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5. Culture and spiritual sphere.

I. Culture (from Latin - “culture” - “cultivation, education”)

Traits of culture : functionality, quality, value, normativity, creativity (creativity).

In a broad sense, culture– all types of transformative activity of man and society, as well as its results.

In a general sense, culture– the totality of people’s achievements in the material and spiritual spheres.

Material culture– created in the process of material production (buildings, equipment, tools).

Spiritual culture –includes the process of spiritual creativity and created spiritual values ​​in the form of works of art, scientific discoveries, and religion.

Culture structure:

form – embodiment of cultural achievements content – significance for the individual and society.

Functions of culture:cognitive, informative, communicative, normative, humanistic.

Types of crops: dominant (dominant), elite (for the elite), mass (for the majority, commercial, through the media), folk (based on traditions, folklore, anonymous), donor (from which elements are borrowed), receptive (which borrows elements from another culture), dead (contents are outdated).

Subculture – culture of social groups.

Counterculture - a subculture that is hostile to the dominant one.

Terms:

Accumulation of culture – replenishment of culture with new elements and knowledge.

Cultural transmission– transmission of culture through education.

Cultural diffusion– mutual penetration of cultures.

Acculturation of culture– the process of mutual influence of two or more cultures.

Assimilation of culture– absorption of a small culture by a larger one.

Adaptation of culture- adaptation of cultures to each other.

II. Spiritual sphere.

Structure of the spiritual sphere:

1. Spiritual needs– the need of society and people to create and master spiritual values. Spiritual needs are not given biologically, from birth. They are formed in the process of socialization.

2. Spiritual activity (production)– the activities of people to create spiritual values.

Types of spiritual activities:

1. Cognitive - scientific, religious, artistic

2. Value-oriented - attitude towards the phenomena of reality

3. Prognostic - anticipation and planning of changes in reality

3. Spiritual values ​​(benefits) –what is created in the process of spiritual production:works of art, teachings, scientific discoveries, etc.

Types of spiritual production: religion, morality, art, science.

Religion.

Religion – a form of social consciousness and worldview based on belief in the existence of a supernatural principle.

Elements: faith, doctrine, religious activity, religious institutions.

Functions : ideological, compensatory, communicative, regulatory, educational.

Religions:

World: Buddhism, Christianity, Islam (large number of followers, beyond national boundaries)

National: Confucianism (China), Taoism (China), Judaism (Israel), Shintoism (Japan), Zoroastrianism (Iran).

Atheism - denial of the existence of God

Confessional- church, denomination - religion

Morality.

Moral - a form of social consciousness that reflects ideas about good and evil, justice and injustice and the type of social relations, a set of norms of behavior of people in relation to each other.

Functions of morality: regulatory, educational, communicative, cognitive, ideological.

The fulfillment of moral norms is sanctioned by the norms of spiritual influence (evaluation, approval, condemnation).

Art.

Art - a form of social consciousness and a type of human activity that is a reflection of the surrounding realityin artistic images.

Art is the core of aesthetic culture.

Theories of the origin of art: gaming (G. Spencer), labor (G. Plekhanov), biologization(C. Darwin), magical.

Functions of art:aesthetic, cognitive, creative, cleansing, communicative, educational, compensatory, hedonistic (pleasure function).

Kinds of art : literature, architecture, music, cinema, theater, painting, graphics, arts and crafts, dance, sculpture, photography.

Features of art:is figurative, visual; the presence of specific methods of reproduction, the huge role of imagination and fantasy.

The science.

The science - the sphere of cognitive activity of people, a system of objectively true knowledge about natural and social reality, about man.

Elements of Science : scientific knowledge, scientific activity, scientific self-awareness.

Models of science development:

1. Gradual development

2. Through scientific revolutions.Scientific revolution –the process of a radical, qualitative change in the dominant system of ideas and theories (paradigm), which serves as a standard of thinking in a specific historical period.

Functions of science : cognitive, ideological, prognostic.

Functions of modern science: productive, social, cultural and ideological.

Classification of sciences:

Natural technical public (humanitarian)

Education.

Education - purposeful cognitive activity to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities and improve them.

Self-education– the process of acquiring knowledge independently.

Functions of education: economic, social, cultural, preservation and transfer of cultural heritage.

Education in the Russian Federation:

preschool general professional additional

Features of modern education:integration of areas of knowledge, development of lifelong education, informatization (computerization), development of distance education (via the Internet), humanization (attention to the individual), humanitarization (increasing attention to social sciences, internationalization (creation of a unified system for different countries).

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1. Society.

Social Sciences: economics, philosophy, sociology, political science, ethics (about morality), aesthetics (about beauty).

Society:

In a narrow sense: A group of people connected by common interests and goals.

In a broad sense: A part of the material world isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, including all ways of interaction between people and forms of their unification.

Society and nature interact and influence each other. Economic interaction – consumption of natural resources, environmental – protection of natural resources.

Noosphere (V. Vernadsky ) – habitat (biosphere) controlled by the human mind.

Society - dynamic system.

Systemic qualities of society:integrity, dynamism, historicity, openness, hierarchy.

There are 4 spheres (subsystems) in the structure of society:

1. Economic - material production and industrial relations.

2. Political - politics, state, law, their relationships and functioning, media, army.

3. Social – relations between classes, groups, nations, etc.

4. Spiritual – forms of social consciousness: religion, morality, science, art.

The spheres interact and are interconnected.

Public relations– relationships and forms that arise in the process of life between social groups, classes, nations, as well as within them.

Public relations

Spiritual Material

The most important component of society issocial institution –a historically established form of organization of people, based on a set of norms and statuses, regulating their activities and satisfying fundamental human needs.

Social institutions: property, state, political parties, family, church, labor organizations, educational institutions, science, media, etc.

Types of societies (according to Daniel Bell, Alvin Toffler)

Types of societies (according to O. Toffler)

Social change– transition of social systems, communities, organizations from one state to another (natural, demographic, social, spiritual changes, etc.).

Directed development

progress stagnation regression

Progress criterion – the degree of freedom that society gives a person for its optimal development. Progress is inconsistent (both positive and negative processes)

Forms of progress:revolution and reform. Evolution – gradual development.

Scientific and technological progress (NTP) -qualitative change in the productive forces of society under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution.

Scientific and technological revolution (STR)– a leap in the development of the productive forces of society based on fundamental changes in the system of scientific knowledge.

Historical process– chronological sequence of events that influence the development of society.Subjects of the historical process: individuals, social groups, masses.Historical fact- an event in public life.

Civilization – the totality of material, spiritual and moral means that a given society has in a given historical period.

The term was put forward by N. Danilevsky, called civilizationscultural and historical types.He distinguished civilizations according to 4 characteristics: economic, cultural, political, religious. To characterize civilizations, the concept of mentality is also distinguished.

Mentality - a way of thinking, worldview inherent in a certain group or individual

Two theories: the theory of stage development (study development as a single process) and the theory of local civilizations(study large historically established communities).

Approaches to studying the historical process:

Global problems of our time –a complex of social and natural contradictions affecting the whole world as a whole. I are an indicator of the integrity and interconnection of the modern world, pose a threat to humanity, and require joint efforts to be resolved.

Main problems:

1. Environmental: pollution, species extinction, “ozone holes”, etc.

The term "Ecology" was introduced E. Haeckel.

2. Demographic;

3. The problem of security and prevention of world war;

4. Resource problem;

5. The North-South problem: developing and highly developed countries.

Globalization – strengthening integration ties in various spheres between states, organizations, and communities.

International organizations:UN (United Nations); IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency); UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization); WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization); WTO (World Trade Organization); NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization); OSCE (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe); European Union; OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Producing and Exporting Countries); CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States); SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Organization) and others.

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3. Cognition.

Cognition – a process aimed at obtaining knowledge.

Knowledge – objective reality given in the human mind. Knowledge is the result of cognitive activity.

Subject of knowledge- the one who knows. Object of knowledge - what knowledge is aimed at.

Epistemology – the science of knowledge.

Gnosticism (Gnostics)– they believe that the world is knowable (Plato, Socrates, K. Marx, G. Hegel).

Agnosticism (agnostics)– the world is knowable within limited limits or unknowable (I. Kant).

Types of cognition: sensory and rational.

Forms of sensory knowledge:

Feeling – reflection of individual properties and qualities of objects and phenomena that arise when exposed to the senses.

Perception - a holistic sensory image of an object, phenomenon.

Performance - a sensory image of an object or phenomenon that arises with the help of memory without direct contact with the object.

Forms of rational knowledge:

Concept – a form of thinking in which the general and essential properties of an object are recorded.

Judgment - a form of thinking in which something is affirmed or denied.

Conclusion –a form of thinking in which new judgments are derived from existing ones.

Two theories on types of cognition:

1. Empiricism (empiricists)– recognize sensory experience as a source of knowledge (T. Hobbes, D. Locke).

2. Rationalism (rationalists)– knowledge can be obtained with the help of reason (R. Descartes, I. Kant)

Intuition - a unique type of cognition outside the process of sensory acquaintance and without thinking.

Traits: suddenness, thoughtlessness, hidden mechanism.

The purpose of knowledge is to obtain the truth.

Truth - knowledge corresponding to reflected reality.Truth is objective in content and subjective in form.

Absolute truth- complete, exhaustive knowledge, not refuted by the further development of science.

Relative truth- incomplete, inaccurate knowledge, refuted by the further development of science.

Criterion of truth – a way of distinguishing between true and untrue in the body of knowledge.

The main criterion of truth is practice.

The opposites of truth are lies, disinformation, and delusion.

Lie – deliberate raising of obviously incorrect ideas into the truth.

Disinformation - transmission false knowledge as true or true as false.

Misconception - unintentional inconsistency of judgments or concepts with the object.

Types of knowledge.

I.Non-scientific knowledge:

Ordinary (everyday)

Practical (folk wisdom)

Religious

Mythological

Artistic (through the means of art).

II. Scientific knowledge –cognition aimed at obtaining objective knowledge. Target – description, explanation, prediction of reality phenomena. Signs: objectivity, consistency, validity, reliability, special language, the need for special devices and specialists.

2 levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical.

Empirical level:

Observation - purposeful perception of phenomena of objective reality.

Description - recording information about an object using natural or artificial language.

Measurement - comparison of an object based on any similar properties or aspects.

Experiment - observation under specially created and controlled conditions, which makes it possible to restore the course of the phenomenon when the conditions are repeated.

Theoretical level:

Hypothesis – assumptions made during scientific research.

Theory – a system of interconnected statements.

Law – conclusions about significant, recurring connections between phenomena.

Scientific methods:

1. General: dialectics (dialectical studies phenomena in motion) and metaphysics (metaphysical studies phenomena at rest).

2. General scientific: Analysis is the real or mental division of an object into its component parts. Synthesis is the combination of component parts into a single whole. Induction - the movement of thought from the individual to the general. Deduction is the ascent of the process of cognition from the general to the individual. Analogy (correspondence, similarity) - establishing similarities in certain aspects, properties and relationships between non-identical objects.

3. Private scientific: questionnaire, examination, interviewing, graphic method.

III. Social Cognition –cognition aimed at studying the nature of social connections, social groups, social structure of society.

Peculiarity - the subject and object of knowledge coincide, the knowledge obtained is always related to the interests of individuals, the subjectivity of conclusions and assessments.

Target: identification of historical patterns of social development, social forecasting.

Methods: content analysis (analysis of statistical data, documents), survey, observation, experiment.

IV.Self-knowledge – self-knowledge, self-esteem, creation of the “I-concept” - the image of the Self.

Feature – the object is the subject itself.

Goal: knowledge of your physical, mental, spiritual capabilities, your place among other people.

Self-knowledge is accomplished:

1. In analyzing the results of one’s own activities, one’s behavior, and relationships with others.

2. Awareness of the attitude of others towards oneself (the qualities of one’s personality, character traits), through the opinions of others

people and relating oneself to others.

3. Self-observation of your states, experiences, thoughts.

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2. Man.

Origin theories:religious, evolutionary(C. Darwin), Marxist (labor made man)

Biosocial problem– the problem of the relationship between the biological and the social in man.

At the moment of birth, a person is an individual. A person becomes a person through the process of socialization.

Socialization - the process of a person’s assimilation of social experience and forms of behavior acceptable for a given society.

Primary socialization: agents (relatives, teachers) and institutions of socialization (family, school).

Secondary socialization: agents (colleagues, teachers, officials) and institutions (universities, army, church).

Desocialization –the process of moving away from old values, norms, rules, roles.

Resocialization – the process of learning new values, norms, rules, roles.

Freedom of the individual- the ability to create oneself and the world of other people, make choices, be responsible. “Freedom is a recognized necessity” - G. Hegel.

Interpersonal relationships -relationships between different individuals for different reasons.

Interpersonal relationships

Worldview of the individual– a set of principles, views, beliefs and attitudes towards objective reality and man’s place in it.

Worldview:

everyday, religious, mythological, scientific, philosophical, humanistic.

Activity - human activity aimed at changing and transforming the world around us and ourselves. Subject - the one who carries out the activity. An object - what the activity is aimed at.

Activity structure:

Motive - goal - means - action - result.

Motive – a material or ideal object that encourages action.

Target – a conscious image of the expected result.

Activities:

1. By content: work, play, communication, study.

Work - a type of human activity aimed at achieving a practically useful result.

Communication- the process of interaction between people, consisting of perception and understanding and the exchange of information (communication)

2. By direction: spiritual, practical, creative, managerial.

Creation - activity that generates something new that has never existed before.

Heuristic - a science that studies creative activity.

Human needs- an experienced or perceived need for something.

Needs:

biological, social, ideal.

Needs according to A. Maslow.

1. Physiological, 2. Existential, 3. Social, 4. Prestigious, 5. Spiritual

Primary, congenital Secondary, acquired

The needs of each level become urgent when the previous ones are satisfied.

Interest - a conscious need that characterizes people’s attitude towards objects and phenomena that have important social development for them. Interests are incentives for various types of activities.

Capabilities – individual characteristics of a person, on which the success of various types of activities depends.

Abilities have a biological basis.

Talent - a set of abilities that allows you to obtain a product of activity that is distinguished by novelty and significance.

Genius – the highest level of talent development, allowing for fundamental shifts in a particular field of activity.

Genius is a cultural phenomenon of human nature.

"Conscious" and "Unconscious"- these are correlative concepts that express the peculiarities of the work of the human psyche. A person thinks about situations and makes decisions. Such actions are called conscious . However, often a person acts thoughtlessly, and sometimes he himself cannot understand why he did this.Unconsciousactions presuppose that a person acts on an internal impulse, without any analysis of the situation, without clarifying the possible consequences. ( Z. Freud).

Being - anything existing that exists at all (being is studied by the section of philosophy ontology).

Forms of being : material existence, spiritual existence, human existence, social existence.

The spiritual world of man(microcosm) – a complex system of a person’s inner world, the elements of which are spiritual needs, thoughts, feelings, worldview, emotions, values, etc.

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4. Social sphere

Sociology – the science of patterns, formation, functioning, development of society and social relations.(O. Comte).

The structure of the social sphere includes:

I. Social connections –dependencies of social groups and people on each other (they can be formal and informal).Social connections:

1. Social contacts –unstable connections that arise for specific reasons (for example, subway passengers).

2. Social interactions– stable, regular connections based on joint activities (for example, colleagues at work).

3. Social relationships– ultra-stable, self-renewing connections that are systemic in nature (for example, friends).

II. Social groups –communities of individuals united according to some characteristic.(T. Hobbes).

Signs:

number: small groups (characterized by direct contact and informal communication), medium, large

demographic:by gender, age, education, marital status

settlement criterion:townspeople, villagers

confessional:Catholics, Orthodox, Muslims

according to ethnicity, professionally etc.

III. Social communities– groups capable of self-reproduction.

Ethnosocial communities: clan (tribe), nationality, nation.

Genus - unification of people based on consanguineous ties, tribe - unification of clans, nationalities - unification of people based on territorial and linguistic characteristics, nation – large groups of people united by economic space, language, culture, traditions, and national identity.

IV. Social institution –see chapter Society.The main social institution is the family.

Function family as a social institution: child production.The family is also a small group. Family functions: educational, socialization, leisure, creating a sense of security, economic. Family: matriarchal, patriarchal, partnership.Nuclear family– consisting of 2 generations.

V. Social culture– social norms and social values ​​on the basis of which social relations are formed.

VI. Social values- goals that people strive for in society.Core values– vital for society (health, well-being, family, etc.)

VII. Social norms– rules of social behavior.

Social norms(there are written and unwritten):

Moral norms, ethical norms, norms of traditions and customs, religious norms, political norms, legal norms.

Functions of social norms:regulating, unifying, educational.

Conformist behavior -consistent with accepted standards.

Behavior that does not correspond to social norms – deviant.

Deviant behavior:

Deviant behavior -violation that does not meet the standards.

Deviation can be positive (heroes) and negative (drug addicts, murderers)

Delinquent behavior –committing crimes.

Compliance with standards is ensured by the use of sanctions – the reaction of society to the behavior of an individual or group. Sanctions function – social control.

Sanctions:

Positive (rewarding) and negative (punishing)

Official and unofficial.

Social stratification

Social stratification (differentiation) –stratification and hierarchical organization of society.(P. Sorokin).

Differentiation criteria: income(economic), volume of power (political), education (occupation type), also distinguished prestige - society's assessment of the social significance of an individual's status. Prestige depends on the real usefulness of the activity and the value system of society.

Social layers:

Castes – strictly closed layers of traditional societies.

Estates – groups of people with different rights and responsibilities.

Classes – social groups, distinguished by the method of their participation in social production and distribution, their place in the social division of labor.

Strata – informal groups that have relatively equal social status, the criteria of which are income, access to political power, and education.

Status

Status – a position in the social structure of society, connected with other positions through a system of rights and obligations.

Personal status - the position an individual occupies in a small group

Social status– the position of the individual in a social group.

Status set – a set of statuses of one person.

Prescribed (natural) status: gender, age, nationality, kinship

Acquired (achieved) status: profession, education, position, marital status, religion.

Social role - a certain pattern of behavior recognized for people of a certain status.

Social mobility

Social mobility(P. Sorokin ) – the transition of an individual or group from one position in the hierarchy of social stratification to another.

Social mobility: horizontal -inside one layer and vertical – transition from one layer to another. Vertical mobility can bedescending and ascending.

Channels of social mobility (“social elevators”) –education, army, schools, family, property.

Marginal – an individual who has lost his previous social status and is unable to adapt to a new social environment (“on the edge”).

Marginality – the intermediate position of an individual between social groups, associated with his movements in social space.

Lumpen - people who have sunk to the bottom of social life.

Social conflict.

Social conflict(G. Spencer ) - a clash of opposing interests, goals, views, ideologies between individuals, groups, classes in society.

Structure of the conflict: conflict situation - incident - active actions - completion

Types of behavior in conflict: adaptation, compromise, cooperation, ignoring, competition.Most scientists consider conflict to be a natural, progressive phenomenon.

Types of conflicts:internal, external, global, local, economic, political, family, national.

National conflictsassociated with exacerbationnational issue -about the self-determination of peoples and overcoming ethnic inequality, as well as trends in the modern world.

Two trends in the modern world:

1. International – integration, bringing nations closer together.

2. National – differentiation, desire for independence.

Social policy of the state- purposeful activities of the state to improve the social sphere of society. Directions: 1. improvement of the social structure of society, 2. regulation of relationships between different layers, 3. development of human potential (education development programs, pensions, healthcare, ecology).

Social politics: active - direct influence of the state (can be centralized and decentralized) and passive - mediated by economic factors

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8. Right

Right

1. A system of rules and norms of behavior established and protected by the state.

2. The ability to do, implement, have something (the right to work, education).

Signs of law (and norms of law):normativity, obligation, general character, formal certainty.

Theories of the origin of law: theory of natural law (T. Hobbes), liberal tradition (first law - then the state), statist tradition (first the state - then law), Marxist, sociological. Statism - a theory that states that state the highest result and goal of social development

Functions of law – regulatory, educational, protective.

Legal culture:legal knowledge, attitude to law, law enforcement activities.

Differences between law and morality:

Source (form) of law– specific types of social phenomena that shape the law and the result of law-making by the state.Sources (forms) of law:

1. Legal custom- patterns of behavior rooted in society as a result of their repetition, which have turned into rules of conduct.

2. Judicial practice.

3. Legal (judicial) precedent- a legal decision made earlier in a specific legal case and served as an example for subsequent decisions.

4. Regulatory agreement– an agreement between the parties containing the rules of law

5. Legal act– an act of lawmaking by government bodies that establishes or repeals rules of law.

Legal act: laws and regulations.

I. Laws – regulatory legal acts adopted by the highest legislative body of the state (or referendum), establishing the most significant social relations. There areFederal Laws And Laws of the subjects of the Federation.

The laws are divided into:

1. Constitutional laws(1. Constitution, 2. Laws amending the Constitution.

3. Laws provided for by the Constitution).

2. Ordinary laws– regulatory legal acts of current legislation. They are current (valid for a certain period) andcodified(codes of laws - codes).

II. Regulations– regulatory legal acts specifying the provisions of laws. – decrees, resolutions, decrees.

Legal system (family) - unification of states based on legal regulation.

1. Romano-Germanic– the main source is the legal act. (Russia).

2. Anglo-Saxon– main source – legal precedent

3. Muslim – the main source is legal custom.

The right is shared for private law -serves private interests (family, civil) andpublic law(constitutional, criminal).

Realization of the right – implementation of law.Forms of exercising the right:

1. Use of the right –use of rights

2. Execution of rights– fulfillment of duties

3. Respect for the law- not a violation of the law

4. Application of law– carried out with the help of officials.

Legal system – a set of interconnected norms, institutions and branches of law.

System elements -1. Legal norm(rule of law) – a unit of the system.2. Institute of Law– a small group of rights regulating one type of relationship. (For example, the institution of gift in civil law, the institution of marriage in family law). 3. Branch of law – a set of homogeneous legal norms.

Rule of law - the basic element of the legal system, a rule of behavior established and protected by the state.

Structure of the rule of law:

1. Hypothesis - part of the norm indicating the conditions for the emergence of rights and obligations.

2. Disposition – part of the norm indicating the content of the norm

3. Sanction – part of the norm indicating the legal consequences of the violation.

Types of law

1. By function: regulatory (establish rights and obligations) and protective (measures against violators)

2. By industry:family, civil, etc.

3. According to content:1. binding norms(What do we have to do)2. prohibiting norms(what not to do)3. enabling norms(what can be done).

Branches of law.

1. Constitutional (state) law –regulates socially significant social relations and the structure of the state.

2. Family law– regulates issues of marriage and family relations, kinship.

3. Civil law– regulates property and related non-property relations.

4. Administrative law– regulates public relations in the field of management, associated with the activities of the executive branch.

5. Labor law– regulates the relationship between employee and employer

6. Criminal law– regulates relations related to the commission of criminal acts.

Legal relations– types of social relations regulated by law.

To become participants in legal relations, legal entities and individuals (subjects of public relations) must have legal capacity and capacity.

Legal capacity –the ability of subjects of legal relations to have legal rights and bear responsibilities. It begins at birth and ends with death.

Capacity– the ability of subjects of legal relations to independently realize rights and obligations.1. Full– from 18 years old.2. Partial– (in criminal from 16 years, for some crimes from 14 years, in family from 16 years, in civil - from 14 years, in administrative - from 16 years)3. Limited- according to the court.

Legal fact– living conditions in connection with which legal relations arise.

Legal facts– 1. Law-formers. 2. Law-altering. 3. Legally terminating.

Legal facts:1. Events(do not depend on the will of people), 2. Actions(depend on the will of people).

Actionsthere arelegitimateAndillegal(offences).

Offenses– acts contrary to the requirements of legal norms are expressed asaction, soinaction.

Offensesare divided intomisconductAndcrimes.

Misdemeanors (torts) and legal liability.

1. Administrative(in the field of state and local regulation) –administrative responsibility (warning, fine, deprivation of rights, confiscation of an item, correctional work, administrative arrest)

2 . Disciplinary(in the field of official relations) –disciplinary liability(remark, reprimand, dismissal),material liability(compensation for damages)

3. Civil(in the field of property and non-property relations) – civil liability.

Crimes– socially dangerous illegal acts that cause special harm or threat. Comingcriminal liability.

Signs of an offense:guilt, illegality, social danger.

Legal structure of the offense:

1.Object of the offense –what the action is aimed at.2. Subject of the offense –who committed

3. The objective side of the offense– a characteristic that includes signs of illegality, social danger, and socially dangerous consequences.

4. The subjective side of the offense- internal characteristics of the offense (motive and purpose).

5. Motive for the offense- conscious inducement to commit an act.

6. Purpose of the offense- the mental result that the subject was striving for.

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What does social studies study?

The object of study of social science issociety.Society is a very complex system that is subject to various laws. Naturally, there is no one science that could cover all aspects of society, so several sciences study it. Each science studies one aspect of the development of society: economics, social relations, development paths, and others.

Social science -a general name for sciences that study society as a whole and social processes.

Every science hasobject and subject.

Object of science -a phenomenon of objective reality that science studies.

Subject of science -A person, a group of people cognizing an object.

Sciences are divided into three groups.

Science:

Society is studied by social sciences (humanities).

The main difference between social sciences and humanities:

Social (humanitarian) sciences that study society and man:

archaeology, economics, history, cultural studies, linguistics, political science, psychology, sociology, law, ethnography, philosophy, ethics, aesthetics.

Archeology- a science that studies the past from material sources.

Economy– the science of the economic activities of society.

Story- the science of the past of humanity.

Cultural studies- a science that studies the culture of society.

Linguistics- the science of language.

Political science- the science of politics, society, the relationship between people, society and the state.

Psychology– the science of the development and functioning of the human psyche.

Sociology- the science of the laws of formation and development of social systems, groups, individuals.

Right –a set of laws and rules of behavior in society.

Ethnography- a science that studies the life and culture of peoples and nations.

Philosophy- the science of the universal laws of social development.

Ethics- the science of morality.

Aesthetics -the science of beauty.

Sciences study societiesin the narrow and broad senses.

Society in the narrow sense:

1. The entire population of the Earth, the totality of all peoples.

2. Historical stage of human development (feudal society, slave society).

3. Country, state (French society, Russian society).

4. Uniting people for some purpose (animal lovers club, soldiers’ society

mothers).

5. A circle of people united by a common position, origin, interests (high society).

6. Methods of interaction between the authorities and the population of the country (democratic society, totalitarian society)

Society in the broad sense -a part of the material world isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which includes ways of interaction between people and forms of their unification. Policy: micro level, macro level (state level), mega level (between states).

Politic system– a set of elements in which political power is exercised.

The type of political system determines the political and legal regime: democratic, totalitarian, authoritarian.

Elements of the political system (spheres or subsystems):

1. Institutional:state, parties, movements (institutions)

2. Communication– a set of relations between groups regarding power

3. Regulatory– rules and regulations

4. Cultural-ideological– ideology, political culture, views, emotions.

Power– the ability to exercise one’s will and influence.

Power structure:

1. Subjects of power– state, political leaders, parties

2. Objects of power– individuals, groups, masses

3. Bases of power- legal, economic, security, social, information

4 . Power resources– coercion, persuasion, law, traditions, fear, encouragement, myths

5. Functions of power– domination, leadership, regulation, control, management, coordination, organization, mobilization.

Power is legal- legally legitimate authority,legitimate power- that which is not imposed by force is accepted by the people voluntarily.

Legitimacy or dominance of power (M. Weber)

1. Traditional dominance– due to traditions

2. Legal domination– on the recognition of legal norms

3. Charismatic dominance– relies on the authority of the leader.

Political power is divided into:state and public power.

Theories of the origin of the state:

1. Patriarchal theory - Aristotle2. Religious theory – Thomas Aquinas3. Contract theory – D. Locke, T. Hobbes4. Organic theory – G. Spencer5. Class theory – K. Marx

State- a special organization of power and management, which has a special coercive apparatus and is capable of making its orders binding for the entire country.

Signs of the state –

1. The presence of special public authority

2. Availability of a special control apparatus

3. Territorial organization

4. Taxes

5. Sovereignty of power

6. Monopoly on lawmaking.

Functions of the state – main, socially significant areas of state activity.

Functions:

1. By objecty: internal and external

2. By content: political, economic, social, cultural and educational, legal, organizational, environmental.

3. By the nature of the impact:protective (ensuring the protection of public relations) and regulatory (development of public relations).

State form– a set of basic methods of organization, structure and exercise of state power, expressing its essence.

State forms:

1. Form of government –way of organizing supreme power.

Form of government: 1. Monarchy– power is concentrated in the hands of one head and is inherited.2. Republic- power is exercised by elected bodies elected for a certain period of time.Monarchy:1 . absolute, 2. parliamentary, 3. dualistic.Republic:1. presidential, 2. parliamentary, 3. mixed.

2. Form of government – method of national and administrative-territorial structure.Forms: 1. unitary state, 2. federation, 3. confederation.

3. Political and legal regime – a set of political and legal means and methods of exercising power.Regime: 1. democratic, 2. anti-democratic (1. authoritarian, 2 totalitarian, 3. military).

Democracy – recognition of the principle of equality of all people, active participation of the people in political life.

Signs of democracy:1. recognition of the people as the source of power and sovereignty,2. presence of rights and freedoms, 3. pluralism, 4. separation of powers(legislative, executive, judicial), 5.publicity. 6. election of power, 7. developed system of local governments.

Forms of democracy: 1. direct (immediate), 2 indirect (representative).

Institutions of direct democracy: 1. elections, 2. referendum (popular vote).

Electoral system(includes electoral law, electoral process and procedure for recalling deputies) –procedure for the formation of elected bodies.

Suffrage– principles and conditions for citizen participation in elections.Suffrage: 1. active(right to vote),2. passive(the right to be elected).Signs: 1. universal, 2. equal, 3. vowel, 4. open.The results are determined using two systems: 1. majoritarian electoral system –The candidate who receives the majority of votes is considered the winner.2. proportional electoralsystem – voting according to party lists and distribution of mandates between parties is strictly proportional to the number of votes cast.Mandate– a document certifying the rights of a deputy.

Civil society(G. Hegel)– this is a non-state part of socio-political life, protected from direct government intervention, equality of rights and freedoms of all people;Signs of civil society:1. the presence in society of free owners of the means of production; 2. development and ramifications of democracy; 3. legal protection of citizens; 4. a certain level of civic culture.

Constitutional state- a state that is subject to the law in its activities.Signs of a rule of law state: 1. law supremacy, 2 . respect for rights and freedoms, 3. principle of separation of powers, 4. mutual responsibility of the state and citizens.

Political Party- an institution of the political system, a group of adherents of certain goals, uniting to fight for power.Signs of the party: 1. power struggle, 2. programwith goals and strategy, 3.charter, 4. organizational structure, 5. presence of governing bodies.

Types of parties: 1. By methods:revolutionary, reformist. 2. By nature of membership:personnel, mass.3. By ideology: conservative, liberal, social democratic, communist.4. By representation in government: ruling, opposition.5. By the nature of the actions:radical, reactionary, moderate, extremist, conservative.

Political culture (G. Almond, S. Verba) – the totality of a system of opinions, positions, values ​​dominant in a society or group.

Types of political culture:

1. Patriarchal– orientation of citizens towards local values,2. subject– passive attitude of citizens in the political system.3. political culture of participation (activist) – active participation of citizens in political life.Absenteeism– non-participation, avoidance of political life.

Political ideology– system of ideas. Types of ideologies:

1. Conservatism- maintaining order. 2.liberalism– freedom of individuality, entrepreneurship, law. 3.Socialism- a fair structure of society. 4.anarchism– elimination of the state 5.nationalism– superiority of the nation 6.extremism- violent methods.

Constitution of Russia– 1918 (first), 1925, 1937, 1978,1993 (12 December). First in the world -1787 – US Constitution.December 10, 1948– “Universal Declaration of Human Rights”, 1966 – “International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights” and “International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights”.1959 – "Declaration of the Rights of the Child"1989 – "Convention of the Rights of the Child".

How to properly prepare for social studies:

1. Constant practice is required.
   • Pay special attention to the Unified State Exam in Social Studies 2019. The demo version from FIPI will help you understand the structure of the ticket and understand the requirements. will guide you on what topics you need to study.
   • Prepared for the solution 10 training options with answers. They were developed by teachers based on a demo version.
   • The more tests are solved, the higher the preparedness will be, as the memorization mechanism is triggered. Don't be lazy to work on your mistakes. Solve online tests every week until you make mistakes. Registered users on the site can track statistics of solved tests.
2. Manage your time correctly to solve practice tests to get the maximum number of points.
   • Tasks 1-3 and 10 are solved in 1-4 minutes;
   • Tasks 4-9 and 11-28 are given from 2 to 8 minutes;
   • Tasks 29 - 45 minutes.
3. Work with text

   To complete standard tasks 21-24, skills in working with text information are important. When training to solve Unified State Exam tests in social studies online, pay attention to tasks that require not just extracting and reproducing the essence from the information sheet, but also interpretation, your own understanding of what was said or written, and the use of social science knowledge in the formulation.

   Task No. 29 (essay) includes 5 alternative tasks focused on writing an essay on one of 5 topics. Topics represent statements by famous public figures, as well as representatives of politics, science and culture. The task is traditionally considered the most difficult in CMMs.

   Helpful hint: To write a high-quality essay, you must be able to reveal the meaning of a judgment (statements, quotes), draw on the studied provisions of the social sciences, draw your own conclusions and elaborate with vivid examples.

Converting points to grades

• 0-41 points - “unsatisfactory”;
• 42-54 points - “C”;
• 55-66 points – “good”;
• 67 points and above - “excellent”.

The minimum is 42, and the maximum is 100.

The Unified State Exam test in social studies consists of:

• Part 1– of 20 problems, with a short answer in the form of a word, several words or numbers. Half of the tasks are at the basic level, the other half are at the advanced level. The first part is worth 35 primary points.
• Part 2– of 9 problems, with a detailed answer. Tasks 21 and 22 are basic, and from 23 to 29 are of increased complexity and are worth 30 points. Look with a detailed answer in social studies.

Remember!

• In 2019, the social studies exam will take 235 minutes (3 hours 55 minutes).
• It is forbidden to take with you foreign objects (cheat sheets, smartphones, headphones, smart watches, etc.).
• On the last day before the exam, review the material covered and review the solved options again.

Many graduates take the Unified State Examination in social studies as an elective subject. This is perhaps one of the most popular exams. How to prepare for it? How to think through preparation in such a way that it is most effective? I'll try to give you guys some recommendations. They have already proven themselves more than once; my students pass the Unified State Exam with high scores.

How to prepare for the Unified State Exam in social studies?

First step: learn the theory

• Remember that the answer to any question begins with knowledge THEORIES. Without knowing it, relying only on life experience, you cannot score many points.
• It will be your guide in the sea of ​​information. CODIFIER. It is always included with the demo version. It clearly indicates what topics the survey will be on and what questions need to be repeated. Let the codifier will always be in a visible place(above your desk, on the title page of your notes, etc.)
• However, the codifier gives only general directions of topics. Each topic has many smaller subtopics that are not listed there. Therefore, you should try to study everything that is in the school curriculum is good.

For example.

The codifier has a topic: “ Securities". What securities do you need to know specifically? In the tests we meet both bonds and stocks. There are even questions about how ordinary shares differ from preferred ones.

Teachers and tutors should help students. My articles on the site will also help you guys.

Remember that everything 8 topics:

- society

- Human

- cognition

— spiritual sphere (culture)

- social sphere

Economy

Policy

Separately, we can highlight Constitution of the Russian Federation. There are a lot of questions about it. There is a special task - № 16 , which is only according to this legal document.

• Needs good know terms, concepts. If you cannot accurately convey their essence in your own words, then just memorize them, as a rule! After all, the answers to the second part are based precisely on knowledge of terminology, various functions of something, types, types, principles.
• Make it a rule: not a day without learning THREE terms. There will be plenty of them over time. A three a day It's not that difficult to learn. Repeat FIVE terms every day, concepts which you have already learned. Make up LIST remember them from this list, repeat them.

Second step: thoroughly study the structure of assignments and their evaluation system.

• You must clearly know WHAT need to be done in one task or another. Understand essence of the task, have a table of points that you can get for completing tasks.
• The tasks have general principles. For example, in task No. 1 you need to fill out a table, in task No. 2 you need to find a word that is generalizing for all the others, etc. . Remembering the structure of tasks, you won’t waste time reading them every time, much less understanding them. You must know the entire structure of the work clearly.

Third step: completing test tasks

• I always tell my students that quantity turns into quality. The more options you perform, the stronger your knowledge will be, the better your skills will be formed.
• You have already covered all the topics to one degree or another. I think it needs to be done both full versions and thematic ones, no matter what stage of theory learning you are at.
• How many tests should I do per week? I will not answer this question unequivocally. It depends on your workload and level of preparation. My students complete a week first two tests(at the level of studying the material), and then, when the theory is mostly completed - 3-4 each. Do not need anymore. You just won't have time. It's even better to do one test, but thoroughly, understanding the answer to each question.
• Be sure to sort out your mistakes. Complete the material for which they are qualified. It’s not enough to simply state how many mistakes you made in a variant. It is important to understand WHY done, HOW prevent them from happening in the future.
• Keep a separate notebook for tests. Write down your answers and comments on errors in it. This will make it easier for you to remember the material. It’s not for nothing that people say that learn from mistakes.

High scores on the Unified State Exam = theory + practice + systematic repetition + clearly organized time for studying + desire + will + hard work.

NOTE

Of course, this is a long process, but by the end of the year I will try to get everything done)))

For now I can offer you theory on my website. By the way, first SIX those there presented in FULL, and by politics and law material given By the most difficult topics(now I continue to work on articles). So a good basis of theoretical material has already been offered to you - teach.

Concerning tests, you can already see the first attempts at compiling them on the website. I will not post downloaded ones from any sources. I will only offer you original versions. So far this work is at the beginning stage, but here too “the process has begun.”

Sincerely, Vera Alexandrovna.

The Unified State Examination in social studies is the most popular elective exam after the mandatory Unified State Examination in mathematics and the Russian language. According to previous years, social studies was chosen by more than half of graduates, and in 2013, 69.3% passed it! And at the same time, this is one of the most difficult exams. This year, 5.3% of graduates failed the Unified State Examination in social studies, which is about 25 thousand people! What is the reason for this failure?

Five pitfalls of social studies

There is a common misconception among graduates that social studies is one of the easiest subjects. Many of them are sure that they can “talk something out” about him. This is the first trap of social studies. Students rely on their experience of giving oral answers in class, where you can really say a lot, and the teacher himself will extract the correct answer from what has been said. On the Unified State Exam, where even the detailed answers to Part C consist of only a few sentences, it is impossible to “talk”, but you need to give clear answers.

And here we have the second trap of social studies: knowledge of terminology and ability to operate with it. If terminology can be learned, then the ability to operate with it requires logical thinking skills: the ability to compare and analyze. This means that the Unified State Examination in social studies, more than any other exam, involves not simply reproducing memorized material, but “dissecting” it, which is much more difficult.

The Unified State Examination in social studies is a real integral exam: it includes five topics related to different sciences: economics, law, philosophy, sociology and political science. Each science has its own conceptual apparatus: terminology, approaches to assessment and analysis. This is the third trap - the student needs to master all the terminology and logic of each of the five sciences. The difficulty of the Unified State Exam in social studies is that, unlike, for example, mathematics, where geometric problems occupy a clear place in the structure of the exam, a comparison question can be either in the topic of economics or sociology. Consequently, the student must, first of all, determine what discipline he is dealing with, and then “turn on” the necessary conceptual apparatus.

The Unified State Exam in social studies is taken for many specialties - economics, law, public administration, architecture, customs, logistics and other specialties in the humanitarian and socio-economic fields.

When preparing for the Unified State Exam in social studies, it is difficult to avoid the fourth trap: numerous textbooks and manuals. Some of them, unfortunately, are not always conscientious and can do a bad job. It is best to take two basic textbooks as a basis - Kravchenko and Bogolyubov, which are used in most schools. However, it must be borne in mind that schools can use textbooks from different years, and FIPI in its developments of the Unified State Exam relies on the latest editions.

The fifth trap of the Unified State Examination is insufficient hours, which is assigned to this subject in school. This is due, first of all, to the paradoxes of the development of Russian education. As the Unified State Examination in social studies improves, it becomes more complicated, and at this time the school is moving away from the specialized study of this subject. And this despite the fact that it is in demand in more than 30% of humanitarian universities. Today, social studies in the school curriculum exists only as a basic subject, which is given only one hour per week.

How to avoid pitfalls and turn them into advantages when preparing?

Here are five specific tips that Maxim Sigal, head of the teaching department at the MAXIMUM training center for preparing for the Unified State Exam, gives to eleventh graders:

"Don't underestimate this exam. Many students treat social studies as something very simple, where you can barely prepare and just give answers according to logic - this is definitely not true!"

First trap: When choosing this subject, objectively evaluate your knowledge. Treat social studies like an exact science.

Second trap: learn terminology and train to think logically. All types of tasks are described in FIPI materials. Look for answers to questions, find out what exactly is required in a given answer and how each answer is scored. In the detailed assignments, specify how much you need to write to answer each question.

Third trap: learn to distinguish the terminology of each of the five disciplines included in the Unified State Exam in social studies. When answering, the first thing to do is to identify the discipline you will be dealing with.

Fourth trap: Choose textbooks for preparing for the Unified State Exam in social studies with caution: a number of them use unused terminology and concepts. Take into account the changes that were made to the Unified State Exam 2014 compared to 2013, namely:

1. Task B5 has been made more difficult. The total number of judgments given in the task conditions increases from 4 to 5. It is necessary to distribute them into three, instead of the previous two, groups of judgments: facts, assessments, theoretical statements. Here it is very easy to get confused in estimates and theoretical statements. It should be remembered that theory is learned knowledge, and assessment is one’s own opinion.
2. The topics proposed for essay writing are grouped into five blocks instead of the previous six. Topics covered taking into account the provisions of sociology and social psychology are now included in one general direction. This makes it easier to write an assignment on this topic, since the line between the terminology of these two disciplines is not always distinguishable.
3. You can get a maximum of 5 points for your essay. It is important to remember here that if the meaning of the statement is not revealed, then the work is simply not checked. Extra points are given for presenting a theoretical rationale, and the highest points are given for factual argumentation.

Fifth trap: an insufficient number of hours can be compensated for by only one thing - additional preparation for the Unified State Exam in social studies in correctly and timely chosen courses.

Many parents will be horrified after reading this material. It is so difficult and requires time and dedication to prepare! But should we be afraid, because we all want to teach our children the ability to reason independently and think logically. Often accusations are made against the Unified State Exam: this exam format, they say, “dumbs” children, forces teachers, instead of imparting knowledge, to “coach” them for the exam. We don't like it, do we? So we should be glad that with the Unified State Exam in social studies the opposite is true - in the process of preparing for it, children learn to think and use the knowledge they have acquired. Isn't this what most parents strive for?

Discussion

If the state textbooks of Bogolyubov and Kravchenko are bad, then the tests compiled on the basis of these textbooks will also always be bad. This is the main problem when passing the Unified State Exam in social studies. The only way out is to change basic textbooks, change social studies standards and change tests. I advise you to use my textbook - Valery Starikov “Interesting Social Science”, which is published on Russian and English Wikipedia:
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