal relations and the development of the rudiments of capitalist production; the richest city-republics in Italy develop. The biggest discoveries follow one after another: the first printed books; firearms; Columbus discovers America; Vasco da Gama, rounding Africa, found a sea route to India; Magellan, with his round-the-world trip, proves the sphericity of the Earth; geography and cartography emerge as scientific disciplines; symbolic notation is introduced in mathematics; scientific anatomy and the foundations of physiology appear; “iatrochemistry” or medical chemistry arises, striving for the knowledge of chemical phenomena in the human body and for the study of drugs; astronomy is making great strides. But most importantly, the dictatorship of the church was broken. This was the most important condition for the flourishing of culture in the Renaissance. Secular interests, the full-blooded earthly life of a person were opposed to feudal asceticism, the "other world" ghostly world. Petrarch, tirelessly collecting ancient manuscripts, calls for "healing the bloody wounds" of his native Italy, trampled under the boot of foreign soldiers and torn apart by the enmity of feudal tyrants. Boccaccio in his "Decameron" ridicules the depraved clergy and parasitic nobility, glorifying the inquisitive mind, the desire for pleasure and the seething energy of the townspeople. The satire "Praise of Stupidity" by Erasmus of Rotterdam, the novel "Gargantua and Pantagruel" by Rabelais, witty, full of mockery and ridicule "Letters of dark people" by Ulrich von Hutten express the humanism and unacceptability of the old medieval ideology Gorfunkel A.Kh. Philosophy of the Renaissance.- M: Higher School, 1980.- S. 30-31.

Researchers distinguish two periods in the development of Renaissance philosophy:

restoration and adaptation of ancient philosophy to the requirements of modern times (end of the 14th - 15th centuries);

the emergence of its own peculiar philosophy, the main course of which was natural philosophy (XVI century).

The birthplace of the Renaissance is Florence. It was in Florence, and a little later in Siena, Ferrara, Pisa, that circles of educated people formed, who were called humanists. The term itself comes from the name of the circle of sciences that the poetically and artistically gifted Florentines were engaged in: studia humanitatis. These are the sciences that have as their object man and everything human, as opposed to the studia divina, everything that studies the divine, that is, theology. This does not mean, of course, that the humanists were estranged from theology - on the contrary, they were connoisseurs of Scripture, patristics.

And yet, the main activity of the humanists was philological science. Humanists began to look for rewriting, to study first literary and then artistic monuments of antiquity, primarily the statues of Yukhvidin P.A. World artistic culture: from its origins to the 17th century: in lectures, conversations, stories. - M: New school, 1996. - P.226-228.

The entire culture of the Renaissance, its philosophy is filled with recognition of the value of a person as a person, his right to free development and manifestation of his abilities. A new criterion for evaluating social relations is being approved - the human one. At the first stage, the humanism of the Renaissance acted as a secular freethinking, opposing medieval scholasticism and the spiritual dominance of the church. Further, the humanism of the Renaissance is affirmed through the value-moral emphasis of philosophy and literature.

2. Basic ideas of humanism

At the origins of anthropocentric humanism is Dante Alighieri (1265-1321). In his immortal "Comedy", as well as in the philosophical treatises "Feast" and "Monarchy", he sang a hymn to the earthly destiny of man, opened the way to humanistic anthropology.

The perishable world of the earth is opposed by the eternal world of heaven. And in this confrontation, the role of the middle link is played by a person, for he is involved in both worlds. The mortal and immortal nature of man also determines his dual purpose: extraterrestrial existence and human bliss that can be realized on earth. Earthly destiny is realized in civil society. The church leads to eternal life.

Thus, a person realizes himself in earthly destiny and in eternal life. The separation of earthly and afterlife poses the problem of the church's refusal to claim secular life.

The theocentrism of the Middle Ages "overcomes" F. Petrarch (1304-1374) and does it with more confidence than Dante Alighieri. Referring to the problems of human existence, F. Petrarch states: "The celestials should discuss the heavenly, but we - the human." The thinker is interested in the inner world of a person, and, moreover, a person who breaks ties with medieval traditions and is aware of this break. Earthly cares are the first duty of a person and in no case should be sacrificed to the afterlife. The old stereotype of contempt for earthly things is giving way to the ideal of man in his worthy earthly existence. This position is shared by Gianozzo Manetti (1396-1459) in his treatise On the Dignity and Superiority of Man, which emphasizes that a person is born not for a sad existence, but for creation and affirmation of himself in his deeds.

The ideological orientation of humanistic thought lays the foundation for a new philosophy - the philosophy of the Renaissance.

The theoretical basis of the new philosophy was the translations of classical antiquity. Cleansing Aristotelian texts from medieval "barbarisms", the humanists revived the true Aristotle, returning his legacy to the system of classical culture. Thanks to the philological and translation activities of the humanists of the Renaissance, European philosophy received at its disposal numerous monuments of Greek and Roman philosophical thought, as well as their comments. But the latter, unlike the medieval ones, were focused not on confrontation, but on dialogue, the interpenetration of the earthly, natural and divine Reale J., Antiseri D. Western philosophy from its origins to the present day. Middle Ages. - St. Petersburg: Pnevma, 2002. - 25-27.

The subject of philosophy is the earthly life of man, his activity. The task of philosophy is not to oppose the spiritual and the material, but to reveal their harmonious unity. The place of conflict is occupied by the search for agreement. This applies both to the nature of man and to the position of man in the world around him - the world of nature and society. Humanism opposes the values ​​of the earthly world to the values ​​of the Middle Ages. Following nature is proclaimed a prerequisite. The ascetic ideal is seen as hypocrisy, a state that is unnatural to human nature.

A new ethics is being formed, based on the unity of the soul and the body, the equality of the spiritual and the physical. It is absurd to take care of the soul alone, for it follows the nature of the body and cannot function without it. “Beauty lies in nature itself, and a person must strive for pleasure and overcome suffering,” says Casimo Raimondi. Earthly bliss, as an existence worthy of man, must become a prerequisite for heavenly bliss. Overcoming savagery and barbarism, a person says goodbye to his insignificance and acquires a truly human state.

What is human in a person is just a possibility laid in him by God. For its implementation, it requires significant efforts from a person, cultural and creative activity. In the process of life, nature is supplemented by culture. The unity of nature and culture provides the prerequisites for the elevation of man to the one in whose image and likeness he was created. Human creative activity is a continuation and completion of divine creation. Creativity, as an attribute of God, included in human activity, becomes a prerequisite for the deification of man. Thanks to creativity, a person can rise to sky-high heights, become an earthly god.

The world and man are the creation of God. A beautiful world created for enjoyment. Beautiful and man, created to enjoy the world. But the purpose of man is not passive enjoyment, but creative life. Only in a creative act does a person acquire the opportunity to enjoy this world. Thus, the ethics of humanism, attributing the attribute of divinity to the mind of a person and his deeds, opposes the medieval ethics of asceticism and passivity Yukhvidin P.A. World artistic culture: from its origins to the 17th century: in lectures, conversations, stories. - M: New School, 1996. - P. 230-233.

As a summary, it can be said that the philosophy of humanism "rehabilitated" the world and man, raised, but did not solve the problem of the relationship between the divine and the natural, the infinite and the finite. The solution of this ontological problem became the content of the Neoplatonic period in the development of the philosophy of the Renaissance.

3. The main representatives of the humanistic concept of the Renaissance

Dante Alighieri and Francesca Petrarca (XIII - XIV centuries) are recognized as the first humanists. In the center of their attention is man, but not as a "vessel" of sin (which is typical of the Middle Ages), but as the most perfect creation, created in the "image of God." Man, like God, is a creator, and this is his highest destiny. The idea of ​​creativity appears as a deviation from medieval traditions. In the "Divine" Comedy, Dante noted that earthly concerns constitute the first duty of a person and in no case should be sacrificed to the afterlife. Thus, the old stereotype of contempt for earthly things gives way to the ideal of man in his worthy earthly existence. The purpose of human life is to be happy. Fortunately, two paths lead: philosophical teaching (that is, the human mind) and creation. Humanists oppose asceticism. The ascetic ideal is considered by them as hypocrisy, a state of unnatural human nature. Believing in the strength of a person, they said that a person himself is responsible for his own good, relying on personal qualities and mind. The mind must be freed from dogmatism and the cult of authority. Its feature should be activity, embodied not only in theoretical activity, but also in practice.

The call of the humanists to evaluate a person not by nobility or wealth, not by the merits of his ancestors, but only by what he himself achieved, inevitably led to individualism. revival philosophy humanism

To the outstanding Italian humanists of the 15th century. belongs to Lorenzo Valla. In his philosophical views, Valla was close to Epicureanism, believing that all living things strive for self-preservation and the exclusion of suffering. Life is the highest value. The purpose of human life is happiness and enjoyment. Pleasure brings pleasures of the soul and body, therefore they are the highest good. Nature, including human nature, is divine, and the pursuit of pleasure is the nature of man. Therefore, pleasure is also divine. In his ethical teaching, Lorenzo Valla comprehends the basic human virtues. Criticizing medieval asceticism, he opposes secular virtues to it: virtue is not only in enduring poverty, but also in creating and accumulating wealth, and also wisely using it not only in abstinence, but also in marriage, not only in obedience, but also in managing wisely.

Scholars view Wall's philosophy as individualistic. In his works there are such concepts as "personal benefit", "personal interest". It is on them that the relations of people in society are built. The thinker noted that the interests of others should be taken into account only insofar as they are associated with the personal pleasures of Proskurin A.V. History of Western European philosophy (from antiquity to the XVIII century): a course of lectures. - Pskov: PPI Publishing House, 2009. - P.74-75.

The problem of the inner world of a person was brought to the fore by Michel Montaigne, who is called "the last humanist." In his famous “Experiences”, he explores the real person in everyday and simple life (for example, the chapters of his book are marked as follows: “On parental love”, “On conceit”, “The benefit of one is the detriment to another”, etc.) and seeks to make recommendations for intelligent living based on personal experience.

The basis of his reasoning is the idea of ​​the unity of the soul and body, the physical and spiritual nature of man. Moreover, this unity is focused on earthly life, and not eternal salvation. The destruction of unity is the road to death. Therefore, the claims of man to break out of the bounds of the universal law of emergence and death, life and death, which is the same for all things, are absurd. Life is given to a person only once, and in this life to be guided by both the nature of the body and the mind; it is necessary to determine the rational behavior of a person, to follow the "instructions" of our parent - nature. The denial of the immortality of the soul not only does not destroy morality, but makes it more reasonable. Man courageously faces death not because his soul is immortal, but because he himself is mortal.

The goal of virtue is dictated by life. Its essence is to "live this life well and in accordance with all natural laws." Human life is multifaceted, it includes not only joys, but also sufferings. “Life itself is neither good nor evil; it is the receptacle of both good and evil ... ". Acceptance of life in all its complexity, courageous enduring the suffering of the body and soul, worthy fulfillment of one's earthly destiny - such is the ethical position of M. Montaigne.

Life is not a means of salvation and atonement for original sin, not a means of public dubious goals. Human life is valuable in itself, has its own meaning and justification. And in developing a worthy meaning, a person must rely on himself, in himself find the support of genuine moral behavior. Montaigne stands on the position of individualism, arguing that only a sovereign person can be useful to society. Considering the problems of man, M. Montaigne addresses the issue of knowledge. He states that tradition and authority rule the ball in conventional philosophy. Rejecting authorities whose teachings may be erroneous, Montaigne stands for a free and unbiased view of the object of study, for the right to skepticism as a methodological device. Montaigne, criticizing theological dogmatism, notes: "People do not believe in anything so firmly as what they know least about." Here, the criticism of dogmatism develops into a criticism of ordinary consciousness, with which the philosophers of antiquity began. M. Montaigne tries to find a way to improve it, noting that the contentment of the mind is a sign of its limitations or fatigue. Recognition of one's own ignorance is a prerequisite to knowledge. Only by admitting our ignorance can we free ourselves from the yoke of prejudice. Moreover, ignorance is itself the first and tangible result of cognition. Cognition is a continuous process of moving forward towards an unclear goal. Cognition begins with sensations, but sensations are only a prerequisite for knowledge, because, as a rule, they are not adequate to the nature of their source. The work of the mind is necessary - generalization. Montaigne recognized that the object of knowledge itself is in constant change. Therefore, there is no absolute knowledge, it is always relative. With his philosophical reasoning, M. Montaigne gave a powerful charge to both the late Renaissance and the philosophy of the New Age Gorfunkel A.Kh. Philosophy of the Renaissance.- M: Higher School, 1980.- P.201-233.

Thus, many great thinkers and artists of that time contributed to the development of humanism. Among them are Petrarch, Lorenzo Valla, Pico della Mirandola, M. Montaigne and others.

Conclusion

The essay covered the issues of humanism of the Renaissance. Humanism is a special phenomenon in the spiritual life of the Renaissance.

Humanists focus on man, but not as a “vessel of sin” (which was typical of the Middle Ages), but as the most perfect creation of God, created in the “image of God”. Man, like God, is a creator, and this is his highest destiny.

A distinctive feature of the Renaissance is the formation of an anthropocentric picture of the world. Anthropocentrism involves the promotion of man to the center of the universe, to the place that was previously occupied by God. The whole world began to appear as a derivative of man, dependent on his will, significant only as an object of application of his forces and creative abilities. Man began to be thought of as the crown of creation; unlike the other "created" world, he had the ability to create like the Heavenly Creator. Moreover, man is able to improve his own nature. According to the majority of cultural figures of the Renaissance, man is only half created by God, the further completion of creation depends on him. If he will make significant spiritual efforts, will improve his soul and spirit through education, upbringing and refraining from low desires, then he will ascend to the level of saints, angels and even God; if he follows low passions, lust, pleasures and pleasures, then he will degrade. The work of the Renaissance figures is imbued with faith in the limitless possibilities of man, his will and mind.

List of used literature

1. Gorfunkel A.Kh. Philosophy of the Renaissance. - M: Higher School, 1980. - 368 p.

2. Proskurina A.V. History of Western European philosophy (from antiquity to the XVIII century): a course of lectures. - Pskov: PPI Publishing House, 2009. - 83 p.

3. Reale J., Antiseri D. Western philosophy from its origins to the present day. Middle Ages. - St. Petersburg: Pnevma, 2002. - 880 p., with illustrations.

4. Yukhvidin P.A. World artistic culture: from its origins to the 17th century: in lectures, conversations, stories. - Moscow: New school, 1996.- 288 p.

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The catchphrase "this man sounds proud" became part of the Russian language thanks to Maxim Gorky's play "At the Bottom", written in 1902. These words are part of the famous monologue of Sateen, the key character in the play. However, approximately 400-500 years before the premiere of "At the Bottom", numerous figures of the Renaissance would have happily signed these words. Renaissance humanism concentrated precisely on the idea of ​​the dignity, greatness and almost limitless power of the human person. So the Renaissance humanists really believed that a person sounds proud, majestic and beautiful.

The improvement of man is the work of man himself

The term "humanism" is one of the most frequently used to this day. However, its modern meaning, which includes endowing a person with a complex of inalienable rights and freedoms and their protection, does not coincide with the original humanism of the Renaissance. The humanists of that time spoke primarily about the knowledge of the human person in the fullness of his nature. From their point of view, during more than a thousand years of the Middle Ages, the human person was actually forgotten and humiliated. God was in the center of the picture of the world, it was the knowledge of His will, His hypostases and His “functions” that was devoted to the work of philosophical thought, the creative potential of artists, the direction of education and science, and so on.

Humanists believed that in this way the natural dignity of human nature was infringed, because of which a person was not able to fully demonstrate his abilities and talents.

The means to the knowledge and creation of human nature (the ancient term studia humanitatis was used for this) were the literature and art of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Since it was this cultural tradition that put man at the center of the universe, so that it most fully reflected the anthropocentrism of the philosophy of the Renaissance . In order to know the diversity of human nature and develop the necessary virtues in oneself, a person needed to study ancient philosophers, read ancient Greek and Roman literature, learn the masterpieces of ancient art, primarily sculpture and architecture, improve in literature, that is, in oratory and epistolary genre. Only in this way, the great humanists of the Renaissance believed, can a person develop the flexibility of the mind, taste and "sense" for beauty, master the ability to critically evaluate reality, thereby correctly assess it and move towards the knowledge of truth.

From Interest in Antiquity to Real Politics

Renaissance humanism can be roughly divided into three main stages:

Renaissance man - the ideal of humanists

The principles of Renaissance humanism had a huge impact on the further development of European civilization and the whole world, primarily because a new ideal of man was formed, completely different from the medieval one. Somewhat misinterpreted, the Catholic ideal of man considered humility before God's will and obedience to it as the main virtue. Man, feeling his sinfulness and the meritoriousness of numerous trials and calamities, had to patiently endure all hardships and thereby “earn” for himself the posthumous Kingdom of God. Humanists strongly rejected such an understanding of human nature.

Based on ancient philosophical ideas, they stated that man is the highest and most perfect creation, standing in the center of the world and being the king of nature.

Initially, these ideas were largely based on Christian theology, in which man is also called the crown of creation, the beloved creation of God, created in His image and likeness. Consequently, the humanists argued, a person cannot and should not be constantly downtrodden and not thinking about anything but humility. It has a mind and huge creative abilities, which makes a person different from all other living creatures. And he must make full use of his mind and creative talents in order to know the world, strive for the truth and remake the world in accordance with the comprehended laws of perfection and harmony.

Subsequently, the humanists went quite far from the Christian roots of their philosophy, but the boundless attention to man remained. But the humanistic ideas of the Renaissance are not only and not so much the praise of a person, but a statement of the need to realize his enormous potential. For this, humanists believed, it is necessary to develop one's intellectual abilities, to learn the world by teaching all available useful knowledge, to try one's hand in various fields of creativity and activity in order to find out what the individual abilities of a particular person are.

And, finally, a person who has a developed mind, extensive knowledge and who has discovered his talents in himself must certainly put them into practice, constantly moving towards the knowledge of the truth, helping others move along the same path, using his abilities for the benefit of people. Humanists believed that a direct consequence of the disclosure of the capabilities of the human personality would be its moral perfection - that is, a comprehensively developed person cannot but also be kind, courageous, compassionate, moderate, and so on.

Alexander Babitsky

The realization of humanity presupposes mastering the achievements of the cultural wealth of the past. The humanism of the Renaissance manifested itself in revolutionary ideas directed at the inner, earthly "divinity" of man, in the rejection of the dogmatism of church truths.

Humanism (lat. humanus - human) represents the first period of philosophical thought of the Renaissance, the ideology of humanism was a revolution in all philosophy: the nature of philosophizing, the sources of philosophy, the style of thinking, the very appearance of philosophers, their place in society became different.

Humanism does not originate in the departments of European universities, not in monasteries and monastic orders. New philosophers - politicians, poets, philologists, orators, diplomats, teachers. Circles of learned interlocutors in communal cities, in the villas of wealthy patricians, at the courts of patrons, become the focus of spiritual life, centers of a new culture. Their tireless search for forgotten ancient texts, translation and philological activities gave European culture new ideals, a new look at human nature, a new worldview. A secular culture was created, with which all subsequent European culture is inextricably linked.

The difference between the views of the humanists on the nature of man and the scholastic ones was quite clearly expressed by the humanist Pico della Mirandolave his famous Oration on the Dignity of Man. Having created man and placed him at the center of the world, God, according to this philosopher, addressed him with these words: “We do not give you, O Adam, either a certain place, or your own image, or a special obligation, so that both place and person, and you had the obligation of your own free will, according to your will and your decision. The image of other creations is determined within the limits of the laws we have established. You, not constrained by any limits, will define your image according to your own decision, in whose power I leave you ”(History of Aesthetics. Monuments of World Aesthetic Thought. M., 1982. Vol. 1. P. 507.).

A person to whom God has given free will must determine his own place in the world, he is not just a natural being, but the creator of himself and his destiny. Majestic figures stand at the origins of Renaissance humanism Dante Alighieri (1255-1321) and Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374).

F. Engels defined Dante as "the last poet of the Middle Ages and the first poet of modern times." His "Divine Comedy" - a poem in 3 parts ("Hell", "Purgatory", "Paradise") and 100 songs - a kind of encyclopedia of the Middle Ages - a monumental synthesis of poetry, philosophy, theology, science - had a great influence on the development of European culture .

Dante accepts Christian dogma as the truth, but gives a new interpretation of the relationship between the divine and the human. He does not oppose these principles, but sees them in mutual unity. God cannot be opposed to the creative forces of man. The dual - mortal and immortal - nature of man also determines his dual purpose: the manifestation of his own virtue in earthly life and the "bliss of eternal life" - after death and with the assistance of divine will. The earthly destiny of man is carried out in civil society according to the prescriptions of philosophers and under the guidance of a secular sovereign; the church leads to eternal life. (Dante Alighieri. Small works. M., 1968. S. 361.) Dante's humanism is full of faith in the strength of man, his personal qualities are responsible for his good, and not wealth or inheritance, position in the social hierarchy. At the heart of Dante's political idea is the demand for the church to give up its claims to secular power. The Church should deal with issues of "eternity", earthly affairs are the lot of people who are striving to create a social order based on happiness, bliss and eternal peace. Dante belonged to those ideologists who combined humanism with the theory of "dual truth".

Dante opened the way to humanistic anthropology, within which creativity proceeded Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374), who was considered "the first humanist", "the father of humanism". Unlike Dante, who still accepted "eternity" in the understanding of the scholastics, Petrarch completely rejects it. In his treatise On His Own Ignorance and the Ignorance of the Ancients, he criticizes scholasticism, its methods, the cult of authority, and advocates the independence of his own thinking from church scholarship. The primary interest of Petrarch and his followers is turned to ethical questions. In the philosophical dialogue "My Secret", he reveals the deepest internal conflicts of a person and ways to overcome them. The inner world of a person, moreover, a “new” person who breaks ties with medieval traditions, is the main content of his poems, letters, and philosophical treatises. The great propagandist of ancient culture, he had a unique library of Latin texts, his activities had a great influence on his followers.

Among them should be included Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457) and others.

In the XV-XVI centuries. humanistic thinking is also spreading in other countries - in the Netherlands, England, Germany, Switzerland, and unlike Italian, which had a rather literary character, the "northern" type of humanism was distinguished by a more rigorous construction using methodology, logic, theory of state and law.

The main representative of this type of humanism is Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469-1536) - Dutch thinker, philologist, philosopher, theologian. He is best known for his work entitled The Praise of Stupidity (1509). This is a kind of "sum", a summary of the author's views on all the problems of man, his existence in the world. In a sarcastic-joking manner, he criticizes all the vices of the Catholic Church, scholastic dogma. The main pathos of the work is expressed in two theses: the paradoxical duality of all phenomena of being and the perniciousness of dogmatism, obsession, intellectual blindness. In his criticism of the church, he was the forerunner of the religious revolution (Reformation), but he himself did not go over to her side.

In his treatises, he demanded a return to genuine Christian morality. Asceticism, the rejection of earthly life, is, in his opinion, immoral; the meaning of life is to use the blessings of life; in this Christianity must learn from classical antiquity, and the business of philosophy must deal with questions of the natural life of man.

The impact of the Christian humanism of Erasmus of Rotterdam was extremely great: his like-minded people and followers are found throughout Catholic and Protestant Europe from England to Italy, from Spain to Poland.

The decline of a powerful current of humanism found its expression in France, a vivid representative of which was Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592). The radical optimism of the emerging culture brought a number of superficial ideas; the overthrow, denial of church authorities often accompanied the promotion of new ones, which was the subject of Montaigne's criticism. All his work is dedicated to man and his dignity. A characteristic feature of his works is skepticism, with the help of which he sought to avoid fanaticism, blind obedience to any authority.

Montaigne's main work, "Experiences", was written in French, which in itself challenged the church, according to the established canon of which all works were written in Latin. In the "Experiments" Montaigne, in aphoristic form, through self-observation, by referring to ancient wisdom, builds a practical-philosophical view of man in general. Experience serves as a teacher for him, he demands to put reason above authority, custom and "immutable" truths. In his opinion, the main ability that should be developed in a person is the ability of judgment, which arises in the experience of comparing reason with reality.

His views had a significant impact on the formation of the experimental methodology of the New Age; for creativity -