Time has gone backwards. Fundamentals of historical knowledge, presentation for a history lesson (grade 10) on the topic Time has gone back

Can time go back?
"ZS" No. 1/1968

Such questions take us far beyond physics and touch on problems about which we know no more than a fish in the River Liffey knows about the city of Dublin.

“...time, dark time, mysterious
time always flows like a river..."
Thomas Wolfe. "Fabric and Spinning Wheel"

Time has been described in many metaphors, but none is older or more haunting than the image of time as a river. “You cannot step into the same river twice,” said the Greek philosopher Heraclitus, “because new waters are always flowing around you.” “You cannot even enter it once,” added his student Cratylus, “because while you are entering it, both you and the river have already managed to change in some way.” This idea, only in different words, was expressed by Ogden Ours in his poem “Time Moves Forward”:

Until this lady puts on her stocking
Another will become a lady in this short time.

In James Joyce's Finnegans Wake, the great symbol of time is the River Liffey, which flows through Dublin. Her “aimless wandering waters,” reaching the ocean in the last lines of the novel, then return to the “channel” to begin the endless cycle of change again. However, the river is not only a vivid symbol, but also a confusing one. After all, it is not time that flows, but the world. “In what units should the speed of time flow be measured? - asks the Australian philosopher J. Smart. - In seconds per...? Saying “time moves” is the same as saying “length stretches.” This idea was also reflected in poetry - in Austin Dobson, in his poem “The Paradox of Time”:

Are you saying time is ticking?
Oh, unfortunately not.
Time stands still, we're going
through space years.

But let's return to the hackneyed comparison. If a fish can swim down a river against the current, we are powerless to penetrate into the past. The changing world seems to be more like a magical green carpet, unfurling right under your feet and curling up just behind you. (This image is also taken from literature, from the works of the American science fiction writer Frank Baum, in which the Queen of Oz crosses the desert of Death, always moving in the same direction along the narrow carpet of “now”). But why does the magic carpet never unfold back? What is the physical basis of this strange, irresistible asymmetry of time? On this point there is as little agreement among physicists as there is among philosophers. And now, as a result of recent experiments, the confusion is even greater than before.

Until 1964, all fundamental laws of physics, including relativity and quantum mechanics, were “time-reversible.” In other words, it was possible to replace t on -t in any fundamental law, and it remained just as applicable to the world as before: regardless of the sign before t, the law described something that could happen in nature.

But physicists still sought to find the difference between the tip and the plumage of the “arrow of time.” They turned their attention to such events, and there are many of them, which, although theoretically possible, in reality never or almost never happen. The rays of a star, for example, travel in all directions. The opposite is never observed - they do not come from different directions and do not converge into a star, there are no reverse nuclear reactions that would make the star an absorber of radiation, and not its source. However, there is nothing in the basic laws that would make such a situation impossible in principle! Other examples are the creation of particles during the radioactive decay of nuclei and the formation of waves when a stone falls into a calm pond. These are also unidirectional events; they never happen “the other way around.” It is absolutely incredible that conditions at the "edge" of the world could be such as to provide the required type of concentrated rather than dissipated energy. Indeed, the reversibility of beta decay, for example, would mean that the electron, proton and antineutrino are fired from the “outskirts” of the world with such precision that all three particles collide at the same point and form a neutron!

The continuous expansion of the entire cosmos provides another example of such events. Here again there is no reason why this process could not, in principle, go in the opposite direction. If the distance of galaxies from each other was replaced by their approach, the red shift would turn into a blue shift, and the overall picture would not violate any known physical laws.

And although, as our experience says, these processes of expansion and dispersion are always unidirectional, they do not help us distinguish between the two ends of the arrow of time.

Many philosophers and even some physicists believed that the explanation for the arrow of time can only be found in human consciousness, in the unidirectional activity of our mind. However, their arguments were not convincing. For example, the Earth underwent a long evolution before any life arose on it, and all evidence suggests that events on Earth were once as unidirectional as they are now. Ultimately, most physicists came to the conclusion that all natural events are, in principle, time-reversible. All except those related to the statistical behavior of a large number of interacting objects.

This idea needs some explanation.

Let the cue blow destroy the 18-ball triangle on the billiard table. The balls will scatter in all directions and, say, 8 of them will fall into the holes. Suppose that immediately after this, the movement of all objects participating in the event would begin to occur in the opposite direction at the same speeds. The molecules in the holes where the balls fell would concentrate their thermal energy received when the ball fell in such a way that, as a result, the balls would be pushed back onto the billiard table. Along the way, the molecules that transfer frictional heat must return their energy to the ball and push it onto its previous path. Other balls should move in a similar way. The eight balls pushed out of the holes and the balls rolling on the table surface will move around the table until they eventually form a triangle. In this case, no sounds of collisions will be heard, because the sound energy of the molecules that participated in the occurrence of air vibrations during the initial destruction of the triangle must return to the balls and, together with the energy of their movement, ensure that the balls converge into a triangle and also push away the cue to the starting position. The pattern of motion of any individual molecule involved in this event would be absolutely nothing unusual. Apparently, not a single fundamental law of mechanics would be violated. But if you consider the billions of aimlessly wandering molecules involved in the overall picture, then the likelihood that they will all move along the path required to recreate the original triangle is too small.

Or here's another case - this time on a cosmic scale.

Since gravity is a unidirectional force - always attractive and never repulsive - one could assume that the movement of bodies under the influence of gravity is not capable of becoming time-reversible. But that's not true. Just replace the directions of motion of the planets with the opposite ones, and they would begin to revolve around the Sun in the same orbits.

But what about the collision of objects that are attracted to each other, for example, with the fall of meteorites? Undoubtedly, this event is not time-reversible. But this is also true! When a large meteorite hits the Earth, an explosion occurs. Billions of molecules are scattered in all directions. Reverse the directions of movement of all these molecules, and their collision at one point will provide exactly the amount of energy to launch the meteorite back into orbit. And at the same time, not a single fundamental law would be violated - except statistical laws!

It was here, in the laws of probability, that most nineteenth-century physicists sought the basis for the arrow of time. Probability explains such irreversible processes as the dissolution of coffee, the melting of ice cream, the explosion of a bomb, and all other familiar unidirectional events involving a large number of molecules. They are explained by the second law of thermodynamics, according to which heat is always transferred from a hotter to a colder body, increasing entropy - a measure of the disorder of a system. This law explains why shuffling makes a deck of cards disordered.

“Without any mystical call to consciousness,” stated Arthur Eddington (in the lecture in which he first introduced the image of the “arrow of time”), “it is possible to find the direction of time... Direct the arrow at will. If, following the arrow, we find more and more disorder in the state of the world, then the arrow points to the future; if, on the contrary, the disorder decreases, then the arrow points to the past. This is the only difference between past and future known to physics."

But by now it has become clear that there is a more fundamental justification for the arrow of time than with the help of statistical laws. In 1964, a group of physicists at Princeton University discovered the apparent time-irreversibility of certain weak particle interactions. “Apparently,” because the data is indirect and controversial. It only follows from them that if some premises are true, then the symmetry of time is broken.

The most important premise is known as the CPT theorem. C - corresponds to electric charge (plus or minus), P - parity (left or right mirror image) and T - time (forward or reverse). Until a decade ago, physicists believed that each of these three basic symmetries was true throughout nature. If you reverse the charges on the particles of a rock so that positive charges become negative and negative charges become positive, the rock will still remain a rock. More precisely, the stone will turn into antimatter stone, but there is no reason why antimatter cannot exist. An antimatter on Earth would explode instantly (matter and antimatter annihilate each other on contact), but physicists can imagine an antimatter galaxy exactly like our own galaxy - except for the C sign.

It was believed that the same universal symmetry is valid with respect to P (parity). If you reverse the parity of a rock or galaxy - or, what is the same thing, reflect in a mirror their entire structure down to the last wave and particle - the result will be exactly the same rock or galaxy. But in 1957, C. Yang and T. Lee received the Nobel Prize in Physics for theoretical work that led to the discovery of parity nonconservation. In the world of elementary particles there are events, including some weak interactions, that cannot occur if reflected in a mirror!

The discovery was unexpected and alarming, but physicists quickly made ends meet. Experiments were carried out, from which it followed that if these asymmetric and parity-violating events. reflected in an imaginary CP mirror, then symmetry is restored. In other words, if in addition to the usual specular reflection there is also a change in charge, then the resulting object can occur in nature. Perhaps there are galaxies made of antimatter, which is also mirror-reflected matter. In such galaxies, physicists admit, scientists could repeat every experiment with particles that can be carried out here. If we were to communicate with scientists in such a CP-reflected galaxy, there would be no way to detect whether they live in a world like ours or in a CP-reflected world. (Of course, if we went there and our spacecraft exploded upon arrival, we would know that we had entered an antimatter region).

Before physicists had time to get used to this newfound symmetry, Princeton experimenters discovered several weak interactions in which CP symmetry was apparently broken. In other words, they found several events that required breaking the sign of T in addition to reversing the signs of C and P to explain them.

In early 1966, Paolo Franchini and his wife, working at the synchrotron at Brookhaven National Laboratory, found further evidence of CP symmetry violation - this time in events associated with electromagnetic interactions. (However, their work was challenged by a group of physicists from CERN in Geneva).

Although the evidence is still indirect and partly controversial, many physicists are now convinced that in the world of elementary particles there are events that move in time in only one direction. If this is true throughout the universe, then by connecting with scientists in a distant galaxy, we can now find out whether they live in a world of matter or antimatter. To do this, you just need to tell them to do one of the experiments with CP symmetry breaking. If their description exactly matches our own description of the same experiment, then we will not explode when we arrive at them. It may well be that there are no antimatter galaxies in the Universe. But physicists like to balance everything, and if there is as much antimatter in the Universe as matter, then there may be regions of space in which all three symmetries change sign. Events in our world that are unambiguous with respect to CPT will all take the opposite path in a CPT-reversed galaxy. The matter of such a galaxy should be mirror-image, opposite in charge and moving backward in time.

But what does it mean to say that events in the galaxy go backwards in time? Nobody knows anything real about this. New experiments indicate only a preferential direction of time for some particle interactions. However, does this “arrow” have any connection with other “arrows of time” like those determined by radiation processes, the law of increasing entropy and the psychological time of living organisms? Do these arrows all point in the same direction, or could they independently point in different directions?

The most popular way to make some sense of "reverse time" has long been to imagine a world in which the processes of "shuffling" go in reverse - from disorder to order. Ludwig Boltzmann, an Austrian physicist of the last century, one of the founders of statistical thermodynamics, realized that after the molecules of a gas in a closed insulated vessel reach a state of thermal equilibrium - that is, they move in complete disorder, and therefore with maximum entropy - everything in it -small regions will always form where entropy decreases for a short time. These regions must be balanced by other regions where entropy increases, so that the average entropy remains unchanged.

Boltzmann imagined a cosmos of enormous size, perhaps infinite in space and time, the average entropy of which is maximum - that is, complete disorder reigns in it. But in the same space there are areas where entropy sometimes decreases. ("Region" may span billions of galaxies, and "sometimes" may extend over billions of years). Perhaps the receding waves of our part of the infinite ocean of space-time represent the region in which such a deviation has occurred: sometime in the past, perhaps during the original "big bang", entropy suddenly decreased; now it is increasing. A piece of order arose in the eternal and endless flow; now this order is crumbling again, and our arrow of time flies in the usual direction of increasing entropy. Are there other regions of spacetime, Boltzmann asked, in which the arrow of entropy points in a different direction? And if they exist, then would it be correct to say that time flows backward in such areas, or should we simply assume that entropy there decreases, and the area itself continues to develop forward in time?

However, when discussing the arrow of time, which smoothly changes its direction over vast periods of time, Boltzmann had a predecessor who lived many centuries before him - Plato.

In the first book of Plato's dialogue "Politician", the Foreigner tells Socrates his theory that the world passes through enormous cycles of "pulsating" time. At the end of each cycle, time stops, turns around and then goes in the opposite direction. This is how the Foreigner describes the moment of turning of time, which, according to him, took place within the memory of living humanity:

“And then the greatest destruction inevitably comes both to other living beings and to the human race, which in this case is not far behind them. And we have to experience many other wondrous and new disasters, but especially this, the greatest, which occurs in connection with the transformation of the Universe at the time when a turn of the cosmos is taking place, contrary to the current one. The age at which each animal was at first stopped for everyone, and everything, no matter how many mortals there were, stopped moving towards old age, but turned again in the opposite direction, as if growing towards youth and infancy. And so the old people's gray hair turned black, the people who grew beards had their cheeks smoothed out again and returned everyone to the age of youth they had experienced; the organisms, blooming with youth, decreasing in stature every day and night, again received the nature of a newborn child and became like him both in soul and in body, but from that time on, extremely dried out, completely disappeared.”

Plato's Foreigner has obviously fallen into a trap. If things stop in time and “then” grow backwards, then what meaning does the word “then” take on? It makes sense if only we assume a more general form of time that continues to move forward regardless of how things in the universe move. In relation to this meta-time - the time of hypothetical observation, from somewhere observing the picture - the cosmos really moves backwards. But if there is no meta-time - there is no observer who can stand outside the cosmos and watch it turn - then it becomes difficult to see what meaning can be given to the statement that the cosmos "stopped" and "then" began to move back.

It is much easier, without any logical difficulties, to imagine two parts of the Universe, for example two galaxies, in each of which time flows in opposite directions. The philosopher Hans Reichenbach, in his book The Direction of Time, suggests that this might be the case, and that intelligent beings in each galaxy would regard their own time as “forward” and time in the other galaxy as “reverse.” Both galaxies would resemble two mirror images: each would appear to be a galaxy “in reverse” to the inhabitants of the other. From this point of view, the direction of time is a relative concept like up and down, right and left, big and small. It would be almost as meaningless to say that the whole cosmos changed its direction of time as it would be meaningless to say that it turned upside down or suddenly became a mirror image of itself. This would be meaningless due to the fact that outside of space there is no absolute or fixed arrow of time by which such a rotation could be determined. Only when part of the cosmos changes the direction of time relative to another part does such a rotation make sense.

Here, however, we again encounter a significant difference between mirror reflection and time reversal. It is easy to observe a mirror-like inverted world - you just need to look in the mirror. But how can an observer from one galaxy “see” another—time-reversed—galaxy? The memories of observers in both galaxies would be aimed in opposite directions. If we were somehow able to establish a connection with an inhabitant of a time-reversed world, he would immediately forget everything, since every event would instantly become part of his future, not his past. “The memory that is only backward-looking is bad,” said the White Queen from Lewis Carroll’s book in her mirror-reflected and time-reversed (PT-reversed!) kingdom. Unfortunately, with the exception of Carroll's fantasy world, memory everywhere is directed only in one direction. Norbert Wiener, discussing similar issues in his book Cybernetics, concluded that no communication would be possible between intelligent beings in areas with opposite directions of time.

The English physicist F. Stannard went even further than Wiener. He concluded (but not all physicists agree with him) that no interaction should be possible even between particles of matter in two worlds whose time axes are directed opposite to each other. If the Universe as a whole maintains symmetry with respect to time, particles with two directions of time will be “non-communicable”, and the two worlds should be invisible to each other. The “other” world will consist of galaxies that absorb rather than emit their radiation, living organisms will become younger, a neutron will be formed in a triple collision between a proton, an electron and an antineutrino, etc. Instead of one Universe with pulsating time, like in the story of Plato's Foreigner, Stannard's concept bifurcates the cosmos into side-by-side coexisting regions, each unfolding the magic tapestry of its story simultaneously.

And now - another interesting question from the same series: is it possible to imagine a person living “backward” in a world with a normal direction of time? A younger contemporary of Plato, the Greek historian Theopompius of Chios, wrote about an apple that was enough to eat for a person to begin to become younger and younger. This, of course, is not quite the same as the complete reversal of individual time. There are several science fiction novels about people who grew up in reverse in this way, including the entertaining story "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button," written by Scott Fitzgerald in 1922. Benjamin was born in 1860 as a seventy-year-old man with gray hair and a long beard. He attended kindergarten until he was 65, graduated from high school, and married by age fifty. Thirty years later he decided to attend Harvard and graduated in 1914, when he was sixteen years old. In the army, Benjamin was promoted to the rank of brigadier general because, while still biologically older, he served as a first lieutenant in the Spanish-American War. But when he arrived in the army as a small boy, he was sent home. He became smaller and smaller, and finally he could no longer walk or talk. “Then everything grew dark,” Fitzgerald concludes his story, “and his white crib, and the dim faces leaning over him, and the sweet aroma of breast milk, all gradually blurred in his mind.”

With the exception of his growth backwards, Mr. Button lived normally in forward time. An even more amusing description of a situation in which the arrows of time, personality and the world point in opposite directions is contained in Lewis Carroll's novel Sylvia and Bruno. A German professor sends the narrator an Overseas Clock with a “reverse winding” that causes the outside world to move backward within four hours. Carroll talks amusingly about a retrograde dinner, when “an empty fork was raised to the lips, here it deftly picked up a piece of lamb and quickly put it on the plate, where this piece instantly grew attached to the meat already lying there.” However, the details are not consistent with the reverse flow of time. The order of conversation at the dinner table is reversed, but the words are pronounced correctly, as if time were passing normally.

In fact, if we try to imagine a person in whom all physiological and mental processes go in the opposite direction, we will immediately encounter insurmountable difficulties. For example, he will not be able to experience again the events of his previous life, because these events are closely connected with his external world, and this world moves forward in time. Will we not see this man in a mad dance of death, like the one that an automaton performs when its engine turns in the other direction? Or perhaps, from his point of view, he will consider that he is thinking in the right way, while the world will seem to him to be going backwards? If so, then he should not see or hear anything in this world, because all sound and light waves will move towards their sources.

VIII

We will obviously only encounter absurd paradoxes if we try to apply the various arrows of time to man and the world in which he lives. But is it not reasonable to talk about a part of the Universe moving along an unusual path through time at the micro level of quantum theory? It turns out that it is possible. In 1948, Richard Feynman, who won the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics, developed a mathematical approach to quantum theory that treated the antiparticle as a particle moving backwards in time over fractions of a microsecond. When a pair is formed from an electron and its antiparticle - a positron (a positively charged electron), the positron lives for an extremely short time. It almost immediately collides with another electron, both annihilate, leaving gamma rays. Three different particles seem to be involved in this process - one positron and two electrons. But according to Feynman's theory, there is only one particle here - the electron. What we see as a positron is actually just an electron moving backwards in time for a brief moment. As our time runs forward uniformly, we see the time-reversed electron as a positron. We think that the positron disappears when it hits another electron, but in fact - according to Feynman - it is the same original electron that has resumed its movement forward in time. The electron seems to perform a zigzag microdance in space-time, running first into the future, then into the past, sometimes jumping into the past so far that we can notice its trajectory in the bubble chamber and consider that we have seen a positron moving forward in time.

Feynman came up with his basic idea when he was a student at Princeton during a telephone conversation with his physics professor John Wheeler. In his acceptance speech for the Nobel Prize, Feynman recounts the story as follows:

“Feynman,” Wheeler said, “I know why all electrons have the same charge and the same mass.” "Why?" - asked Feynman. “Because,” Wheeler replied, “they are all the same electron!”

And Wheeler began to explain further over the phone the amazing guess that came to him. In the theory of relativity, physicists use so-called Minkowski plots to illustrate the movement of objects in space-time. The trajectory of an object on such a graph is called its “world line.” Wheeler imagined that a single electron moved like a shuttle back and forth through space-time and traced a continuous world line. This world line is like a giant tangled ball of twine with billions of billions of knots, filling the entire cosmos in one super-temporal instant. If you draw a cross section through cosmic space-time at right angles to the time axis, you get a picture of three-dimensional space at a certain moment in time. This three-dimensional cross-section moves forward along the axis of time, and it is on this forward-moving strip of “now” that the events of the world perform their eternal dance. In this cross-section, the electron's world line breaks up into billions of billions of dancing dots, and each dot corresponds to an intersection with the electron's world line. If the cross section cuts off the world line at the segment where the particle moves forward in time, then the point corresponds to the electron. If the world line is cut off at a segment where the particle is moving backwards in time, then the intersection corresponds to a pose. All the electrons and positrons of space, according to Wheeler's fantastic hypothesis, represent cross sections of the entangled trajectory of this one particle. Since they are all sections of the same world line, they naturally have the same masses and charges. Their negative and positive charges are nothing more than an indicator of the directions of time along which the particle at this instant makes its way through space-time.

There are many pitfalls in all of these things. The number of electrons and positrons in the Universe should be the same. You can verify this by drawing on a piece of paper a two-dimensional analogy of Wheeler's reasoning. Simply draw a continuous curve on the page that resembles a tangled ball and fills the entire page. Cross it with a straight line. This line makes a one-dimensional cross-section of a two-dimensional world (one axis of space and one axis of time) at some point in time. At the point where the ball is intersected by a straight line, we get electrons if the movement occurs in the direction of the arrow of time, and positrons if the movement occurs in the opposite direction. It is easy to see that the number of electrons must either be equal to the number of positrons or differ by one. That's why, when Wheeler described his hypothesis, Feynman immediately asked him:

“But, professor, there are not as many positrons around us as there are electrons.”

“Okay,” Wheeler retorted, “maybe they’re hiding in protons or something.”

Wheeler did not present a rigorous theory, but the suggestion that the positron could be thought of as an electron moving back in time for brief moments captured Feynman's imagination. He pondered the words of his teacher for a long time until he discovered that it was possible to develop a mathematical form of this hypothesis that would fully satisfy both logic and all the laws of quantum mechanics. The mathematical apparatus developed by Feynman became the cornerstone of his famous “space-time interpretation” of quantum mechanics, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize. The zigzag dance of Feynman's particles opens up a new way of treating certain calculations and greatly simplifies them. Does this mean that positrons are "really" electrons moving backwards in time? No, this is only one of the physical interpretations of “Feynman graphs”. However, with new experiments revealing the mysterious relationship between charge, parity and time direction, the zigzag dance of the Feynman electron as it traces its world line through spacetime no longer seems as unusual an interpretation as it once did.

Today, no one can predict what the new evidence that for some of the many interactions of elementary particles there is an arrow of time will ultimately lead to. Will we know which of the two possibilities is true? Or, as Plato thought, the stream of existence carries us into the future, which in a sense already exists. In other words, history is an already filmed film projected onto the four-dimensional screen of our space-time for the entertainment or edification of some incomprehensible audience. Or is the future open and not predetermined and does not exist in any sense until it actually occurs? Such questions take us far beyond physics and touch on problems about which we know no more than a fish in the River Liffey knows about the city of Dublin.

Translation by V. Skurlatov

A harsh but pleasant light fell on the guy’s eyes. Squinting slightly, he got used to the light and managed to see the source. Huge windows letting in sunlight, and most importantly... what made the guy freeze motionless in place... her. He saw her features from the front. Bathed in sunlight penetrating through the huge windows, they seemed even thinner, more beautiful, more tender. Amazing. How did such a seemingly fragile creature end up in such a serious establishment?! Noticing the stranger, the girl suddenly fell silent and turned her gaze to the newcomer who interrupted her report. So cold and brave. Her eyes, the color of the unbridled sea element, made her hold her breath. She looked as if at any second she was ready with a well-aimed shot to get rid of, apparently at first glance, not a trustworthy stranger. Having straightened the pocket of her black uniform in which the weapon was kept, the girl quickly walked towards the door. Peter stood motionless. Having followed her departure only from the corner of his gaze. - Hey! Wake up! The man watched the guy frozen in place with a slight mockery - Eh? Sorry! Peter straightened up and looked seriously into the director’s eyes. After all, his future is being decided now. He can’t give the impression of a frivolous, amorous and absent-minded fool! In fact! - Well, tell me where you came from. For what merits were you sent here? And what do you want? The director clasped his hands and with a light, mocking smile began to examine the newcomer who appeared before him. “I think you know everything perfectly well, but I don’t dare contradict you.” I arrived from ABIR, you know the transcript. For what merit? Honestly, I didn’t fully understand it myself, but apparently for work done honestly and for better academic performance. But I myself want to receive proper development. Since I was sent here. Saving people’s lives while working in a good team wouldn’t be bad. If this place became my new home, and my colleagues became my family. The guy suddenly fell silent and added more quietly, “Sorry, I stirred up too much.” “Nothing, nothing. I will take into account your wishes.” The director smiled. - Well, communicating with you is quite funny, but let’s not waste any more time. The director stood up. Now Peter could see him in full height. Like Nikita, this man was taller and more broad-shouldered than himself, but his whole appearance, unlike the more friendly Nikita, inspired admiration, made one feel respect, and even inspired a certain fear. The kind that once you hit, you won’t be able to stop it. The director let him through. the newcomer forward and, closing his abode, moved with a calm, measured step along the corridor. Having waited until the new subordinate caught up with him, the Director said with a slight grin: “Now, you will show me all your skills.” The best student. The man chuckled - If you hold out for at least 10 minutes in the fight with my best fighters, I promise, I will enroll you in their squad. And if you don't hold out. Good riddance to you back to ABIR. The man smiled sincerely, putting his hands behind his back, and Peter exhaled convulsively. “Either everything or nothing? However, the director is cheerful.” *** Quite quickly, they crossed the intricate corridors and found themselves at the entrance to a large training hall. The door was closed, and rather frightening sounds were heard from behind it. Peter sighed. “What kind of monsters are they training there? It feels like there is a shootout going on there with huge cobblestones, which are smashed to pieces and their small fragments fly into the walls. Like bullets.” “Yes. I definitely don’t have much imagination.” The guy grinned. The director looked at him meaningfully and with a sharp movement of his hand opened the door. Noise. stopped abruptly. - Welcome the newcomer, my dears. He has been given the task of holding out against you for 10 minutes. Of course, not against everyone at once. So you will finish him off in less than 10 seconds. Please take a turn. Susan, as always, I’ll leave it to you to finish him off. boy. The man smiled and turned to Peter, patted the guy on the shoulder in a friendly manner and left. “Tell me the results. Just don’t kill him.” Finally, the man said and completely disappeared from view. Peter sighed and looked up at his rivals. Yes, it seems he stopped. breathe. Not only did the four standing in front of him inspire genuine horror, but in this four there was the same girl he had seen just recently. The guy exhaled. “Pull yourself together!” If they get you here, if you plunge your face into the mud here, then what can you possibly achieve?!" And he managed to pull himself together. - Well, hello guy! A tall, dark girl throwing, apparently, shurikens at the target, gracefully threw back her brown hair and smiled. She threw the last shuriken and it hit the target. The distance between the thrower and her victim was, to put it mildly, quite large - What’s your name? Peter didn’t have time to respond to the girl’s remark! , as the guy joined the dialogue. He easily threw the seemingly heavy weights up like a feather and smiled at all 32. The other two members of the team chose to remain silent and continued to train. However, the tall, graceful guy was still distracted from his training. turned to the others. “Let’s distribute who will start and continue. Who will finish all this, it’s clear. Everyone will be given 2.5 minutes to scratch their fists.” Although, perhaps, we will take pity on the unfortunate one. The one who starts first will fight for 3 minutes, Susan for you 2 minutes. The guy smiled. Finally, the hero of the occasion himself joined the dialogue. - Good afternoon, gentlemen. My name is Peter. And I hope to become your comrade. Peter seriously looked at everyone who deigned to turn to him and smiled. - Brave claim. Part of the metal exercise machine slid to the floor with a nasty grinding sound. Susan turned to the guy, sheathing her sword. “Let’s begin. I can’t wait to end this whole misunderstanding.” The girl said seriously and somehow too coldly, her blue whirlpools flashing. -Syuuyuzeen, why are you so mean? Well, he's a normal guy! Mark stood up for Peter, but the stern look of his comrade forced him to bite his tongue. “Okay, really, we should start already.” The dark-skinned girl smiled. -Although, first of all, we should also introduce ourselves. My name is Michelle. -My Mark! The guy smiled radiantly. -Daniel. The tall guy said indifferently and turned his gaze to the blue-eyed one. -Susan. Without taking her eyes off Peter, the girl said. She looked at him like a tiger at a doomed, indecently weak and pathetic victim. And I must say, Peter was very angry about this. -Let's start. Peter commanded and took off his light jacket. “I’ll start. Hand-to-hand combat. Then the swordsmen will get involved, and we’ll also test you on your shooting and throwing abilities and your reaction.” Having said the last word, Michelle grinned and immediately three shuriken flew at Peter. The guy's eyes widened, he sharply arched his back and avoided all three shuriken! But then the next portion flew at him. The guy jumped, then grabbed a small knife from his belt and knocked one of the shuriken away from the other, but simply dodged. -Not bad. But how do you like that?! The girl quickly turned around her axis and a darkness of shurikens flew from both her hands. “It seems they don’t really want to accept someone new into the team.” Peter sighed. “Michelle! Are you going to kill him or something? Not all C-rank students are like that.” Mark stopped short. Peter deftly and quickly spun in the air. Jumped from place to place and often fought off sharp throwing weapons and yet, despite all his dexterity, one of the shuriken cut his shoulder, making the guy wince and press his hand over the wound. Michelle grinned. “My time is up.” Mark. next. The boy sighed and looked at the wounded man with sympathy. Of course, no one was going to give him a break. He was lucky that he escaped with only one wound. Peter exhaled loudly and with a sharp movement tore a piece from his T-shirt, wrapped it around the wound, and ran his hand over it! black hair and grinned. There was a fire burning in his blue eyes, and something was seething inside with terrible force. -Let's go! Mark grinned and, running and somersaulting in the air, he wanted to hit Peter, but the guy managed to dodge and his fist slammed into the wall. Light cracks appeared along it. “Cool, it seems they sent me here. So that I could really say goodbye to life. But my gods, this is so amusing! Risking your life to fulfill a dream is for me!” Adrenaline pulsated furiously through the veins. If he doesn’t dodge or doesn’t will put up a good block. He risks saying goodbye to his bones and probably even his insides. Peter sighed and rushed to meet his enemy with a smile. Both jumped into the air. Punch-Block. Block-punch. Mark, before landing back on the hard surface, managed to roundhouse kick Peter in the stomach. The guy flew into the wall, hitting his head. -Oh. I didn’t want it that bad! Are you alive there? Mark asked without hiding his excitement, and Peter shook his head, focused his gaze and grinned, slowly getting up. - Still alive. “Mark. Your time is up.” Daniel said, not indifferently, and with a slight, almost imperceptible sparkle in his eyes, he entered the battlefield, drawing a short sword and throwing the same one to the enemy. -And you're funny. I've lasted almost six minutes already! With extraordinary speed, the guy moved towards his victim. The blows were precise and well-aimed. Peter barely had time to fight back and put up blocks. My shoulder ached and my head hurt, but I only had four minutes left to hold out!” Come on, Peter, you can do it!” The guy sharply dodged the next blow. The pear was mercilessly cut in half. Peter exhaled in relief and suddenly noticed an interested look on himself. Susan was carefully watching his every move, without looking away. He was able to attract her attention and even surprise her. Inside. .something began to bubble with renewed vigor and Peter jumped to his feet, spinning like maple seeds in the wind and striking at the enemy. All his attacks were repulsed, which goes without saying, but he was able to at least stall for time. And when Daniel swung for the next blow he was stopped by a stern, calm voice. - Stop. Time is up. Susan pulled the sword out of its sheath and finally looked into Peter’s eyes. The sea element in her eyes was raging, mesmerizing. - Susan! The boy was still able to interest you? Mark, who was lying on the mat, commented without holding back a smile. “Darling, just don’t turn him into a salad.” He’s already suffered enough.” Michelle added her word and sighed with curiosity while watching the couple. “Let’s go.” The blue eyes sparkled and within a second the tip of the sword whistled over Peter’s head, cutting off a couple of black hairs. The guy quickly jumped away from the girl, but she didn’t lag behind him. It’s obviously not possible to strike back. -A fun catch-up game. Especially when a beautiful girl catches up with you, trying to stab you. Peter said with a short laugh, dodging another attack and hearing the same nasty grinding sound. Another iron simulator is out of action. The guy swallowed. -Let's! Hold on! Thirty seconds left! Michelle shouted and smiled, Mark supported her and even Daniel nodded approvingly. “In these thirty seconds, I will have time to cut your wonderful little head off your shoulders thirty times.” Susan grinned. Peter sighed. “Thirty seconds. I don’t have any strength left, but I can take a risk and do something.” The girl swung and delivered an accurate blow. Pieterne dodged, only moving slightly, imperceptibly to the side, so that the sword would pierce through a non-vital point .Everyone gasped. And oh yes, Susan hesitated for a couple of seconds. With difficulty overcoming the pain, with a victorious grin, Peter knocked the sword out of her hands and, using his physical strength, knocked her down, knocking her opponent to the floor. However, Susan woke up at that very moment , as soon as her back met the floor. She sharply crushed the guy under her and, somehow managing to reach the lost weapon, put it to the guy’s throat. “Damn asshole.” The girl couldn’t hold back and exhaled. There was a barely noticeable blush on her face and it made Peter smile at all of his thirty-two. -Sue. I want to disappoint you, but two minutes ended five seconds ago. He. held out. - Hurray! Welcome to us Peter! Mark exclaimed joyfully. And Susan froze, sitting astride Peter and never removing the sword from his throat. -It’s probably very comfortable to sit on me. And it’s not that I would be against it, but. - Shut up before I cut your throat! The girl jumped up abruptly and turned away. “What the.hell? What’s going on with me anyway! How could I.allow this?! And this guy is cunning and.amazing.” The girl exhaled and turned to the guys. “Yes. Congratulations. I wonder how long you’ll last with us in the group.” Sue grinned. “I’ll go and tell the director!” Mark said and hurriedly left. Peter collapsed exhaustedly on the floor. A veil covered his eyes, but the smile never left his lips. “Hey, hey! It seems he’s losing too much blood!” ! Daniel commented on the situation excitedly and very soon Michelle was next to Peter. She quickly treated the guy’s wounds and bandaged them. Before passing out, Peter saw Susan approaching him and sitting down on her knees next to him. He saw the excitement in her eyes and, with a smile on her face and a clear conscience, passed out.

WHAT IS HISTORY? History is a certain reality of the past, the existence of nature, society and man over a long period of time. History is a certain reality of the past, the existence of nature, society and man over a long period of time. History is the science of society and man in the diversity of their past, in their development and change. History is the science of society and man in the diversity of their past, in their development and change.

THINK ABOUT THE STATEMENTS... “The subject of history as a theoretical construction is the past, separate from the present and the future.” Simmel. “The subject of history as a theoretical construct is the past, separate from the present and future.” Simmel. “The very idea that the past as such can be an object of science is absurd.” M.Blok. “The very idea that the past as such can be an object of science is absurd.” M.Blok. “For the historian, situating the past is equally a form of situating the future.” De Certeau. “For the historian, situating the past is equally a form of situating the future.” De Certeau. “The identification of history with the past is unacceptable.” W. Lucy. “The identification of history with the past is unacceptable.” W. Lucy. “The state... is a subject of universal history.” G. Hegel. “The state... is a subject of universal history.” G. Hegel.

COMMENT ON THE WORDS OF HISTORIAN I.A. GOBOZOV: “The problem of historical space is connected with the problem of a single world history, which has not always existed...” “The problem of historical space is connected with the problem of a single world history, which has not always existed...”

GIVE HISTORICAL EXAMPLES OF IDIOMATIC REVERSES: “Time rushed at a gallop” “Time rushed at a gallop” “Time slowed down” “Time slowed down” “Time went backwards” “Time went backwards” “You don’t choose time” “You don’t choose time” “Hostages” Time" "Hostages of Time"

THE PROBLEM OF “UNITY OF TIME2” St. Augustine St. Augustine () () “About the City of God” “About the City of God”

GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH HEGEL

N.Ya.DANILEVSKY

“Napoleon was convinced of his resemblance to Charlemagne. The French Revolutionary Convention spoke of Carthage, meaning England, and the Jacobins called themselves Romans. From this series of comparisons, the likening of Florence to Athens, Buddha to Christ, early Christianity to modern socialism, Roman legionnaires of the time of Caesar to the American Yankees.” “Napoleon was convinced of his resemblance to Charlemagne. The French Revolutionary Convention spoke of Carthage, meaning England, and the Jacobins called themselves Romans. From this series of comparisons, the likening of Florence to Athens, Buddha to Christ, early Christianity to modern socialism, Roman legionnaires of the time of Caesar to the American Yankees.”

RUSSIAN HISTORIAN BARG “Here there is a rejection of history itself, close attention to structures and processes created a type of “socially impersonal”, “mass man”, wholly and completely formed by time, and not formed by historical time.”

REASONS FOR PASSION FOR THE CIVILIZATIONAL APPROACH: Crisis of the formational approach Crisis of the formational approach Restoration of event history Restoration of event history It is based on the works of Danilevsky, Spengler, Toffler, Toynbee. It is based on the works of Danilevsky, Spengler, Toffler, and Toynbee.

AUXILIARY HISTORICAL DISCIPLINES chronology, the study of time systems; paleography – handwritten monuments and ancient writing; diplomacy - historical acts; numismatics – coins, medals, orders, monetary systems, history of trade; metrology – system of measures; heraldry - coats of arms of countries, cities, individual families; sphragistics – seals; epigraphy – inscriptions on stone, clay, metal; genealogy - the origin of cities and surnames; toponymy - the origin of geographical names; Local history - the history of an area, region, region.

PRINCIPLES OF STUDYING HISTORICAL DATA The principle of historicism requires consideration of all historical facts, phenomena and events in accordance with the specific historical situation, in their interrelation and interdependence. The principle of objectivity presupposes reliance on facts in their true content, not distorted or adjusted to fit a scheme. The principle of the social approach involves considering historical and economic processes taking into account the social interests of various segments of the population and various forms of their manifestation in society. The principle of alternativeness determines the degree of probability of the occurrence of a particular event or phenomenon.

"Theory of Knowledge"- Philosophers. I am tormented by an eternal desire, the more I know, the less I know. Stages of searching for truth. Knowledge is power. The need for knowledge of reality. Sensation is a reflection of the properties of the sides of objects or phenomena. The paradox of cognition. Theory of knowledge. True. Truth = truth. What we know is limited, but what we do not know is infinite.

"Methods of scientific knowledge"- General logical methods of cognition - analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction. Induction and deduction. Features of scientific knowledge. Multilevel concept of methodological knowledge. Measurement. Methods of analogy and modeling. General methods. The classification of general scientific methods is closely related to the concept of levels of scientific knowledge.

"Cognition"- Vico’s ideas had a great influence on subsequent ideas about history and culture. In their approaches to this topic, scientists are divided into optimists, pessimists, and skeptics. Social and humanitarian knowledge are interpenetrated. Thirdly, science is characterized by a special systematic nature of knowledge. Sensory and rational knowledge.

"The problem of the cognizability of the world"- Basic concepts of the theory of knowledge. The problem of the cognizability of the world. Philosophical solutions to the problem of criteria of truth. True. Objectivity. Types of truth. Heliocentric system of the world. Types of knowledge. Features of scientific thinking. Epistemology. Correspondence of knowledge to reality. The main problem is in philosophy.

“The problem of knowledge” - Foresight. Hypothesis. In the narrow sense, as information confirmed by scientific means. Scientific knowledge is based on verified evidence. Group 3 Study the topic “Adults and Children”. Forms of mental activity. Knowledge. Draw conclusions. Sensual. Induction is an inference from facts to a general statement.

"Scientific knowledge"- Molecules. Striving for objectivity. Lesson topic: Scientific knowledge Section “cognition”. Lesson plan: X-rays. Ultrasound has been used in physiotherapy for many years. B1-09: Arkhipov Alexey Maximov Maxim Vladimirova Olga. Completed by students gr. Why is experiment a criterion for the correctness of a scientific theory?

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