This article discusses the issues of the content line "Politics".

The content line of the "Politics" section consists of the following elements: the concept of power; the state, its functions; political system; typology of political regimes; democracy, its main values ​​and features; civil society and the state; political elite; political parties and movements; mass media in the political system; election campaign in the Russian Federation; political process; political participation; political leadership; public authorities of the Russian Federation; federal structure of Russia.

According to the "Analytical report on the results of the USE 2010" the graduates faced difficulties with questions that test their knowledge of the functions of the state, the features of the political system, the signs and relationship of civil society and the rule of law.

The most difficult task for the examinees was the task that tested the knowledge of the topic “Media in the political system”. The results of the task on this topic were also influenced by the form of the task (a task for the analysis of two judgments). The topic “Election Campaign in the Russian Federation” has always been quite difficult for students. The topics “Political parties and movements”, “The concept of power”, “Political participation”, which gave high results at the basic and advanced levels of complexity, cause difficulties for the participants of the Unified State Examination at a high level of complexity.

Low results were obtained when performing complex tasks on the topic "Political Process". Lower results than last year were demonstrated when completing the task on the use of terms and concepts in a certain context (B6), and tasks of the B6 format, aimed at checking the topics "Political system", "State and its functions", gave an average percentage performance is less than 10%. The results of the unsuccessfully completed task B6 correlate with the performance of the task C5, which tests the same skill at a different level - to apply social science concepts in a given context.

It is concluded that the topics: "Media in the political system", "Election campaign in the Russian Federation", "Political process", "Political participation", "Political leadership" - require more careful consideration, which we will do in this article.

1. Topic: "Media in the political system"

Plan:
1. Media in the political system of society:
a) the concept of "mass media";
b) the functions of the media;
c) the role and influence of the media in various political regimes.
2. The nature of the information disseminated by the media.
3. The influence of the media on the voter:
a) ways of influencing the voter;
b) the role of political advertising;
c) methods of confronting the media.

The main provisions of the topic:
Mass media - a set of channels for disseminating information addressed to an unlimited circle of people, social groups, states, in order to promptly inform them about events and phenomena in the world, a particular country, a particular region, as well as to perform specific social functions.

Mass media functions: 1) informational; 2) selection and commenting on information, its evaluation; 3) political socialization (introducing people to political values, norms, patterns of behavior); 4) criticism and control of authorities; 5) representation of various public interests, opinions, views on politics; 6) formation of public opinion; 7) mobilization (inciting people to certain political actions).

The media can contribute to the development of democracy, the participation of citizens in political life, but can also be used for political manipulation.

Political manipulation is the process of influencing public opinion and political behavior, the covert management of the political consciousness and actions of people in order to direct them in the right direction for the authorities.
The purpose of manipulation is to introduce the necessary attitudes, stereotypes, goals, in order to induce the masses, contrary to their own interests, to agree to unpopular measures, to arouse their discontent.

2. Topic: "Election campaign in the Russian Federation"

Plan:
1. Electoral system:
a) the concept of "electoral system";
b) structural components of the electoral system;
c) the concept of "suffrage";
d) stages of the electoral process;
e) types of electoral systems.

2. Election campaign:
a) the concept of "election campaign";
b) stages of the election campaign.

3. Political technologies of the voter.

The main provisions of the topic:
The electoral system (in the broad sense) is the procedure for organizing and holding elections to representative institutions or an individual leading representative. The electoral system (in the narrow sense) is a way of distributing mandates among candidates depending on the results of the vote.

Suffrage is a sub-branch of constitutional law, which is an independent system of legal norms governing the right of citizens to elect and be elected to public authorities and local governments and the procedure for exercising this right.

Suffrage (in the narrow sense) is the political right of a citizen to elect (active right) and to be elected (passive right).

In Russia, citizens from the age of 18 have the right to vote; the right to be elected to a representative body - from the age of 21, the head of the administration of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation - upon reaching 30 years, and the President of the country - from 35 years. The President of Russia and the State Duma are elected for terms of 6 and 5 years, respectively. Based on the Constitution of Russia, the President cannot be elected for more than two consecutive terms.

Deputies of the State Duma are elected according to party lists. In the elections of the President of the Russian Federation, the majority system of absolute majority is used.

Russian citizens participate in the formation of electoral bodies on the principles of 1) universal, 2) equal, 3) direct suffrage with 4) secret ballot.

Electoral process - a set of activities, procedures for the preparation and conduct of elections in order to form a representative body of power, carried out by election commissions and candidates (electoral associations) in the period from the date of official publication (publication) of the decision of an authorized official, state body, local government on calling (conducting) elections until the day the election commission organizing the elections submits a report on the expenditure of funds from the relevant budget allocated for the preparation and conduct of elections.

Stages of the electoral process:
1) preparatory (setting the date of elections, registration and registration of voters);
2) nomination and registration of candidates for deputies or pre-election positions;
3) election campaigning and financing of elections;
4) voting, establishment of voting results and determination of election results, their official publication.
Election campaign (French sampagne - campaign) - a system of campaigning events held by political parties and independent candidates in order to ensure the maximum support of voters in the upcoming elections.

Types of electoral systems:
1) majoritarian;
2) proportional;
3) majority-proportional (mixed).

Majority system (from French majorite - majority) - 1) the candidate (or list of candidates) who has received the majority of votes (absolute or relative) provided by law is considered elected; 2) when it is applied, the voting takes place "for" specific candidates in single-member or multi-member constituencies.

Types of majority system:
1) absolute majority system (the candidate who wins 50% + 1 one vote is considered the winner);
2) the system of relative majority (the winner is the candidate who received more votes than any of the other candidates);
3) a qualified majority system (i.e., a predetermined majority, usually 2/3, 3/4).

A proportional electoral system is one of the varieties of electoral systems used in elections to representative bodies. When elections are held under the proportional system, deputy mandates are distributed among the lists of candidates in proportion to the votes cast for the lists of candidates, if these candidates have overcome the percentage threshold.
The proportional electoral system combined with the majoritarian electoral system forms a mixed electoral system.

3. Topic: "Political process"

Plan:
1. Political process:
a) the concept of "political process";
b) stages of the political process.

2. Typology of the political process:
a) depending on the scope;
b) depending on temporal characteristics;
c) according to the degree of openness;
d) depending on the nature of social change.

3. Features of the political process in modern Russia.

The main provisions of the topic:
The political process - 1) is a chain of political events and states that change as a result of the interaction of specific policy subjects; 2) a set of actions of political subjects aimed at the implementation of their roles and functions within the political system, at the realization of their own interests and goals; 3) the total activity of all subjects of political relations associated with the formation, change, transformation and functioning of the political system.

Structure of the political process:
1) the subjects of the process, the active principle;
2) object, purpose of the process (solution of a political problem);
3) means, methods, resources.

The political process can be divided into four stages:
1) policy initiation (representation of interests, demands to power structures);
Initiation (from lat. injicio - I throw in, cause, excite) - stimulating the beginning of something.
Articulation (from lat. articulo - I dismember) interests and requirements - the mechanisms and ways by which citizens and their organized groups express their demands to the government.
Aggregation of interests is an activity in which the political demands of individuals are combined and reflected in the party programs of those political forces that are directly fighting for power in the country.
2) policy formation (political decision making);
3) implementation of policy, political decisions;
4) policy evaluation.

Classification of political processes:
1) by scope: foreign policy and domestic policy;
2) by duration: long-term (formation of states, transition from one political system to another) and short-term;
3) according to the degree of openness: open and hidden (shadow);
4) by the nature of social change: the electoral process, revolution and counter-revolution, reform, uprisings and rebellions, political campaign, direct action.

4. Topic: "Political Participation"

Plan:
1. The concept of "political participation".
2. Forms of political participation:
a) direct participation;
b) indirect participation;
c) autonomous participation;
d) mobilization participation.
3. Motives for the participation of the voter in the elections:
a) interest in politics;
b) political competence;
c) satisfaction of needs.
4. Political absenteeism.

The main provisions of the topic:
Political participation - the actions of a citizen in order to influence the adoption and implementation of government decisions, the choice of representatives in government institutions.

This concept characterizes the involvement of members of a given society in the political process. The essential basis of political participation is the inclusion of an individual in the system of power relations: directly or indirectly.

Indirect (representative) political participation is carried out through elected representatives. Direct (direct) political participation is the impact of a citizen on power without intermediaries. It has the following forms: the reaction of citizens to impulses emanating from the political system; participation of citizens in the activities of political parties, organizations, movements; direct actions of citizens (participation in rallies, pickets, etc.); appeals and letters to authorities, meetings with political figures; participation in actions related to the election of representatives, with the transfer of decision-making powers to them; activity of political leaders. The designated forms of direct political participation can be individual, group, mass.

Features of the political participation of the individual:
1) self-determination of the individual in the socio-political space with respect to diverse political structures;
2) self-assessment of one's own qualities, properties, capabilities as an active subject of politics.

The scope of possible participation is determined by political rights and freedoms.

Types of political participation:
1) random (one-time) participation - a person only periodically takes or performs actions that have political goals or have political meaning;

2) participation "part-time" - a person participates in political life more actively, but political activity is not his main activity;

3) professional participation - a person makes political activity his profession.
The political development of the individual is one of the factors affecting the intensity, content and stability of political participation.

Forms of political participation:
1) the appeal of an individual to power structures in order to satisfy personal or group needs;
2) lobbying activities to establish contacts with the political elite in order to influence its decisions in favor of a group of persons;
3) sending various projects and proposals for the adoption of regulations and laws to the authorities;
4) political activity as a member of a party, a movement focused on gaining power or influencing it;
5) elections, referenda (lat. referendum - what should be reported) - the will of all citizens of the state on an important issue for him.

The opposite form is demonstrative non-participation, political apathy and lack of interest in politics - absenteeism. Absenteeism (Latin absens - absent) is a form of apoliticality, manifested in the evasion of voters from participating in referendums and elections to government bodies.

5. Topic: "Political leadership"

Plan:
1. The essence of political leadership.
2. Functions of a political leader:
a) integrative;
b) oriented;
c) instrumental;
d) mobilization;
e) communicative;
3. Types of leadership:
a) depending on the scale of leadership;
b) depending on the style of leadership;
c) M. Weber's typology.

The main provisions of the topic:

Political leadership is the permanent, priority and legitimate influence of one or more persons in positions of power over the entire society or group. The nature of political leadership is quite complex and does not lend itself to an unambiguous interpretation.

Functions of a political leader:
1) analyzes the political situation, correctly assesses the state of society;
2) formulates goals, develops a program of action;
3) strengthens the connection between the authorities and the people, provides the authorities with mass support;
4) protects society from a split, performs the function of an arbiter in the clash of various groups;
5) conducts political discussions with opponents, communicates with parties, organizations, movements.

There are various classifications of leaders.

Leadership types:
In terms of leadership:
1) national leader;
2) the leader of a large social group;
3) the leader of a political party.

Leadership style:
1) democratic;
2) authoritarian.

The typology of leadership proposed by M. Weber is widespread. Depending on the method of legitimizing power, he identified three main types of leadership: traditional, charismatic and rational-legal. The authority of traditional leaders is based on faith in traditions and customs. The right to rule is inherited by the leader. Charismatic leadership is based on faith in the exceptional, outstanding qualities of the leader. Rational-legal leadership is characterized by faith in the legitimacy of the leader's election procedure with the help of developed procedures and formal rules. The power of the rational-legal leader is based on law.

Let's consider some of the most difficult tasks for graduates of the content line "Politics".

Tasks for systematizing the material

As mentioned above, graduates experienced difficulties in completing tasks of an increased level - analysis of two judgments. According to the specification of control measuring materials for the unified state exam in social science in 2011, this task is A17.

Examples of tasks A17

1. Are the following statements about a democratic state correct?
A. A democratic state provides a high standard of living for all citizens.
B. In a democratic state, the protection of the rights of all citizens is guaranteed.
1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are true;
4) both judgments are wrong.

When completing the task, you need to remember which state is called democratic. A democratic state is a state whose structure and activities correspond to the will of the people, the generally recognized rights and freedoms of man and citizen. It is not enough just to proclaim the state democratic (totalitarian states do this too), the main thing is to ensure its arrangement of ideas with appropriate legal institutions, real guarantees of democracy.

The most important features of a democratic state: a) real representative democracy; b) ensuring the rights and freedoms of man and citizen. As participants in political life, all citizens in a democratic state are equal. However, not all states can actually protect human rights and freedoms even today. One of the main reasons is the state of the country's economy. After all, the social function can be carried out in full only with a high level of economic development. This is the most difficult task, since the solution of social issues requires the growth of production, "the accumulation of national wealth." This means that a high standard of living for all citizens in a democratic state is not always ensured due to economic problems, first of all.
Answer: 2.

2. Are the following statements about electoral systems correct?
A. The majoritarian electoral system is characterized by the nomination of candidates on party lists.
B. The majoritarian electoral system is characterized by the nomination of candidates in single-seat constituencies.
1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are true;
4) both judgments are wrong.
Answer: 2 (see theory above)

3. Are the following statements correct?
A. The concept of "political system" is broader than the concept of "political regime
B. Within the same political regime, there can be different political systems.
1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are true;
4) both judgments are wrong.

Recall what the terms "political regime" and "political system" mean.

The political system is defined as a set of state and non-state political institutions that express the political interests of various social groups and ensure their participation in political decision-making by the state. An integral part of the political system that ensures its functioning are legal, political norms and political traditions. The political regime is a set of means and methods by which the ruling elites exercise economic, political and ideological power in the country. One of the structural components of the institutional subsystem of the political system is the state. And the political regime is one of the elements of the form of the state. Therefore, we see that the first statement is true.

Let's deal with the second statement. There are democratic and totalitarian political systems. The political regime can be characterized as democratic, authoritarian or totalitarian. The same political system can function in different regimes depending on what the intentions of the ruling elite and its leader are. But within the same political regime, different political systems cannot exist. The second statement is incorrect.
Answer: 1.

Low results were also demonstrated in the performance of the task on the use of terms and concepts in a certain context (B6).

Examples of tasks B6

1. Read the text below with a number of words missing.

“A classification has become widespread in political science that distinguishes, depending on the grounds and conditions for acquiring party membership, personnel and mass _____________ (BUT). The former are distinguished by the fact that they are formed around a group of political ____________ (B), and the basis of their structure is a committee of activists. Cadre parties are usually formed "from above" on the basis of various parliamentary ________ (AT), associations of the party bureaucracy. Such parties usually intensify their activities only during ___________ (G). Other parties are centralized, well-disciplined organizations. They attach great importance to the ideological _________ (D) party members. Such parties are most often formed "from below", on the basis of trade unions and other public ____________ (E) reflecting the interests of various social groups”.

The words in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word (phrase) can only be used once. Choose sequentially one word after another, mentally filling in each gap. Note that there are more words in the list than you need to fill in the gaps.

List of terms:

1) unity;
2) fraction;
3) elections;
4) movement;
5) leader;
6) society;
7) party;
8) group;
9) membership.

The table below lists the letters that indicate the omission of a word.
Write in the table under each letter the number of the word you have chosen.

BUT	B	AT	G	D	E
7	5	8	3	1	4

Used materials:
1. Analytical report on the results of the USE 2010. Social science.
http://www.fipi.ru/view/sections/138/docs/522.html
3. Codifier of content elements and requirements for the level of training of graduates of general educational institutions for the 2011 unified state exam in social science.
4. FBTZ open segment - http://www.fipi.ru
5. Social science. Grade 11: textbook for educational institutions: profile level / (L.N. Bogolyubov, A.N. Lazebnikova, N.M. Smirnova and others.); ed. L. N. Bogolyubova (and others) M .: "Enlightenment". - 4th ed. - M. : Enlightenment, 2010.

One of the most important elements of modern political systems is the institution of general elections. Thanks to him, the political rights of citizens to the formation of representative power are realized - from local bodies to the president.

Elections are a way to change the ruling elites through the will of the population, an instrument of legitimation and stabilization of power. They make it possible to reveal the alignment of political forces in states, states, lands, etc., and determine the degree of public confidence in parties and their programs. During the electoral process, political socialization is especially actively carried out, political values ​​are assimilated, political skills and experience are acquired.

Finally, elections are a form of population control over the ruling elite. If the government does not express the interests of the voters, the elections provide an opportunity to change it, to hand over the reins of power to the opposition, which, as a rule, goes to the polls with criticism of the existing government. On the eve of elections, under pressure from voters, the government itself can adjust course in an effort to enlist the support of voters.

A society's readiness to hold elections is the most important sign of its democracy, its ability to solve pressing problems by peaceful political means.

Thus, elections are a kind of political market. Applicants offer their programs and promises to voters in exchange for power. As in any market, there is deceit and speculation on the trust of voters. Therefore, elections are effective in the presence of legislation on electoral systems and the existence of civil society as a set of non-state entities that implement the interests of citizens (parties, trade unions, voters' clubs, various associations, unions, centers, foundations, etc.).

The election procedure is regulated by the electoral law of each country. The legislation reflects the provisions on the procedure for nominating candidates, requirements for candidates, the procedure for voting and counting votes, the ability to use the services of the media and sources of funding.

Democratic elections are determined by a number of principles - a kind of universally recognized norms that have unconditional value, which make elections precisely democratic. These principles are provided by the right to vote - the right to vote.

In the constitutions of countries with parliamentary democracy, first of all, the very principle of the election of representative bodies and the inalienable right of the people to form them are fixed. The text of the constitution itself, as a rule, reveals the content of the principle of universality of elections. The principle of universality means that all citizens of a given state have the right to participate actively - as voters, and passively - as candidates for government bodies, participation in elections. This right is limited by a number of qualifications: the age qualification, the disability qualification, which excludes participation in elections, for example, mentally ill citizens. There are also moral qualifications that limit the rights or exclude from participation in elections persons held in places of deprivation of liberty by a court verdict.

An indispensable principle of modern democratic elections is equal suffrage. Its practical implementation lies in the fact that deputies are elected to parliament, each of which represents the same number of citizens, and each voter has the same share of participation in parliamentary elections. Compliance with this principle largely depends on the correct "cutting" of constituencies Pugachev V.P., Solovyov A.I. Introduction to Political Science: Textbook. - M.: Aspect Press, 2006. - P. 108 ..

The next principle is the immediacy of elections. The essence of this principle lies in the fact that voters directly (without intermediaries, delegates or representatives) elect members of parliament and other representatives of political authorities.

The most important principle of democratic elections is competitiveness, equal participation in elections of competing parties, movements, candidates representing various social groups of society.

Finally, a principle relating to the voting procedure is the secret ballot. This principle is ensured by various technical methods that reduce the likelihood of external influence on voters.

Any election is held within a period clearly defined by law. This period is called the election campaign. Each election campaign has its own calendar of pre-election events, taking into account the deadlines provided for by law. Thus, according to Russian legislation, the date of the election must be set no later than 72 days in advance, registration of candidates must be carried out 40 days in advance, and so on.

Depending on the time sequence and features of the tasks to be solved, the electoral process is divided into several stages, stages: 1) the preparatory stage, which characterizes the socio-political soil from which the elections “grow”, as well as organizational measures that make it possible to hold elections; 2) nomination of candidates, ending with their registration; 3) agitation and propaganda campaign; 4) voting and summing up the results of elections. Strictly speaking, only the last three stages directly characterize the electoral process itself.

The election campaign begins after the preparatory activities and the official appointment of the election date. The term itself applies to both the entire state and individual candidates or parties. In the first case, the election campaign is a set of organizational, political, outreach and campaigning activities to directly ensure the electoral process in the state, in the second case, a system of activities aimed at the success of a particular candidate or party.

The first step in an election campaign is the nomination of candidates and (or) parties (movements). There are various ways to nominate and register them: 1) collection of signatures in support of a candidate or party; 2) providing a registration fee or a cash deposit, as well as documents indicating that the candidate has some kind of support, such as a list of party activists or members of a support group; 3) automatic registration of candidates in the event that they occupy posts contested in the upcoming elections.

To conduct an election campaign, parties, individual candidates create election headquarters. Plans are being developed for campaigning and propaganda events, meetings of the candidate with voters, representatives of the candidate (observers) are appointed to the election commissions. In the conditions of modern Russia, such headquarters are created by candidates representing power structures, the opposition is deprived of such an opportunity due to lack of material resources.

As a rule, in most countries, election campaigning stops one day before the opening of polling stations. This is done so that the voters themselves have the opportunity to independently think over and comprehensively make their choice - for whom and for what exactly to cast their vote.

The holding of elections is ensured by state structures: election commissions, executive authorities, courts, and the prosecutor's office. They ensure the compilation of voter lists, the design of polling stations, the printing of ballots, the organization of voting, the observance of the law, the tabulation of voting results, and the notification of voters about the results of elections.

The legislation provides for a certain monetary fund that a candidate can use to conduct an election campaign. This fund is created from the candidate's personal funds, contributions from the respective party or movement, sponsorship donations. For opposition candidates, this is the most difficult and complex issue. However, practice shows that practically all candidates create such funds on a larger or smaller scale. At the same time, it is provided that the candidate has no right to spend more money than it is stipulated by the legislation, although this requirement is constantly violated, even during presidential elections.

Today, voting is carried out with the help of either special voting machines or ballots. The latter method of voting is much more widespread. The main place of voting is the polling stations.

Immediately after the end of the voting, the election commission or other special election body starts counting its results. There should be no break or delay between voting and counting of votes, as this can be used for various kinds of falsifications. In international practice, the most common violations of voting and counting rules are the production and accounting of extra ballots, direct attribution of votes to one of the deputies, the withdrawal of ballots cast for an objectionable candidate, etc.

Elections are an essential component of modern politics. They are a way of forming the organs of power and administration by expressing the political will of citizens according to certain rules. As a result of elections, elected candidates are endowed with power. Elections are used in various democratic organizations: parties, trade unions, cooperatives, joint-stock companies.

Elections are always associated with voting, however, despite the closeness of these concepts, they also have significant differences. Elections are usually understood as a relatively regular, periodical process of electing the composition of the organs of the state, enshrined in the constitution and other laws. Voting is not always associated with elections. It is also used in various forms of democracy: in referendums, polls, collective decision-making at meetings.

Elections, as an integral element of democracy, bear the imprint of its various forms and play an unequal role in its various models. In political systems based on the principles of direct democracy, on the direct participation of citizens in making the most important state decisions, the role of elections is relatively small. In the conditions of modern democracies, elections are their core mechanism, the main form of manifestation of the sovereignty of the people, their political role as a source of power. They also serve as the most important channel for representing the interests of various social groups in the authorities.

Functions of Elections in a Democracy

The influence of elections on the life of modern societies is diverse and manifests itself in their most important functions. In the scientific literature, there are following features elections:

Representation of various interests of the population;

Control over the institutions of power;

Integration of diverse opinions and formation of a common political will by uniting the majority of citizens around a certain political platform and its leaders;

Legitimation and stabilization of the political system, as well as the legitimization of specific institutions of power: parliament, government, president;

Expansion of communications, relations of representation between government institutions and citizens;

Translation of political conflicts into the mainstream of their institutionalized peaceful settlement;

Political socialization of the population, development of its political consciousness and political participation;

Generation of programs for the renewal of society. Elections provide an opportunity for various political forces to present their own vision of social problems and put forward programs for their solution. This stimulates the search for optimal ways of development.

The above functions are performed by elections only in democratic political systems, in which the electoral process itself is democratic.

Electoral process

The main social purpose of democratic elections is to adequately reflect the opinion and will of citizens, to ensure the representation of the main social groups in government, and to form an effective government. Elections can correspond to their social purpose only if they are based on certain principles. First, these are the principles of suffrage, which determine the status, position of each citizen in elections; secondly, the general principles of organizing elections, characterizing the fundamental organizational, including social, conditions for their democracy. Together, these principles determine the nature of the electoral process. Thus, electoral process - it is an organization, a mechanism for holding elections based on the existing suffrage.

Democratic principles of suffrage include:

1. Universality- all citizens, regardless of gender, race, nationality, class or professional affiliation, language, income level, wealth, education, confession or political opinion, have an active (as a voter) and a passive (as a candidate) right to participate in elections . The age limit allows the participation in elections of citizens of the state only from a certain age, as a rule, upon reaching the age of majority. The residency requirement is also widespread, which puts forward a certain period of residence in a given area or country as a condition for admission to elections. For example, according to the US constitution, an American citizen by birth, at least 35 years of age and resident within the United States for at least 14 years, can become the president of the country.

In the United States, until after the Civil War, Americans of color did not participate in the electoral process, except for minor groups.

2. Equality- Each voter has only one vote. Equality of voting rights implies an approximate equality of constituencies, which is necessary so that the votes of voters have approximately the same weight in the election of a deputy, but in practice some deviations from this principle are allowed. Thus, according to the electoral law of Germany, constituencies may differ in population by one third.

3. Election Mystery- the decision of a particular voter should not be known to anyone. This principle applies only to passive suffrage. In practice, the secrecy of elections is ensured by a closed voting procedure, the presence of special voting booths, a standard form, the sameness of ballots, sealing of ballot boxes, and severe punishment for violating electoral secrecy.

4. Direct (immediate) voting- the voter makes a decision directly about a specific candidate for an elective position, votes for a real person. There are no instances between voters and candidates that mediate their will and directly determine the personal composition of deputies.

In cases where citizens choose only electors or a special body that directly elects a candidate, indirect (indirect) elections take place. Such elections, due to the depersonalization, abstractness of the choice, extinguish the interest of citizens in voting and contribute to the development of absenteeism. They distort the will of the voters in favor of the big parties and blocs, as the votes won by outsider parties are lost at every level of elections. Indirect elections are rarely used these days. For example, presidential elections in the modern world are mainly carried out either in general direct elections or by the country's parliament.

The twenty-eighth task of the Unified State Exam in social studies is to draw up a plan for a report on a specific topic - any topic from a social science course can come across, for example, “Political leadership” or “Family as a social institution”. It is desirable that the plan be detailed, that is, its points should include sub-points.

The maximum primary score - 3 - is given if there are 3 or more points in the plan, any two of which contain sub-points, and their wording helps to correctly and fully reveal the content of the topic. 2 primary points can be obtained if 3 or more paragraphs, two of which contain subparagraphs, generally reveal the content of the topic, but contain some inaccuracies.

If the plan is not detailed, but contains at least 3 paragraphs that fully reveal the content of the topic, or if it contains two paragraphs, one of which is detailed in subparagraphs, and fully reveals the topic, 1 primary score is given. The same number of points is given if there are 2 or more points in the plan, any 1-2 of which have sub-points, but there are inaccuracies in the wording.

Theory for assignment No. 28 USE in social science

When drawing up a plan, the main thing is to remember what you can tell about this topic: for example, what features and features does its object have, what functions it performs, what types of this object are and by what features they are classified, what significance it has ...

You do not need to detail all the points - even to get the maximum score you need to write sub-points only in 2 cases, however, for greater certainty (and if you are absolutely sure of the correctness of what was written), you can write them in 2-4 places. The first point is logical to give a definition - you do not need to write it; for example, if your topic is “Political Leadership”, you can simply write “The Concept of Political Leadership” as the first number of the plan.

However, the definition can not be given in all cases - for example, in the topic "The Institute of the Presidency in the Russian Federation" it will not work - it is more logical to write about the legal status of the president or the procedure for his election. It is most convenient to detail such items as “functions”, “types”, “types of classification”. Consider possible options for tasks and plans.

Analysis of typical options for task No. 27 USE in social studies

The first version of the task

You have been instructed to prepare a detailed response on the topic “Political Participation of Citizens”. Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Let's start with a definition; remember that you do not need to write it yourself. Further, it is logical to mention the forms of political participation - this point is very convenient to detail by writing about participation in elections, in the activities of political parties, voting in referendums, letters to state authorities, participation in local self-government, in rallies and demonstrations. Suffice it to mention any 3-4 forms of political participation. Now we can talk about the types of classification of political participation - after all, it can be legal and illegal, permanent and episodic, individual or collective, at the local and top levels...

If you do not remember this, you can write, for example, about the participation of citizens in the activities of local government. It is quite easy to make sub-points here - participation in elections to local self-government bodies, appeal to local self-government bodies, participation in public hearings.

You can also write about the voting rights of citizens. Then we will talk about the importance of the political participation of citizens, but we will not go into detail on this point. At the end, one more point can be added - political absenteeism (the opposite of political participation).

A possible "three point" plan looks like this:

1) The concept of political participation.

2) Forms of political participation:

• participation in elections;
• voting in referendums;
• participation in the activities of local government;
• membership in political parties.

3) Participation of citizens in the activities of local self-government:

• participation in elections to local self-government bodies;
• participation in public hearings;
• appeal to local authorities.

4) The importance of the political participation of citizens.

5) Political absenteeism.

The second version of the task

You are instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "Unemployment". Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

We start with a definition; then you can write a paragraph about the causes of unemployment. We will not detail it, unlike the next paragraph - types of unemployment. As we remember, it can be structural, frictional, cyclical and seasonal. Further, you can write about the forms of unemployment - open, hidden, fluid, stagnant. Let's call the next item "consequences of unemployment"; if you do not remember the types or forms of unemployment, you can try to detail it, for example, by writing about the decline in the standard of living of the population, the underutilization of economic potential, the formation of labor reserves and the decline in inflation. And at the end we will write the item "Methods of combating unemployment."

We write a plan:

1) The essence of the concept of "unemployment".

2) Types of unemployment:

• friction;
• structural;
• cyclic;
• seasonal.

3) Forms of unemployment:

• open;
• hidden;
• fluid;
• stagnant.

4) Consequences of unemployment.

5) Methods of combating unemployment.

The third version of the task

You have been instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "The international division of labor in the context of globalization." Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

This topic is somewhat non-standard - it is difficult to indicate any forms and types here, as we did in the two previous tasks. The first point could be defined, but it is not very clear why it is better to do this - for the concept of "international division of labor" or "globalization". Therefore, we can skip the definition and start, say, with the factors of the international division of labor in the context of globalization.

These include: scientific and technological progress, demand in the world market, the country's position in the structure of the world economy, the structure of national production, environmental problems ... Then you can write the item "advantages from the international division of labor." In order for us to have another detailed item, we can simply write “international economic relations in the context of globalization” and mention there such things as international trade, labor migration, monetary and financial relations, international capital flows.

You can also talk about state policy in the field of the international division of labor and, if you wish (or if you could not detail some other point), write sub-points - protectionism and free trade.

A possible plan looks like this:

1) Factors of the international division of labor in the context of globalization:

• demand in the world market;
• the position of the country in the structure of the world economy;
• structure of national production;
• scientific and technical progress.

2) Benefits from the international division of labor.

3) International economic relations in the context of globalization:

• monetary and financial relations;
• international movement of capital;
• labor migration;
• international trade;
• economic integration.

4) State policy in the field of the international division of labor.

Social science. Full course of preparation for the Unified State Examination Shemakhanova Irina Albertovna

4.12. Political participation

4.12. Political participation

Political participation - 1) actions through which ordinary members of any political system influence or try to influence the results of its activities ( J. Nagel); 2) “any activity carried out voluntarily by citizens with the aim of influencing decision-making at various levels of the political system; participation in politics is understood, first of all, as a conscious purposeful activity" ( M. Kaase); 3) the influence of citizens on the functioning of the political system, the formation of political institutions and the process of making political decisions.

Political participation refers to the actual political actions, and not the actions that can cause political consequences. Practical and purposeful forms of political participation are characterized by scale and intensity.

Theories of political participation

1. Rational Choice Theory: the main subject of political participation is a free individual striving for the maximum realization of his interests and effectively acting in the name of achieving his own goals. The interest of the individual is understood as the desire to ensure personal well-being, and the participation of an individual in politics is possible provided that the possible income from participation will exceed the costs. This principle is called "profit maximization".

2. Motivational theories of political participation: the most common motives for political participation include ideological (a person participates in political life, sharing and supporting the official ideology of society); normative (the individual's behavior is based on the recognition of the power of power, developed in the process of political socialization); role (associated with the social role, the social position of the individual in the existing political system; the lower the social position of the individual, the more likely it becomes to be radically opposed to the existing government).

3. Theories of social factors of political participation: the interrelation and influence on political participation of such factors as the level of socio-economic equality and the possibility of social mobility, stability and others are studied.

4. "Michigan model" of electoral participation(party identification of voters is formed through political socialization, the main agent of which is the family).

5. Psychological school: focuses on the motives and attitudes of the individual.

A kind of activity of subjects whose actions are motivated is political behavior- direct interaction of participants in political activity.

Levels and types of political participation:

* Reaction (positive or negative) to impulses emanating from the political system, from its institutions or their representatives, not associated with the need for high human activity; episodic participation in politics.

* Activities related to delegation of authority: participation in elections (local or state level), referendums, etc.

* Participation in the activities of political and adjoining public organizations: parties, pressure groups, trade unions, youth political associations and others.

* Performing political functions within state institutions, including the media.

* Professional, leading political and ideological activities.

* Participation in non-institutional political movements and actions aimed at a radical restructuring of the existing political system.

Typology of political behavior

1) By subjects: individual; group; mass.

2) By meaningful action: conscious forms of political behavior based on value, rational and other similar motives; unconscious, where motivation is taken out of the control of consciousness, and motives are carried out by lower reflex levels of the psyche (affective actions that occur in the crowd as a reaction to non-standard situations).

3) By publicity of actions: open (for example, participation in elections, demonstrations, rallies); closed forms (absenteeism, political passivity).

4) By compliance of actions with the official (dominant) norms of the political system: normative (law-abiding, loyalty, conformism); deviant, deviating from prescriptions, including pathological forms of political behavior (panic, hysteria, manic political prejudices).

5) C point of view of the continuity of political development: traditional, characteristic of a given society, regime, mentality; innovative, introducing new features in the relations of subjects of power among themselves and with institutions of power.

6) C point of view of the dominant nature of motivation: autonomous, in which actions are determined by the subjects themselves; mobilization, where actions are caused mainly by external reasons in relation to the subject of actions.

7) By manifestation methods: rebellion; protest; mass discontent.

8) By duration: long; short-term.

9) By directions: constructive and solidarity as manifestations of political participation; destructive; extremist;

10) By legality criterion: conventional (behavior using legal or generally accepted forms of expressing interests and influencing power: participation in elections, lobbying, financing of election campaigns, initiative movements, etc.) and non-conventional (illegal or contrary to generally accepted political norms behavior: protest, disobedience to state power ). Non-conventional behavior is divided into non-violent (rallies, protest marches, pickets) and violent types (covering a spectrum of actions from riots and damage to property to terrorism). Conscious refusal to obey the law (and in exceptional cases - refusal to pay taxes), holding unauthorized protests, stopping all business activity - all these actions are united under the name "civil disobedience" (the tactics of mass non-violent civil disobedience were justified M. Gandhi and M. L. King).

To political participation are: a) actions delegation of authority (electoral behavior); activism aimed at supporting candidates and parties in election campaigns; attending rallies and participating in demonstrations; participation in the activities of parties and interest groups; b) passive forms political behavior of citizens; participation of people only in the elections of representative bodies of power or only in solving local problems; professional actions of politicians.

For the political participation of citizens, objective conditions are important (the alignment of political forces, the political culture of society); subjective conditions (attitude towards the political system, motives for participation in politics, their values, needs, knowledge, awareness).

The factors influencing political behavior are: gender, age, religious affiliation, characteristics of primary socialization, education, marital status, socio-economic conditions, some general trends in the behavior of individual electoral groups, and others.

Political behavior - this is a set of reactions of social subjects (social, communities, groups, individuals, etc.) to the activities of the political system.

political protest - a kind of negative impact of an individual (group) on the political situation in society or specific actions of the authorities that affect him. Sources of political protest: weak adherence of citizens to the values ​​prevailing in society, psychological dissatisfaction with the current state of affairs, as well as the lack of due sensitivity of the authorities to the current needs of the population. In order to give the protest a civilized form, freedom of speech is ensured in democratic states, an opposition institution is formed, which is represented by the activities of non-governmental parties and movements. In a number of countries, the opposition even creates "shadow" governments that constantly oppose the ruling structures on all major political issues, publishing their own assessments and forecasts, plans and programs for solving various problems.

The most radical manifestation of political protest is political extremism, which expresses commitment in politics to extreme views and actions. Political extremism is always legal nihilism. Political extremism is an international phenomenon, it contains a danger to the subjects of international relations, the policy of peaceful cooperation between states, and to international security in general. A distinctive feature of extremism in the political sphere of public relations is its ability to synthesize extremist manifestations occurring in other areas of society, to give them a political orientation.

Political participation is opposed to such a type of political behavior as absenteeism (avoidance of participation in political life - in voting, election campaigns, protests, activities of parties, interest groups, etc.; loss of interest in politics and political norms, political apathy). The absentee type of behavior exists in any society, but its growth, as well as the growth in the proportion of apathetic people, indicates a serious crisis in the legitimacy of the political system, its norms and values. Reasons for absenteeism: a) the dominance of the norms of the subculture in the personality with the almost complete displacement of the generally accepted norms of culture; b) a high degree of satisfaction of personal interests, which can lead to a loss of interest in politics; c) the ability of the individual to independently cope with their problems, privately defend their interests, gives rise to a feeling of the uselessness of politics; d) feelings of helplessness in the face of complex problems, distrust of political institutions, a feeling of inability to somehow influence the process of developing and making decisions; e) the collapse of group norms, the loss of a person's sense of belonging to any social group, and, consequently, the goals and values ​​of social life, the lack of ideas about the relationship between politics and private life. Absenteeism is more observed among young people, representatives of various subcultures, people with a low level of education.

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