All components of the geographic shell. Where are the boundaries of the earth's shells located? Geographical envelope, its properties and integrity
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About 40,000 kilometers. The geographic shells of the Earth are systems of the planet where all the components inside are interconnected and defined relative to each other. There are four types of shells - atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. The aggregate states of substances in them are of all types - liquid, solid and gaseous.
Shells of the Earth: atmosphere
The atmosphere is the outer shell. It contains various gases:
- nitrogen - 78.08%;
- oxygen - 20.95%;
- argon - 0.93%;
- carbon dioxide - 0,03%.
In addition to them, there are ozone, helium, hydrogen, inert gases, but their share in the total volume is no more than 0.01%. This shell of the Earth also includes dust and water vapor.
The atmosphere, in turn, is divided into 5 layers:
- troposphere - height from 8 to 12 km, characterized by the presence of water vapor, the formation of precipitation, and the movement of air masses;
- stratosphere - 8-55 km, contains the ozone layer, which absorbs UV radiation;
- mesosphere - 55-80 km, low air density compared to the lower troposphere;
- ionosphere - 80-1000 km, contains ionized oxygen atoms, free electrons and other charged gas molecules;
- the upper atmosphere (scattering sphere) is more than 1000 km, molecules move at enormous speeds and can penetrate into space.
The atmosphere supports life on the planet because it helps keep the Earth warm. It also prevents direct penetration sun rays. And its precipitation influenced the soil-forming process and climate formation.
Shells of the Earth: lithosphere
This is the hard shell that makes up earth's crust. Part globe includes several concentric layers with different thicknesses and density. They also have a heterogeneous composition. The average density of the Earth is 5.52 g/cm 3, and in upper layers- 2.7. This indicates that there are heavier substances inside the planet than on the surface.
The upper lithospheric layers have a thickness of 60-120 km. They are dominated by igneous rocks - granite, gneiss, basalt. Most of them were subjected to destruction processes over millions of years, pressure, temperatures and turned into loose rocks - sand, clay, loess, etc.
Up to 1200 km there is the so-called sigmatic shell. Its main constituents are magnesium and silicon.
At depths of 1200-2900 km there is a shell called medium semi-metallic or ore. It mainly contains metals, in particular iron.
Below 2900 km is the central part of the Earth.
Hydrosphere
The composition of this shell of the Earth is represented by all the waters of the planet, be it oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, swamps, groundwater. The hydrosphere is located on the surface of the Earth and occupies 70% of the total area - 361 million km 2.
1375 million km 3 of water is concentrated in the ocean, 25 on the land surface and in glaciers, and 0.25 in lakes. According to Academician Vernadsky, large reserves of water are located deep in the earth’s crust.
On the land surface, water is involved in continuous water exchange. Evaporation occurs mainly from the surface of the ocean, where the water is salty. Due to the process of condensation in the atmosphere, the land is provided with fresh water.
Biosphere
The structure, composition and energy of this shell of the Earth are determined by the processes of activity of living organisms. Biosphere boundaries - the land surface, the soil layer, the lower atmosphere and the entire hydrosphere.
Plants distribute and accumulate solar energy in the form of various organic matter. Living organisms carry out the migration process chemical substances in soil, atmosphere, hydrosphere, sedimentary rocks. Thanks to animals, gas exchange and redox reactions occur in these shells. The atmosphere is also the result of the activity of living organisms.
The shell is represented by biogeocenoses, which are genetically homogeneous areas of the Earth with one type of vegetation cover and inhabiting animals. Biogeocenoses have their own soils, topography and microclimate.
All shells of the Earth are in close continuous interaction, which is expressed as the exchange of substances and energy. Research in the field of this interaction and the identification of common principles is important for understanding the soil-forming process. The geographic envelopes of the Earth are unique systems characteristic only of our planet.
The largest natural complex of the Earth is the geographical envelope. It includes the lithosphere and atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, which interact with each other. Thanks to this, an active circulation of energy and substances occurs in nature. Each shell - gas, mineral, living and water - has its own laws of development and existence.
Basic patterns geographic envelope:
- geographical zoning;
- the integrity and interconnection of all parts of the shell of the globe;
- rhythmicity – repetition of daily and annual natural phenomena.
Earth's crust
The solid part of the earth, containing rocks, sediment and minerals, is one of the components of the geographical envelope. The composition includes more than ninety chemical elements, which are unevenly distributed over the entire surface of the planet. Iron, magnesium, calcium, aluminum, oxygen, sodium, and potassium make up the majority of all rocks in the lithosphere. They are formed in different ways: under the influence of temperature and pressure, during redeposition of weathering products and the vital activity of organisms, in the thickness of the earth and during sedimentation from water. There are two types of earth's crust - oceanic and continental, which differ from each other in rock composition and temperature.
Atmosphere
The atmosphere is the most important component of the geographical envelope. It affects the weather and climate, the hydrosphere, the world of flora and fauna. The atmosphere is also divided into several layers, and the geographical envelope includes the troposphere and stratosphere. These layers contain oxygen, which is required for life cycles different areas on the planet. In addition, the atmosphere layer protects the earth's surface from ultraviolet rays Sun.
Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is the water surface of the earth, which consists of groundwater, rivers, lakes, seas and oceans. Main part water resources The earth is concentrated in the ocean, and the rest is on the continents. The hydrosphere also includes water vapor and clouds. In addition, permafrost, snow and ice cover are also part of the hydrosphere.
Biosphere and anthroposphere
The biosphere is a multi-shell of the planet, which includes the world of flora and fauna, hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere, which interact with each other. A change in one of the components of the biosphere leads to significant changes in the entire ecosystem of the planet. The geographical envelope of the earth can also include the anthroposphere - the sphere in which people and nature interact.
The concept of “geographical envelope”
Note 1
The geographic envelope is a continuous and integral shell of the Earth, consisting of the earth's crust, troposphere, stratosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and anthroposphere. All components of the geographic shell are in close interaction and penetrate each other. There is a constant exchange of matter and energy between them.
The upper limit of the geographic envelope is the stratosphere, located below the maximum ozone concentration at an altitude of about 25 km. The lower boundary passes in the upper layers of the lithosphere (from 500 to 800 m).
The mutual penetration into each other and the interaction of the components that make up the geographical shell - water, air, mineral and living shells - determine its integrity. In it, in addition to the continuous metabolism and energy, one can also observe a constant circulation of substances. Each component of the geographic shell, developing according to its own laws, is influenced by the other shells and itself affects them.
The impact of the biosphere on the atmosphere is associated with the process of photosynthesis, as a result of which intense gas exchange occurs between living matter and air, as well as regulation of gases in the atmosphere. Green plants absorb carbon dioxide from the air and release oxygen, without which life is impossible for most living organisms on the planet. Thanks to the atmosphere, the earth's surface does not overheat solar radiation during the day and does not cool down significantly at night, which is necessary for the normal existence of living beings.
The biosphere influences the hydrosphere. Living organisms can influence the salinity of the waters of the World Ocean by taking from the water some substances necessary for their life (for example, calcium is needed for the formation of shells, shells, skeletons). Water environment- the habitat of many living beings, water is necessary for the normal functioning of most life processes of representatives of the plant and animal world.
The influence of living organisms on the earth's crust is most pronounced in its upper part, where the remains of plants and animals accumulate and rocks of organic origin are formed.
Living organisms take an active part not only in the creation rocks, but also in their destruction. They secrete acids that destroy rocks, affecting the roots, forming deep cracks. As a result of these processes, hard and dense rocks are transformed into loose sedimentary rocks (pebbles, gravel). All conditions are created for the formation of one or another type of soil.
A change in any one component of the geographic shell affects all other shells. For example, the era of the great glaciation in the Quaternary period. The expansion of the land surface created the preconditions for the onset of a drier and colder climate, which led to the formation of thick ice and snow that covered large areas of northern North America and Eurasia. This, in turn, entailed changes in flora, fauna, and soil cover.
Components of the geographic envelope
The main components of the geographic envelope include:
- Earth's crust. Upper part of the lithosphere. Separated from the mantle by the Mohorovic boundary, characterized by a sharp increase in seismic wave velocities. The thickness of the earth's crust ranges from six kilometers (under the ocean) to 30-50 km (on the continents). There are two types of earth's crust: oceanic and continental. The oceanic crust consists mainly of basic rocks and sedimentary cover. The continental crust contains basalt and granite layers and a sedimentary cover. The earth's crust consists of separate lithospheric plates of different sizes that move relative to each other.
- Troposphere. The lower layer of the atmosphere. The upper limit in polar latitudes is 8-10 km, in temperate latitudes – 10-12 km, in tropical latitudes – 16-18 km. In winter, the upper limit is slightly lower than in summer. The troposphere contains 90% of all atmospheric water vapor and 80% of all air mass. It is characterized by convection and turbulence, cloudiness, and the development of cyclones and anticyclones. As altitude increases, temperature decreases.
- Stratosphere. Its upper boundary is at an altitude of 50 to 55 km. With increasing altitude, the temperature approaches 0 ºС. Characteristic: low water vapor content, low turbulence, increased content ozone (its maximum concentration is observed at an altitude of 20-25 km).
- Hydrosphere. Includes all the water reserves of the planet. Largest quantity water resources are concentrated in the World Ocean, less in groundwater and the continental network of rivers. Large reserves of water are contained in the form of water vapor and clouds in the atmosphere. Some of the water is stored in the form of ice and snow, forming the cryosphere: snow cover, glaciers, permafrost.
- Biosphere. The totality of those parts of the components of the geographic shell (lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere) that are inhabited by living organisms.
- Anthroposphere, or noosphere. Sphere of interaction environment and man. Recognition of this shell is not supported by all scientists.
Stages of development of the geographical envelope
Geographical envelope on modern stage- the result of long-term development, during which it constantly became more complex.
Stages of development of the geographical shell:
- The first stage is prebiogenic. Lasted 3 billion years. At this time, only the simplest organisms existed. They took little part in the development and formation of the geographical envelope. The atmosphere was characterized by a high content of carbon dioxide and low oxygen.
- Second phase. Duration - about 570 million years. It is characterized by the dominant role of living organisms in the formation of the geographical envelope. The organisms had an impact on all components of the shell: the composition of the atmosphere and water changed, and the accumulation of rocks of organic origin was observed. At the end of the stage people appeared.
- The third stage is modern. It began 40 thousand years ago. It is characterized by the active influence of human activity on various components of the geographical envelope.
The geographic envelope is the shell of the Earth, within which the lower layers of the atmosphere, the upper parts of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the biosphere mutually penetrate each other and are in close interaction (Fig. 1).
The idea of the geographical envelope as “ outdoor sphere earth" was introduced by the Russian meteorologist and geographer P. I. Brounov (1852-1927) back in 1910, and the modern concept was developed by the famous geographer, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences A. A. Grigoriev.
Troposphere, earth's crust, hydrosphere, biosphere - these are the structural parts geographic envelope, and the substance contained in them is its Components.
Rice. 1. Scheme of the structure of the geographical shell
Despite the significant differences in the structural parts of the geographical shell, they have one common, very significant feature - the continuous process of movement of matter. However, the rate of intracomponent movement of matter in different structural parts of the geographic envelope is not the same. The highest speeds are observed in the troposphere. Even when there is no wind, there is no completely still surface air. Conditionally as average speed the movement of matter in the troposphere can be taken to be 500-700 cm/s.
In the hydrosphere, due to the higher density of water, the speed of movement of matter is lower, and here, unlike the troposphere, there is a general natural decrease in the speed of movement of water with depth. In general, the average speeds of water transfer in the World Ocean are (cm/s): on the surface - 1.38, at a depth of 100 m - 0.62, 200 m - 0.54, 500 m - 0.44, 1000 m - 0 .37, 2000 m - 0.30, 5000 m -0.25.
In the earth's crust, the process of matter transfer is so slow that special research is required to establish it. The speed of movement of matter in the earth's crust is measured in several centimeters or even millimeters per year. Thus, the rate of expansion of the mid-ocean ridge varies from 1 cm/year in the Arctic Ocean to 6 cm/year in the equatorial part Pacific Ocean. The average rate of expansion of the oceanic crust is approximately 1.3 cm/year. The established vertical speed of modern tectonic movements on land is of the same order.
In all structural parts of the geographic shell, the intracomponent movement of matter occurs in two directions: horizontal and vertical. These two directions do not oppose each other, but represent different sides the same process.
There is an active and continuous exchange of matter and energy between the structural parts of the geographic shell (Fig. 2). For example, water enters the atmosphere as a result of evaporation from the surface of the ocean and land; solid particles enter the air envelope during volcanic eruptions or with the help of wind. Air and water, penetrating through cracks and pores deep into rock formations, enter the lithosphere. Gases from the atmosphere are constantly entering reservoirs, as well as various solid particles, which are carried away by water flows. The upper layers of the atmosphere are heated from the Earth's surface. Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and release oxygen into it, which is necessary for breathing for all living beings. Living organisms die and form soils.
Rice. 2. Diagram of connections in the geographic shell system
The vertical boundaries of the geographic envelope are not clearly expressed, so scientists define them differently. A. A. Grigoriev, like most scientists, drew the upper boundary of the geographic envelope in the stratosphere at an altitude of 20-25 km, below the layer of maximum ozone concentration that detains ultraviolet radiation Sun. Below this layer, air movements associated with the interaction of the atmosphere with land and ocean are observed; above, atmospheric movements of this nature disappear. The greatest controversy among scientists is the lower limit of the geographical envelope.
Most often it is carried out at the base of the earth's crust, i.e. at a depth of 8-10 km under the oceans and 40-70 km under the continents. Thus, the total thickness of the geographic envelope is about 30 km. Compared to the size of the Earth, it is a thin film.
They penetrate each other and are in close interaction. There is a continuous exchange of matter and energy between them.
The upper boundary of the geographic envelope is drawn along the stratopause, since before this boundary the thermal effect of the earth’s surface affects atmospheric processes; the boundary of the geographic envelope in the lithosphere is often combined with lower limit areas of hypergenesis (sometimes the base of the stratisphere, the average depth of seismic or volcanic sources, the base of the earth’s crust, and the level of zero annual temperature amplitudes are taken as the lower boundary of the geographic shell). The geographical envelope completely covers the hydrosphere, descending in the ocean 10-11 km below sea level, the upper zone of the earth's crust and bottom part atmosphere (layer 25-30 km thick). The greatest thickness of the geographical shell is close to 40 km. The geographical envelope is the object of study of geography and its branch sciences.
Terminology
Despite criticism of the term “geographical envelope” and the difficulties in defining it, it is actively used in geography and is one of the main concepts in Russian geography.
The idea of the geographical shell as the “outer sphere of the earth” was introduced by the Russian meteorologist and geographer P. I. Brounov (). Modern concept developed and introduced into the system of geographical sciences by A. A. Grigoriev (). The history of the concept and controversial issues are most successfully discussed in the works of I. M. Zabelin.
Concepts similar to the concept of the geographical envelope also exist in foreign geographical literature ( earth's shell A. Getner and R. Hartshorn, geosphere G. Karol, etc.). However, there the geographical envelope is usually considered not as a natural system, but as a set of natural and social phenomena.
There are other earthly shells at the boundaries of the connection of different geospheres.
Components of the geographic envelope
Earth's crust
The earth's crust is the upper part of solid earth. It is separated from the mantle by a boundary with a sharp increase in seismic wave velocities - the Mohorovicic boundary. The thickness of the crust ranges from 6 km under the ocean to 30-50 km on the continents. There are two types of crust - continental and oceanic. In the structure of the continental crust, three geological layers are distinguished: sedimentary cover, granite and basalt. The oceanic crust is composed predominantly of basic rocks, plus sedimentary cover. The earth's crust is divided into lithospheric plates of different sizes, moving relative to each other. The kinematics of these movements is described by plate tectonics.
Troposphere
Its upper limit is at an altitude of 8-10 km in polar, 10-12 km in temperate and 16-18 km in tropical latitudes; lower in winter than in summer. The lower, main layer of the atmosphere. Contains more than 80% of the total mass of atmospheric air and about 90% of all water vapor present in the atmosphere. Turbulence and convection are highly developed in the troposphere, clouds appear, and cyclones and anticyclones develop. Temperature decreases with increasing altitude with an average vertical gradient of 0.65°/100 m
The following are accepted as “normal conditions” at the Earth’s surface: density 1.2 kg/m3, barometric pressure 101.34 kPa, temperature plus 20 °C and relative humidity 50 %. These conditional indicators have purely engineering significance.
Stratosphere
The upper limit is at an altitude of 50-55 km. The temperature increases with increasing altitude to a level of about 0 °C. Low turbulence, negligible water vapor content, increased ozone content compared to the lower and overlying layers (maximum ozone concentration at altitudes of 20-25 km).
Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is the totality of all the Earth's water reserves. Most of the water is concentrated in the ocean, much less in the continental river network and groundwater. There are also large reserves of water in the atmosphere, in the form of clouds and water vapor.
Some of the water is in a solid state in the form of glaciers, snow cover, and permafrost, making up the cryosphere.
Biosphere
The biosphere is a collection of parts of the earth's shells (litho-, hydro- and atmosphere), which is populated by living organisms, is under their influence and is occupied by the products of their vital activity.
Anthroposphere (Noosphere)
The anthroposphere or noosphere is the sphere of interaction between man and nature. Not recognized by all scientists.
Notes
Literature
- Brounov P.I. Course of physical geography, St. Petersburg, 1917.
- Grigoriev A. A. Experience in analytical characterization of the composition and structure of the physical-geographical shell of the globe, L.-M., 1937.
- Grigoriev A. A. Patterns of the structure and development of the geographical environment, M., 1966.
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