XIX century in the history of Russia. XIX century in the history of Russia When in the 19th century

1801.03.23-24
Murder of Paul I. Beginning of the reign of Alexander I.

1803
Decree on free cultivators in Russia.

1804.04
Petersburg Agreement on the alliance of Great Britain and Russia in the anti-French coalition.

1804.12.02
Coronation of Napoleon I.

1805.12.02
Defeat of the Russians and Austrians at Austerlitz.

1805.21.10
Battle of Trafalgar. Defeat of the Franco-Spanish fleet from the English. Death of the commander of the English fleet, Admiral Nelson.

1807.07.07
Peace of Tilsitz between Russia and France.

1808.09
Meeting of Napoleon with Alexander I in Erfurt.

1809.07.5-6
Napoleon's defeat of the Austrian army at Wagram.

1810 spring
Allied treaties of France with Prussia and Austria.

1811
Expulsion of the Mamluks from Egypt.

1812.06.12
Napoleon's invasion of Russia.

1812.08.26
Battle of Borodino.

1812.11.23
Napoleon's flight from the army to Paris.

1813.10.16-19
"Battle of the Nations" at Leipzig.

1814.03
Napoleon's abdication. Napoleon's exile to the island of Elba. Restoration of the Bourbon dynasty in France.

1815
Hundred days of Napoleon (20.3.1815 - 22.6.1815).

1817
The beginning of the Caucasian War by Russia.

1820.06
The beginning of the revolution in Naples, Central Italy, Piedmont.

1820.10
Indignation of the Semenovsky regiment in St. Petersburg.

1821
Congress of the Union of Benefits in Moscow.

1822.12.02
Proclamation of the Monroe Doctrine "America to Americans." Directed against the "Holy Alliance" in its struggle against the independence of Latin American countries. Later it was used for US intervention in the affairs of other states of the American continents.

1823
The beginning of the civil war in Greece (1823 -1824).

1825.09.27
Great Britain. The first railway in the world.

1825.12.14
Decembrist revolt.

1826
Beckendorf's initiative to create a corps of gendarmes and the Third Section.

1830.01.22
Proclamation of Greek independence (22.1.1830 - 3.2.1830).

1830.11.29
The beginning of the uprising in Poland.

1831
Massive cholera epidemic in Europe (1830 -1831).

1832
The US war against the Indians went down in history under the name "Black Falcon's War" named after the Indian leader.

1833.10.15
Berlin Convention between Russia, Austria and Prussia.

1834.04.09-13
Revolt of the Lyon weavers in France.

1837.10.30
Opening of the first railway in Russia, between St. Petersburg and Tsarskoye Selo, 26 km.

1838.08.05
The beginning of the Chartist movement.

1838
The beginning of the Anglo-Afghan war.

1840
Russia's rupture of the Unkyar-Iskelesi Treaty. The beginning of a breakdown in Russia's relations with France and Great Britain, which led to the Crimean War.

1844
"Circles of Petrashevites" in St. Petersburg.

1846-1848
War between Mexico and the USA.

1848.02.22-25
Revolution in France.

1848.02.27
The beginning of the "March Revolution" in Germany.

1848.03.15
The beginning of the national liberation revolution in Hungary. Hungary declared its independence. Adoption of democratic laws.

1848.03.18-20
The beginning of barricade battles in Berlin.

1848.03.26
(according to the Julian calendar - March 14) Tsar's manifesto on intervention in Europe.

1850
Taiping uprising in China.

1851.11.13
Direct railway connection Moscow - St. Petersburg.

1851.12.02
Coup d'etat in France, Louis Napaleon Bonoparte ordered the arrest of oppositionists and the dissolution of the National Assembly.

1853.10.16
Türkiye declared war on Russia.

1854.01.31
Treaty of Kanagawa between the United States and Japan regarding access to Japanese ports for American merchant ships.

1854.04.08-09
The beginning of the Crimean War.

1854.09.14-18
Landing of troops in Crimea by the Anglo-French army near Evpatoria.

1855.03.02
Death of Nicholas I. Alexander II - Emperor of Russia.

1856.04
The beginning of reforms in Russia by Alexander II.

1857 - 1858
Sepoy Mutiny in India.

1859.05.06
Gold Rush in Colorado.

1860.05-09
Expedition "1000" D. Gpribaldi.

1861.02
The Southern States Confederacy was formed in the United States.

1861.03.03
Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom in Russia.

1861.04.12
The beginning of the American Civil War.

1862.02.29
Garibaldi and his detachment tried to capture the Papal States, but were defeated and captured.

1863.07.01-03
Battle of Gettysburg. Northern victory over the Confederacy.

1863-1864
Polish uprising.

1864.09.28
The First International is founded.

1865.04.15
Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President of the United States (1860 - 65), who ended slavery in the country (2/12/1809 - 04/15/1865), was killed by a terrorist. E. Johnson became the new US President.

1867.03.30
The United States bought Alaska and the Aleutian Islands from Russia.

1870.07.19
France declares war on Prussia.

1870.09.02
Victory of the Prussian army over the French at Sedan. The emperor was captured and abdicated the throne. The end of the 2nd empire in France.

1871.03.18
The Paris Commune seized power in Paris.

1871.05.28
The final defeat of the Paris Commune.

1872.09.11
Union of the three emperors of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia.

1875
The Ottoman Empire declared itself bankrupt.

1877.04.24
Russia declared war on Turkey.

1877.06.27
Russian troops crossing the Danube.

1878.03.03
San Stefano Peace Treaty, Turkish recognition of the independence of Romania, Montenegro, Serbia. Formation of a new state - Great Bulgaria.

1881.03.13
Assassination of Alexander II by Narodnaya Volya. Alexander III became king.

1881.06.18
Union of three emperors: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia.

1881 - 1882
Industrial crisis in Russia.

1882.05.20
Creation of the "Triple Alliance" consisting of Germany, Austria - Hungary, Italy.

1882
The beginning of the resettlement of Jews to Palestine after the Jewish pogroms in Russia.

1884-1885
Franco - Chinese war.

1885
Mass expulsion of 26,000 Poles from the German part of Poland.

1885.08.29
As a result of the Russian-Afghan conflict, an agreement between Russia and Great Britain on the borders between Afghanistan and Russia.

1886.05.01-04
General strike for an 8-hour working day in the USA. Shooting of a workers' demonstration in Chicago.

1887.02.12
Eastern Triple Alliance: Austria-Hungary, Italy and Great Britain. Maintaining the status quo in the Eastern Mediterranean.

1887.06.06
Treaty between Russia and Germany on neutrality.

1889.07.14-21
Creation of the Second International. First Congress in Paris.

1889
World Exhibition in Paris.

1894.11.01
Death of Alexander III. The throne passed to Nicholas II.

1894.12.11
The first world auto exhibition opened in Paris, in which 9 companies participated.

1895
Anglo-Russian agreement on the delimitation of spheres of influence in the Pamirs.

1896.04.06-15
The first modern Olympic Games in Greece.

1896.05.28
Treaty between Russia and Japan on the Korean issue.

1898.03.06
Germany has entered into a 99-year lease agreement with China on the Shandong Peninsula. lease by Great Britain of WeihaiWei, Russia for 25 years of Port Arthur and the Kwantung Peninsula, France of Canton (Guangzhou).

1898.04.13
Russian-Japanese agreement on the division of spheres of influence in Korea.

1898.12.10
The Spanish-American War ended with the peace treaty in Paris. Spain lost its colonial possessions in the Caribbean and the Pacific Ocean (Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, Philippines).

1899.05
Conference of countries on arms limitation.

1899
US proclamation of Secretary of State Hay's "open door" doctrine in China.

1900
The creation by Great Britain of a "concentration camp" during the Boer War for "non-combatants".

The 19th century in the history of Russia was marked by such events as the Patriotic War of 1812, the Decembrists and their uprising on December 14, 1825 on Senate Square, the Crimean War (1853-1856), and the abolition of serfdom in 1861.

The 19th century is the time of the reign of Alexander I, his brother Nicholas I, Alexander II and Alexander III.

A revolution in geometry was made by the research of Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky, and in medicine by the surgeon Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov. Russian navigators Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern and Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky made the first trip around the world (1803-1806).

In the 19th century, such writers as Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin, Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov, Alexander Sergeevich Griboyedov, Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol, Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy, Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky worked.

And this is only a brief description of this complex, difficult, and sometimes tragic period of Russian history.

So what was this 19th century like?

The 19th century began for Russia with this tragic event. Although for the entire population, the death of the emperor, which occurred as a result of a conspiracy, was more of a joyful event than a sad one. On the evening of March 12, there was not a single bottle of wine left in St. Petersburg shops.

Grand Duke Alexander Pavlovich ascended the throne and became Emperor Alexander I.

What was Russia like at the beginning of the 19th century?

Together with England and France, Russia was one of the largest European powers, but nevertheless lagged significantly behind Europe in terms of economic development. The basis of the economy was agriculture; Russia exported raw materials and agricultural products to Western European countries. Imports mainly consisted of machinery, tools, luxury goods, as well as cotton, spices, sugar, and fruits.

Economic development was hampered by serfdom; many were talking about liberating millions of Russian peasants from such cruel dependence. Alexander I, understanding the need for reforms, adopted in 1803 a decree on free cultivators, according to which peasants could obtain liberation from the landowner for a ransom.

Russian foreign policy was characterized by the contradictions that arose between Russia and France and its emperor Napoleon Bonaparte.

In 1811, Napoleon proposed concluding a new peace agreement with Russia (instead of the Peace of Tilsit of 1807), but Alexander refused it, because After signing the treaty, Napoleon intended to marry the sister of the Russian Tsar.

On June 12, 1812, 600 thousand Napoleon's soldiers invaded Russia.

The Emperor of France intended in 1 month. give a border battle and force Alexander to make peace. But one of Alexander’s plans for waging war was this: if Napoleon turns out to be stronger, then retreat as much as possible.

We all remember the phrase of Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov from the film: “There is nowhere to retreat further, Moscow is ahead!”

As you know, the Patriotic War lasted a year and ended with the defeat of France.

Alexander nevertheless refused the French indemnities, saying: “I fought for glory, not for money.”

The state's finances were in a difficult state, the budget deficit was huge. The foreign policy of that time was called “counter-revolutionary”, and Russia until the 50s. 19th century called "the gendarme of Europe." Nicholas I was forced to continue this aggressive foreign policy, and he also set himself the task of strengthening the autocracy and the economy, but without carrying out reforms.

Nicholas I began with the creation of “His Imperial Majesty's Offices”. It was his own bureaucracy, which was supposed to oversee the execution of decrees.

This indicated that the tsar did not trust the nobility (which, in principle, was natural after the Decembrist uprising) and officials became the ruling class. As a result, the number of officials increased 6 times.

During the reign of Nicholas I, he carried out the following transformations:

1. Codification of Russian legislation or the reduction of all laws into codes, carried out by Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky. Speransky, the son of a poor rural priest, becomes, thanks to his abilities, the first adviser to the emperor. It publishes 15 volumes of laws that were in force until 1920.
2. Reform of Yegor Frantsevich Kankrin, one of the first economists admitted to power. Kankrin canceled all the old money and replaced it with a silver ruble (since Russia had a large silver reserve). In addition, Kankrin introduced customs duties on almost all imported goods, as a result of which the budget deficit was eliminated
3. Reform of Pavel Dmitrievich Kisilev or reform of the state village. As a result, its peasants received the right to own real estate - private property.

In the 1850s Russia is drawn into a series of military conflicts, of which the most significant was the conflict with Turkey, because ended with the Crimean War, which lasted 2 years and Russia was defeated in it.

The defeat in the Crimean War led to the death of the emperor, because... According to one version, Nicholas I committed suicide due to military failures.

He was called the Tsar Liberator because of the reform he carried out in 1861 to abolish serfdom. In addition, he carried out military reform (service was reduced from 20 to 6 years), judicial (a 3-tier judicial system was introduced, including a magistrate court, a district court and the Senate - the highest court), zemstvo (zemstvos became the local government body) .

Alexander II was assassinated in 1881, his reign ended, and his son Alexander III ascended the throne, who during his reign did not fight a single war, for which he was called the “Peacemaker.”

In addition, he concluded that his father was killed because he reformed a lot, so Alexander III refuses reforms, and his ideal was the rule of Nicholas I. But he believes that his grandfather’s main mistake was the poor development of industry and does everything to ensure that the money is directed towards the development of large industrial enterprises.

The main source of financing industrial production was the export of bread, but this money is not enough. With the appointment of Sergei Yulievich Witte to the post of Minister of Finance, the policy changed. Witte announces that bread exports are an unreliable source of income and introduces a wine monopoly (the budget began to be called “drunk”), gold backing of the ruble.

• The golden Russian ruble appears, which attracts foreign investment.

The result of this policy was that at the end of the 19th century. rapid economic growth began and Russia became an industrial power, although Russian industry was only 1/3 Russian, and 2/3 foreign.

So, despite wars and unstable domestic politics, Russia is experiencing rapid growth in industrial production, and in order to achieve it the country it took a whole century - the nineteenth.

Found a mistake? Select it and press left Ctrl+Enter.

The 19th century occupies a special place in the history of the development of European civilization. At the turn of the XVIII - XIX centuries. man created the steam engine, which led to a revolution in the field of productive forces. The steam engine played a major role in the transition to machine production and led to the industrial revolution.

In the second half of the 19th century. Two discoveries have become the property of mankind:

The discovery of electrical energy, which began to be used in engines, communications (telegraph and telephone), for lighting;

The internal combustion engine (1860), thanks to which the automobile appeared (1885-1886).

The use of the electric motor and internal combustion engine has made a significant contribution to the development of the productive forces of society.

By the end of the 19th century, the division of the world between the largest capitalist powers was completed. A colonial system was formed, which became one of the most important sources of profit.

In the 19th century, a new social structure emerged in the countries of the Romano-Germanic civilization. The nobility is losing its former dominant position, ceding it to the bourgeoisie. Capitalist production reproduces the main enemy of the bourgeoisie - the proletariat. A strong intellectual layer is formed, which begins to play an increasing role in spiritual life and occupies an influential position in the social structure of society.

Changing socio-economic conditions have led to significant changes in all areas of culture - science, literature, art. The rapid growth of production and the need to service it gave impetus to the development of scientific fundamental and applied research, especially natural and technical research.

And despite everything, in the 19th century the social sciences - history, philosophy, linguistics, political economy - successfully developed in Russia. Russian literature, painting, music, theatrical art, and architecture reached an unprecedented rise and flourishing - Russian culture reached the forefront of the world.

Late 50's - early 60's. became an era of mental awakening in Russia. Thinking Russia by this time had learned to read between the lines. Therefore, everything that was published in periodicals and in books became the subject of debate, reasoning and reflection. The ideas of Westernism are further developed. And under the influence of Slavophilism, a current of pochvennichestvo took shape, some aspects of which in the 70-80s. acquired features of nationalism and pan-Slavism. These were the so-called late Slavophiles. The idea of ​​Slavophilism found a unique refraction in the religious and philosophical concepts of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. In the works of V.S. Solovyova, N.A. Berdyaeva, P.A. Florensky and others.

Russian literature, painting, music, theatrical art, and architecture achieved unprecedented growth and flourishing.

In Russia, original artistic realistic literature and criticism was created, which gave the world dozens of brilliant names.

Russian music of the 19th century gained worldwide fame and recognition. Required by M.I. Glinka, members of the “Mighty Handful” (M.A. Balakirev, A.P. Borodin, Ts.A. Cui, M.P. Mussorgsky, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, critic V.I. Stasov)., P .AND. Tchaikovsky, who not only used the Russian theme in their works, but brought it to the world stage.

In 1870, a unique and, perhaps, the only in the world, Association of Itinerant Artists arose in Russia, uniting many of the country's best masters of the brush.

Russian theatrical art has achieved significant success - opera, ballet, drama. Its heyday was achieved thanks to a brilliant galaxy of Russian artists, composers, and playwrights. At the end of the 19th century, drama theater developed both in the capitals and in the provinces.

Representatives of the Russian architectural school in the capital and provincial cities created unique ensembles that remain the adornment of these cities to this day.

Thus, Russian culture in the 19th century. Reached the forefront of the world.

The first half of the 20th century was marked for Russia by two bloody wars and three revolutions, as a result of which the huge empire fell out of the world capitalist system.

It was in such a difficult, but significant era that our officials and commoners lived, about whose life we ​​must reveal all the most interesting things in our work.

Page 1 of 2

The most complete reference table of the main dates and events in the history of Russia in the 19th century. This table is convenient for schoolchildren and applicants to use for self-study, in preparation for tests, exams and the Unified State Exam in history.

The nineteenth century in Russian history, in my opinion, is the most interesting for research. This is an era of brilliant victories and crushing defeats, successes and disappointments. This century could be called the “chameleon century”, because periods of liberal reforms were replaced by conservative policies, and great victories were followed by crushing defeats. Revealing the reasons for this instability, one should pay attention to the fact that the entire policy of this period was determined not only by objective factors, but also by subjective ones (in particular, it was associated with the personalities of the new emperors - there were five of them during the nineteenth century).

Speaking about the reasons for the general instability of the nineteenth century, we should start with the socio-economic development of Russia at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth centuries. This period is notable for the fact that two processes occurred in parallel - the decomposition of the feudal-serf economy and the beginning of the industrial revolution, undoubtedly closely interrelated.

It is worth recalling the characteristics of a feudal economy, the main one of which is its natural character (products are produced mainly for consumption within the economy itself, and not for sale). The crisis of the feudal-serf system was primarily expressed in the increasing involvement of landowners in commodity-money relations. This process consisted of the abolition of corvee and the transfer of peasants to cash rent - in non-black soil provinces, as well as the transfer of peasants to the so-called month - the peasants were obliged to work only on corvee, while the landowner fed and clothed them, i.e. The position of serfs in this case resembled the position of slaves on plantations (in black earth provinces).

The beginning of the industrial revolution - the process of transition from manufacture based on manual labor to machine production - also has its own specific characteristics. These include the “lagging” nature of the industrial revolution in Russia, the huge role of the state, and the influence of railway construction on its progress.

It should also be noted that despite the beginning of the decomposition of the feudal-serf system, it was still quite viable, and subsistence farming still prevailed.

The first stage of domestic policy of this period is characterized by attempts to carry out large-scale reforms. The reasons for the transition of the government of Alexander the First to reforms can be considered: the personal views of the emperor, brought up in the spirit of the ideals of the Enlightenment, as well as the circumstances of his rise to power - the desire of the participants in the conspiracy against Paul the First to limit autocratic power. Particular attention should be paid to the fact that there were no objective reasons for the reforms, such as the economic crisis, social uprisings, foreign policy complications, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, so from the very beginning the positive outcome of the reforms was very problematic.

The reform activities of Alexander the First of this period include attempts at peasant reform (an attempt to issue a decree banning the sale of peasants without land in 1801, a decree on free cultivators in 1803, a ban on deporting peasants to Siberia in 1809), attempts to reform the state system (the beginning of the activities of the Secret Committee - a kind of “shadow government” - 1801, ministerial reform of 1802, Speransky’s constitutional project of 1809, which remained unrealized, the creation of the State Light), reforms in the field of education (the liberal University Charter was adopted, introducing the autonomy of universities, and the Censorship Charter, according to which the censor had to interpret the works being checked in a sense favorable to the author).

Unfortunately, most of Alexander the First's reforms ended in failure, except for reforms in the field of education.

The second stage of domestic policy was marked by a rejection of reforms and a transition to the conservation of existing relations. The reasons can be considered the revolutionary wave in Europe in the 1820s and the emperor’s disappointment in the possibility of preventing revolution through reforms.

Returning to the topic of the essay, it is necessary to dwell in more detail on the issue concerning the brilliant victories and crushing defeats of Russia.

The list of Russian victories of this period includes:

the war with Persia, which ended with the Treaty of Gulistan (almost all of Azerbaijan went to Russia);

the Russian-Turkish war of 1806-1812, which ended with the Peace of Bucharest (Bessarabia went to Russia, Serbia received autonomy);

the war with Sweden of 1808-1809, which ended with the Treaty of Fredericksburg (Russia annexed Finland);

The Patriotic War of 1812, which ended in the brilliant defeat of Napoleonic army;

foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1814.

The list of Russia's defeats during this period includes:

defeat at Austerlitz 1805;

participation in the fourth anti-French coalition, the battles of Preussisch-Eylau and Friedland. Negotiations with Napoleon and the signing of the Peace of Tilsit. (The division of spheres of influence in Central and Eastern Europe was in the interests of Russia, and joining the continental blockade of England was, on the contrary, extremely unprofitable for it;

Congress of Vienna 1814-1815

The results of the foreign policy of the first quarter of the nineteenth century can be considered the rejection of the policy of “constitutional diplomacy”, which could not prevent new revolutions, and the transition to an openly reactionary policy. Russia, along with Austria, is turning into the “gendarme of Europe.”

Along with the second stage of the reign of Alexander the First, the reign of Nicholas the First is considered conservative and reactionary. A characteristic feature of the domestic policy of Nicholas the First is conservatism, a course towards stabilization and conservation of existing relations in society. The reasons for this lie in the views of Nicholas I, as well as in the circumstances of his rise to power - he perceived the Decembrist uprising as a consequence of the excessive liberalism of Alexander the First.

Nicholas the First took a course towards strengthening the autocracy and centralizing control. He expressed himself in strengthening the influence of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery, which actually replaced the official bodies of state power.

The results of this course are: strengthening the bureaucratic apparatus, encouraging blind obedience, strict adherence to instructions and directions from the center, police methods of managing society.

Along with this, Nicholas the First carried out fairly liberal reforms. An example of these are attempts to carry out peasant reform. Nicholas the First considered serfdom to be an evil and a possible cause of the next rebellion, but, on the other hand, he was afraid of the discontent of the nobles, as well as the fact that the peasants would not be able to take advantage of the freedom granted due to their lack of education.

1837-1841 - reform of the state village of Kiseleva. A special Ministry of State Property and local government chambers were created, volost and rural self-government was introduced, corvée was abolished everywhere for state peasants, and their duties were determined based on the profitability of land.

1842 - decree on obligated peasants. Upon liberation, the peasant received a plot of land not for ownership, but for use, and for this he was obliged to bear various duties.

Despite the fact that Nicholas the First understood the harmfulness of serfdom, it was not abolished, since the majority of the nobles still opposed it.

The third area of ​​activity of Nicholas I can be considered the suppression of any forms of dissent. In support of this position, I would like to cite the following decrees and orders of the emperor:

"cast iron" Censorship Charter of 1826;

closure of a number of the most popular magazines (European, Moscow Telegraph, Telescope);

creation of a secret censorship committee headed by D. P. Buturlin. The apogee of persecution of the leading press, censorship terror.

The reign of Nicholas the First combined conservative police-bureaucratic methods with liberal ones, but in general the result of his reign can be summed up as follows: the establishment of a police-bureaucratic regime stabilized the internal political situation, but at the same time preserved Russia's lag behind the advanced countries of the West, as demonstrated by the Crimean War .

In continuation of the discussion about the policies of Nicholas the First, I would like to dwell on the foreign policy of this period.

Russia's biggest defeat under Nicholas I was the defeat in the Crimean War of 1853-1856, which resulted in Russia being banned from having a navy and fortresses on the Black Sea, and also creating the threat of Russia becoming a minor power.

Important victories of this period of time include:

The naval battle of Navarino, which resulted in the defeat of the Turkish fleet;

the war with Persia, which ended with the Peace of Turkmanchay - Eastern Armenia (Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates) went to Russia;

the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829, which ended with the Treaty of Andrianople. The mouth of the Danube, the eastern coast of the Black Sea, and the territories of Transcaucasia were transferred to Russia;

annexation of the North Caucasus as a result of the Caucasian War of 1817-1864.

In support of the thesis about the contradictory essence of the nineteenth century, I would like to cite the reforms of Alexander the Second and the counter-reforms of Alexander the Third.

The reign of Alexander II is often called the era of great reforms, which is no coincidence.

The most important reform, in my opinion, is the peasant reform of 1861, during which serfdom was abolished. The Manifesto of February 19, 1861 proclaimed the personal freedom of peasants and a number of their civil rights, and each was allocated a land plot.

The next reforms of Alexander II were the Zemskaya and City reforms of 1864 and 1870, respectively. The essence of the reforms: zemstvos were introduced locally as all-class self-government bodies. Zemstvos elected executive bodies - zemstvo councils. Their main functions were fiscal and economic. The reform of city government was carried out according to the same principles. Estate-based bodies of city self-government were replaced by all-estate ones - the city duma and the city council. The functions of the new city government bodies did not go beyond administrative and economic ones.

The judicial reform of 1864 was quite progressive for that time. A unified judicial system was created on the principles of universality, transparency of legal proceedings, competition, protection of the rights of defendants, and independence of judges from the administration. Entirely new institutions for Russia were introduced - the jury, the bar and the prosecutor's office.

In the 1870s. the government slowed down the progress of reforms, and the period since 1881 is counter-reform.

Counter-reforms of Alexander the Third in the field of education:

temporary rules on the press of 1882 - the administration received the right to close any printed organ without court approval;

the new University Charter of 1884 - according to it, the administration’s control over students was strengthened and the autonomy of universities was abolished;

The circular on "cook's children" of 1887 was adopted - access to gymnasiums was limited for people from the lower classes.

Audit of zemstvo and city reforms:

new Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions of 1890 - for the city curia the property qualification was increased, for the nobility it was lowered;

new City Regulations of 1892 - the circle of voters is limited in favor of the wealthier strata. The element of class and administration interference in self-government affairs has been strengthened.

Audit of judicial reform:

court hearings in political cases were to be held behind closed doors (1887)

trial by jury was virtually abolished in 1889.

The results of Alexander III's domestic policy were contradictory. Suppression of the revolutionary movement, Russification of the outskirts, strengthening the role of the local nobility and at the same time stabilization in society, successful economic development. However, most of the problems facing the country were not resolved. Subsequently, they escalated even more and ultimately led to revolution.

The nineteenth century in the history of Russia is rich in events, very diverse and diverse. There are many judgments and assessments of this era. But the fact that this era is absolutely heterogeneous and contradictory is undeniable. In my essay, I tried to highlight the most important processes taking place in Russia in this period of time. Brilliant victories and crushing defeats, successful reforms from the point of view of the consequences and absolutely failures - everything has happened in the history of our state. But be that as it may, history does not have a subjunctive mood and it is not worth discussing what is good and what is bad, as well as the expediency of the actions of emperors. In my essay, I tried to describe in detail the events of the nineteenth century, indicate the causes and consequences of any events, be they reforms, victories or defeats, and give them an objective assessment.