Wars with Lithuania and the Livonian Order briefly. Livonian War
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Livonian War 1558 - 1583 - the largest military conflict of the 16th century. in Eastern Europe, which took place on the territory of present-day Estonia, Latvia, Belarus, Leningrad, Pskov, Novgorod, Smolensk and Yaroslavl regions Russian Federation and Chernigov region of Ukraine. Participants - Russia, Livonian Confederation (Livonian Order, Riga Archbishopric, Dorpat Bishopric, Ezel Bishopric and Courland Bishopric), Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russian and Samogit, Poland (in 1569 the last two states united into the federal state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth), Sweden, Denmark.
Start of the war
It was started by Russia in January 1558 as a war with the Livonian Confederation: according to one version, with the aim of acquiring trade ports in the Baltic, according to another, with the aim of forcing the Dorpat bishopric to pay the “Yuriev tribute” (which was to be paid to Russia under the treaty of 1503 for the possession of the former ancient Russian city of Yuryev (Dorpt, now Tartu) and the acquisition of new lands for distribution to the nobles on the estate.
After the defeat of the Livonian Confederation and the transition in 1559 - 1561 of its members under the suzerainty of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russia and Samogit, Sweden and Denmark, the Livonian War turned into a war between Russia and these states, as well as with Poland - which was in a personal union with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , Russian and Zhemoytsky. Russia's opponents sought to keep the Livonian territories under their rule, as well as to prevent Russia from strengthening in the event of the transfer of trade ports in the Baltic to it. At the end of the war, Sweden also set the goal of taking possession of Russian lands on the Karelian Isthmus and in the Izhora Land (Ingria) - and thereby cutting off Russia from the Baltic.
Russia concluded a peace treaty with Denmark already in August 1562; it fought with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russia and Samogit and with Poland with varying success until January 1582 (when the Yam-Zapolsky Truce was concluded), and with Sweden, also with varying success, until May 1583 (before the conclusion of the Plyussky Truce ).
Progress of the war
In the first period of the war (1558 - 1561), military operations took place on the territory of Livonia (present-day Latvia and Estonia). Military actions alternated with truces. During the campaigns of 1558, 1559 and 1560, Russian troops captured many cities, defeated the troops of the Livonian Confederation at Thiersen in January 1559 and at Ermes in August 1560, and forced the states of the Livonian Confederation to join the large states of Northern and Eastern Europe or to recognize vassal dependence on them.
In the second period (1561 - 1572), military operations took place in Belarus and the Smolensk region, between the troops of Russia and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russia and Samogit. On February 15, 1563, the army of Ivan IV captured the largest of the cities of the principality - Polotsk. An attempt to advance further into Belarus led to the defeat of the Russians in January 1564 at Chashniki (on the Ulla River). Then there was a break in hostilities.
In the third period (1572 - 1578), hostilities again moved to Livonia, which the Russians tried to take away from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden. During the campaigns of 1573, 1575, 1576 and 1577, Russian troops captured almost all of Livonia north of the Western Dvina. However, an attempt to take Revel from the Swedes in 1577 failed, and in October 1578, a Polish-Lithuanian-Swedish army defeated the Russians near Wenden.
In the fourth period (1579 - 1582), the king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Stefan Batory undertook three major campaigns against Russia. In August 1579 he returned Polotsk, in September 1580 he captured Velikiye Luki, and from August 18, 1581 to February 4, 1582 he unsuccessfully besieged Pskov. At the same time, in 1580 - 1581, the Swedes took Narva, which they had captured in 1558, from the Russians and took possession of Russian lands on the Karelian Isthmus and Ingria. The Swedes' siege of the Oreshek fortress in September - October 1582 ended in failure. Nevertheless, Russia, which also had to confront the Crimean Khanate, as well as suppress uprisings in the former Kazan Khanate, could no longer fight.
Results of the war
As a result of the Livonian War, most of the German states that arose on the territory of Livonia (present-day Latvia and Estonia) in the 13th century ceased to exist. (with the exception of the Duchy of Courland).
Not only was Russia unable to acquire any territory in Livonia, but it also lost the access it had before the war to Baltic Sea(returned, however, by her as a result of the Russian-Swedish war of 1590 - 1593). The war led to economic ruin, which contributed to the emergence of a socio-economic crisis in Russia, which then grew into the Troubles early XVII V.
The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth began to control most of the Livonian lands (Livonia and the southern part of Estonia became part of it, and Courland became a vassal state in relation to it - the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia). Sweden received the northern part of Estland, and Denmark received the islands of Ösel (now Saaremaa) and Moon (Muhu).
The best thing that history gives us is the enthusiasm it arouses.
Goethe
The Livonian War lasted from 1558 to 1583. During the war, Ivan the Terrible sought to gain access to and capture the port cities of the Baltic Sea, which was supposed to significantly improve the economic situation of Rus' by improving trade. In this article we will talk briefly about the Levon War, as well as all its aspects.
Beginning of the Livonian War
The sixteenth century was a period of continuous wars. The Russian state sought to protect itself from its neighbors and return lands that had previously been part of Ancient Rus'.
Wars were fought on several fronts:
- The eastern direction was marked by the conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, as well as the beginning of the development of Siberia.
- The southern direction of foreign policy represented the eternal struggle with the Crimean Khanate.
- The western direction is the events of the long, difficult and very bloody Livonian War (1558–1583), which will be discussed.
Livonia is a region in the eastern Baltic. On the territory of modern Estonia and Latvia. In those days, there was a state created as a result of the crusader conquests. As a state entity, it was weak due to national contradictions (the Baltic people were placed in feudal dependence), religious split (the Reformation penetrated there), and the struggle for power among the elite.
Reasons for the start of the Livonian War
Ivan the Terrible started the Livonian War against the backdrop of the success of his foreign policy in other areas. The Russian prince-tsar sought to push the borders of the state back in order to gain access to shipping areas and ports of the Baltic Sea. And the Livonian Order gave the Russian Tsar ideal reasons for starting the Livonian War:
- Refusal to pay tribute. In 1503, the Livn Order and Rus' signed a document according to which the former agreed to pay an annual tribute to the city of Yuryev. In 1557, the Order unilaterally withdrew from this obligation.
- The weakening of the foreign political influence of the Order against the backdrop of national disagreements.
Speaking about the reason, we should focus on the fact that Livonia separated Rus' from the sea and blocked trade. Large merchants and nobles who wanted to appropriate new lands were interested in capturing Livonia. But main reason One can highlight the ambitions of Ivan IV the Terrible. Victory was supposed to strengthen his influence, so he waged the war, regardless of the circumstances and the meager capabilities of the country for the sake of his own greatness.
Progress of the war and main events
The Livonian War was fought with long interruptions and is historically divided into four stages.
First stage of the war
At the first stage (1558–1561), the fighting was relatively successful for Russia. In the first months, the Russian army captured Dorpat, Narva and was close to capturing Riga and Revel. The Livonian Order was on the verge of death and asked for a truce. Ivan the Terrible agreed to stop the war for 6 months, but this was a huge mistake. During this time, the Order came under the protectorate of Lithuania and Poland, as a result of which Russia received not one weak, but two strong opponents.
The most dangerous enemy for Russia was Lithuania, which at that time could in some aspects surpass the Russian kingdom in its potential. Moreover, the Baltic peasants were dissatisfied with the newly arrived Russian landowners, the cruelties of war, extortions and other disasters.
Second stage of the war
The second stage of the war (1562–1570) began with the fact that the new owners of the Livonian lands demanded that Ivan the Terrible withdraw his troops and abandon Livonia. In fact, it was proposed that the Livonian War should end, and Russia would be left with nothing as a result. After the tsar’s refusal to do this, the war for Russia finally turned into an adventure. The war with Lithuania lasted 2 years and was unsuccessful for the Russian Kingdom. The conflict could only be continued in conditions of the oprichnina, especially since the boyars were against the continuation of hostilities. Earlier, for dissatisfaction with the Livonian War, in 1560 the tsar dispersed the “Elected Rada”.
It was at this stage of the war that Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was a strong power that everyone, without exception, had to reckon with.
Third stage of the war
The third stage (1570–1577) involved local battles between Russia and Sweden for the territory of modern Estonia. They ended without any significant results for both sides. All battles were local in nature and did not have any significant impact on the course of the war.
The fourth stage of the war
At the fourth stage of the Livonian War (1577–1583), Ivan IV again captured the entire Baltic region, but soon the tsar’s luck ran out and the Russian troops were defeated. The new king of the united Poland and Lithuania (Rzeczpospolita), Stefan Batory, expelled Ivan the Terrible from the Baltic region, and even managed to capture a number of cities already on the territory of the Russian kingdom (Polotsk, Velikiye Luki, etc.). The fighting was accompanied by terrible bloodshed. Since 1579, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth has been assisted by Sweden, which acted very successfully, capturing Ivangorod, Yam, and Koporye.
Russia was saved from complete defeat by the defense of Pskov (from August 1581). During the 5 months of the siege, the garrison and residents of the city repelled 31 assault attempts, weakening Batory’s army.
The end of the war and its results
The Yam-Zapolsky truce between the Russian kingdom and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1582 put an end to a long and unnecessary war. Russia abandoned Livonia. The coast of the Gulf of Finland was lost. It was captured by Sweden, with which the Treaty of Plus was signed in 1583.
Thus, the following causes of damage can be identified: Russian state, which sums up the results of the Liovno War:
- adventurism and ambitions of the tsar - Russia could not wage a war simultaneously with three strong states;
- the harmful influence of the oprichnina, economic ruin, Tatar attack.
- A deep economic crisis within the country, which erupted during the 3rd and 4th stages of hostilities.
Despite the negative outcome, it was the Livonian War that determined the direction of Russian foreign policy for many years to come - to gain access to the Baltic Sea.
Description of the Livonian War
The Livonian War (1558–1583) was a war of the Russian kingdom against the Livonian Order, the Polish-Lithuanian state, Sweden and Denmark for hegemony in the Baltic states.
Main events (Livonian War - briefly)
Causes: Access to the Baltic Sea. Hostile policy of the Livonian Order.
Occasion: Refusal of the order to pay tribute for Yuriev (Dorpat).
First stage (1558-1561): The capture of Narva, Yuriev, Fellin, the capture of Master Furstenberg, the Livonian Order as a military force practically ceased to exist.
Second stage (1562-1577): Entry into the war of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (since 1569) and Sweden. Capture of Polotsk (1563). Defeat on the river Ule and near Orsha (1564). Capture of Weissenstein (1575) and Wenden (1577).
Third stage (1577-1583): Campaign of Stefan Batory, Fall of Polotsk, Velikiye Luki. Defense of Pskov (August 18, 1581 - February 4, 1582) Capture of Narva, Ivangorod, Koporye by the Swedes.
1582– Yam-Zapolsky truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Ivan the Terrible’s refusal from Livonia for the return of lost Russian fortresses).
1583– Plyusskoe truce with Sweden (renunciation of Estland, concession to the Swedes of Narva, Koporye, Ivangorod, Korela).
Causes of defeat: incorrect assessment of the balance of power in the Baltic states, weakening of the state as a result of the internal policies of Ivan IV.
Progress of the Livonian War (1558–1583) (full description)
Causes
In order to start a war, formal reasons were found, but the real reasons were Russia’s geopolitical need to gain access to the Baltic Sea, as it would be more convenient for direct connections with the centers of European civilizations, and the desire to participate in the division of the territory of the Livonian Order, the progressive collapse of which became obvious, but which, not wanting to strengthen Muscovite Rus', prevented its external contacts.
Russia had a small section of the Baltic coast, from the Neva basin to Ivangorod. However, it was strategically vulnerable and had no ports or developed infrastructure. Ivan the Terrible hoped to take advantage transport system Livonia. He considered it an ancient Russian fiefdom, which was illegally seized by the crusaders.
The forceful solution to the problem predetermined the defiant behavior of the Livonians themselves, who, even according to historians, acted unreasonably. Mass pogroms of Orthodox churches in Livonia served as a reason for aggravation of relations. Even at that time, the truce between Moscow and Livonia (concluded in 1504 as a result of the Russian-Lithuanian war of 1500-1503) had expired. To extend it, the Russians demanded payment of the Yuriev tribute, which the Livonians were obliged to pay again Ivan III, but in 50 years they have never collected it. Having recognized the need to pay it, they again did not fulfill their obligations.
1558 - the Russian army entered Livonia. Thus began the Livonian War. It lasted 25 years, becoming the longest and one of the most difficult in Russian history.
First stage (1558-1561)
In addition to Livonia, the Russian Tsar wanted to conquer the East Slavic lands, which were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. 1557, November - he concentrated a 40,000-strong army in Novgorod for a campaign in the Livonian lands.
Capture of Narva and Syrensk (1558)
In December, this army under the command of the Tatar prince Shig-Aley, Prince Glinsky and other governors advanced to Pskov. The auxiliary army of Prince Shestunov, meanwhile, began military operations from the Ivangorod region at the mouth of the Narva (Narova) River. 1558, January - the tsarist army approached Yuryev (Dorpt), but was unable to capture it. Then part of the Russian army turned to Riga, and the main forces headed to Narva (Rugodiv), where they united with Shestunov’s army. There was a lull in the fighting. Only the garrisons of Ivangorod and Narva fired at each other. On May 11, Russians from Ivangorod attacked the Narva fortress and were able to take it the next day.
Soon after the capture of Narva, Russian troops under the command of governors Adashev, Zabolotsky and Zamytsky and Duma clerk Voronin were ordered to capture the Syrensk fortress. On June 2, the shelves were under its walls. Adashev set up barriers on the Riga and Kolyvan roads to prevent the main forces of the Livonians under the command of the Master of the Order from reaching Syrensk. On June 5, large reinforcements from Novgorod approached Adashev, which the besieged saw. On the same day, artillery shelling of the fortress began. The next day the garrison surrendered.
Capture of Neuhausen and Dorpat (1558)
From Syrensk, Adashev returned to Pskov, where the entire Russian army was concentrated. In mid-June it took the fortresses of Neuhausen and Dorpat. The entire north of Livonia came under Russian control. The Order's army was numerically several times inferior to the Russians and, moreover, was scattered among separate garrisons. It could do nothing against the king's army. Until October 1558, the Russians in Livonia were able to capture 20 castles.
Battle of Thiersen
1559, January - Russian troops marched on Riga. Near Tiersen they defeated the Livonian army, and near Riga they burned the Livonian fleet. Although it was not possible to capture the Riga fortress, 11 more Livonian castles were taken.
Truce (1559)
The Master of the Order was forced to conclude a truce before the end of 1559. By November of this year, the Livonians were able to recruit Landsknechts in Germany and resume the war. But failures never ceased to haunt them.
1560, January - the army of governor Borboshin captured the fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin. The Livonian Order practically ceased to exist as a military force.
1561 - the last master of the Livonian Order, Kettler, recognized himself as a vassal of the King of Poland and divided Livonia between Poland and Sweden (the island of Ezel went to Denmark). The Poles got Livonia and Courland (Kettler became Duke of the latter), the Swedes got Estland.
Second stage (1562-1577)
Poland and Sweden began to demand the withdrawal of Russian troops from Livonia. Ivan the Terrible not only did not comply with this demand, but also invaded the territory of Lithuania, allied to Poland, at the end of 1562. His army numbered 33,407 men. The goal of the campaign was well-fortified Polotsk. 1563, February 15 - Polotsk, unable to withstand the fire of 200 Russian guns, capitulated. Ivan's army moved to Vilna. The Lithuanians were forced to conclude a truce until 1564. After the resumption of the war, Russian troops occupied almost the entire territory of Belarus.
But the repressions that began against the leaders of the “elected Rada” - the de facto government until the end of the 50s, had negative impact on the combat effectiveness of the Russian army. Many of the governors and nobles, fearing reprisals, preferred to flee to Lithuania. In the same 1564, one of the most prominent governors, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, moved there, close to the Adashev brothers who were part of the elected council and fearing for his life. The subsequent oprichnina terror further weakened the Russian army.
1) Ivan the Terrible; 2) Stefan Batory
Formation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
1569 - as a result of the Union of Lublin, Poland and Lithuania formed a single state, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Republic), under the leadership of the King of Poland. Now the Polish army came to the aid of the Lithuanian army.
1570 - fighting intensified in both Lithuania and Livonia. To secure the Baltic lands, Ivan IV decided to create his own fleet. At the beginning of 1570, he issued a “charter” to the Dane Karsten Rode to organize a privateer fleet, which acted on behalf of the Russian Tsar. Rohde was able to arm several ships, and he caused significant damage to Polish maritime trade. In order to have a reliable naval base, the Russian army in the same 1570 tried to capture Revel, thereby starting a war with Sweden. But the city unhinderedly received supplies from the sea, and Grozny was forced to lift the siege after 7 months. The Russian privateer fleet was never able to become a formidable force.
Third stage (1577-1583)
After a 7-year lull, in 1577, the 32,000-strong army of Ivan the Terrible launched a new campaign to Revel. But this time the siege of the city brought nothing. Then Russian troops went to Riga, capturing Dinaburg, Volmar and several other castles. But these successes were not decisive.
Meanwhile, the situation on the Polish front began to deteriorate. 1575 - an experienced military leader, the Transylvanian prince, was elected king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was able to form a strong army, which also included German and Hungarian mercenaries. Batory entered into an alliance with Sweden, and the united Polish-Swedish army in the fall of 1578 was able to defeat the 18,000-strong Russian army, which lost 6,000 people killed and captured and 17 guns.
By the start of the 1579 campaign, Stefan Batory and Ivan IV had approximately equal main armies of 40,000 men each. After the defeat at Wenden, Grozny was not confident in his abilities and proposed to begin peace negotiations. But Batory rejected this proposal and went on the offensive against Polotsk. In the autumn, Polish troops besieged the city and, after a month-long siege, captured it. The army of governors Shein and Sheremetev, sent to the rescue of Polotsk, only reached the Sokol fortress. They did not dare to engage in battle with superior enemy forces. Soon the Poles captured Sokol, defeating the troops of Sheremetev and Shein. The Russian Tsar clearly did not have enough strength to successfully fight on two fronts at once - in Livonia and Lithuania. After the capture of Polotsk, the Poles took several cities in the Smolensk and Seversk lands, and then returned to Lithuania.
1580 - Batory launched a large campaign against Rus', he captured and ravaged the cities of Ostrov, Velizh and Velikiye Luki. At the same time, the Swedish army under the command of Pontus Delagardie took the city of Korela and the eastern part of the Karelian Isthmus.
1581 - the Swedish army captured Narva, and the following year they occupied Ivangorod, Yam and Koporye. Russian troops were expelled from Livonia. The fighting moved to Russian territory.
Siege of Pskov (August 18, 1581 – February 4, 1582)
1581 - a 50,000-strong Polish army led by the king besieged Pskov. It was a very strong fortress. The city, which stood on the right, high bank of the Velikaya River at the confluence of the Pskov River, was surrounded by a stone wall. It stretched for 10 km and had 37 towers and 48 gates. However, from the side of the Velikaya River, from where it was difficult to expect an enemy attack, the wall was wooden. Under the towers there were underground passages that provided secret communication between different areas defense There were in the city significant reserves food, weapons and ammunition.
Russian troops were dispersed over many points from where an enemy invasion was expected. The Tsar himself, with a significant detachment in number, stopped in Staritsa, not risking going towards the Polish army marching towards Pskov.
When the sovereign learned about the invasion of Stefan Batory, the army of Prince Ivan Shuisky, appointed “great governor,” was sent to Pskov. 7 other governors were subordinate to him. All residents of Pskov and the garrison were sworn that they would not surrender the city, but would fight to the end. The total number of Russian troops defending Pskov reached 25,000 people and was approximately half the size of Batory’s army. By order of Shuisky, the outskirts of Pskov were devastated so that the enemy could not find fodder and food there.
Livonian War 1558-1583. Stefan Batory near Pskov
On August 18, Polish troops approached the city within 2–3 cannon shots. For a week, Batory conducted reconnaissance of Russian fortifications and only on August 26 gave the order to his troops to approach the city. But the soldiers soon came under fire from Russian cannons and retreated to the Cherekha River. There Batory set up a fortified camp.
The Poles began to dig trenches and set up tours to get closer to the walls of the fortress. On the night of September 4-5, they drove up to the Pokrovskaya and Svinaya towers on the southern face of the walls and, having placed 20 guns, on the morning of September 6 began to fire at both towers and the 150 m wall between them. By the evening of September 7, the towers were severely damaged, and a 50 m wide gap appeared in the wall. However, the besieged managed to build a new wooden wall against the gap.
On September 8, the Polish army launched an assault. The attackers were able to capture both damaged towers. But with shots from the large Bars cannon, capable of sending cannonballs over a distance of more than 1 km, the Pig Tower occupied by the Poles was destroyed. Then the Russians blew up its ruins by rolling up barrels of gunpowder. The explosion served as a signal for a counterattack, which was led by Shuisky himself. The Poles were unable to hold the Pokrovskaya Tower and retreated.
After the unsuccessful assault, Batory ordered digging to blow up the walls. The Russians were able to destroy two tunnels with the help of mine galleries, but the enemy was never able to complete the rest. On October 24, Polish batteries began shelling Pskov from across the Velikaya River with hot cannonballs to start fires, but the city’s defenders quickly dealt with the fire. After 4 days, a Polish detachment with crowbars and picks approached the wall from the Velikaya side between the corner tower and the Pokrovsky Gate and destroyed the base of the wall. It collapsed, but it turned out that behind this wall there was another wall and a ditch, which the Poles could not overcome. The besieged threw stones and pots of gunpowder on their heads, poured boiling water and tar.
On November 2, the Poles launched their final assault on Pskov. This time Batory's army attacked the western wall. Before this, it had been subjected to heavy shelling for 5 days and was destroyed in several places. However, the Russians met the enemy with heavy fire, and the Poles turned back without reaching the breaches.
By that time, the morale of the besiegers had dropped noticeably. However, the besieged also experienced considerable difficulties. The main forces of the Russian army in Staritsa, Novgorod and Rzhev were inactive. Only two detachments of archers of 600 people each tried to break through to Pskov, but more than half of them died or were captured.
On November 6, Batory removed the guns from the batteries, stopped siege work and began preparing for the winter. At the same time, he sent detachments of Germans and Hungarians to capture Pskov-Pechersky Monastery 60 km from Pskov, but a garrison of 300 archers, with the support of monks, successfully repelled two attacks, and the enemy was forced to retreat.
Stefan Batory, convinced that he could not take Pskov, in November handed over command to Hetman Zamoyski, and he himself went to Vilna, taking with him almost all the mercenaries. As a result, the number of Polish troops decreased by almost half - to 26,000 people. The besiegers suffered from cold and disease, and the death toll and desertion increased.
Results and consequences
Under these conditions, Batory agreed to a ten-year truce. It was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky on January 15, 1582. Rus' renounced all its conquests in Livonia, and the Poles liberated the Russian cities they had occupied.
1583 - the Truce of Plus was signed with Sweden. Yam, Koporye and Ivangorod passed to the Swedes. Only a small section of the Baltic coast at the mouth of the Neva remained behind Russia. But in 1590, after the expiration of the truce, hostilities between the Russians and Swedes resumed and this time were successful for the Russians. As a result, under the Tyavzin Treaty of “Eternal Peace,” Rus' regained Yam, Koporye, Ivangorod and Korelsky district. But this was only small consolation. In general, Ivan IV's attempt to gain a foothold in the Baltic failed.
At the same time, acute contradictions between Poland and Sweden on the issue of control over Livonia eased the position of the Russian Tsar, excluding a joint Polish-Swedish invasion of Rus'. The resources of Poland alone, as the experience of Batory’s campaign against Pskov showed, were clearly insufficient to capture and retain a significant territory of the Muscovite kingdom. At the same time, the Livonian War showed that Sweden and Poland had a formidable enemy in the east that they had to reckon with.
In 1558 he declared war on the Livonian Order. The reason for the start of the war was that the Livonians detained on their territory 123 Western specialists heading to Russia. The failure of the Livonians to pay tribute for their capture of Yuryev (Derpt) in 1224 also played a significant role. The campaign, which began in 1558 and lasted until 1583, was called the Livonian War. The Livonian War can be divided into three periods, each of which went with varying degrees of success for the Russian army.
First period of the war
In 1558 - 1563, Russian troops finally completed the defeat of the Livonian Order (1561), took a number of Livonian cities: Narva, Dorpat, and approached Tallinn and Riga. The last major success of Russian troops at this time was the capture of Polotsk in 1563. Since 1563, it has become clear that the Livonian War is becoming protracted for Russia.
Second period of the Livonian War
The second period of the Livonian War begins in 1563 and ends in 1578. For Russia, the war with Livonia turned into a war against Denmark, Sweden, Poland and Lithuania. The situation was complicated by the fact that the Russian economy was weakened due to devastation. A prominent Russian military leader, a former member betrays and goes over to the side of his opponents. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Third period of the war
The third period of the war takes place in 1579 - 1583. During these years, Russian troops fought defensive battles, where the Russians lost several of their cities, such as: Polotsk (1579), Velikiye Luki (1581). The third period of the Livonian War was marked by the heroic defense of Pskov. Voivode Shuisky led the defense of Pskov. The city held out for five months and repelled about 30 assaults. This event allowed Russia to sign a truce.
Results of the Livonian War
The results of the Livonian War were disappointing for the Russian state. As a result of the Livonian War, Russia lost the Baltic lands, which were captured by Poland and Sweden. The Livonian War greatly depleted Russia. A the main task of this war - gaining access to the Baltic Sea - was never achieved.
Federal Agency for Education
State educational institution
higher professional education
“Khakass State University named after N.F. Katanova"
Institute of History and Law
Department of Russian History
Livonian War: causes, course, results.
(Course work)
Performed:
1st year student, group Iz-071
Bazarova Rano Makhmudovna
Ph.D., Art. teacher
Drozdov Alexey Ilyich
Abakan 2008
INTRODUCTION
1. CAUSES OF THE LIVONIAN WAR
2. PROGRESS AND RESULTS OF THE LIVONIAN WAR
2.1 First stage
2.2. Second phase
2.3 Third stage
2.4 Results of the war
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST
INTRODUCTION
Relevance of the topic. The history of the Livonian War, despite the knowledge of the goals of the conflict, the nature of the actions of the warring parties, and the results of the clash, remains among the key problems of Russian history. Evidence of this is the diversity of opinions of researchers who tried to determine the significance of this war among other foreign policy actions of Russia in the second half of the 16th century. One can rightfully detect problems similar to the reign of Ivan the Terrible in the foreign policy of modern Russia. Throwing off the Horde yoke young state needed an urgent reorientation to the West and restoration of interrupted contacts. Soviet Union was also in long-term isolation from most Western world for many reasons, therefore the priority task of the new, democratic government was to actively search for partners and raise the international prestige of the country. It is the search for the right ways to establish contacts that determines the relevance of the topic under study in social reality.
Object of study. Russian foreign policy in the 16th century.
Subject of study. Livonian War causes, course, results.
Goal of the work. Describe the influence of the Livonian War of 1558 - 1583. on Russia's international position; as well as the domestic politics and economy of the country.
1. Determine the causes of the Livonian War of 1558 - 1583.
2. Identify the main stages in the course of military operations with the characteristics of each of them. Pay attention to the reasons for changes in the nature of war.
3. Summarize the results of the Livonian War, based on the terms of the peace treaty.
Chronological framework. It began in 1558 and ended in 1583.
Geographical framework. Baltic territory, western and northwestern regions of Russia.
Sources.
“The Capture of Polotsk by Ivan the Terrible” depicts the situation in Polotsk during its siege by Russian troops, the panic of the Lithuanian governors who were forced to surrender the city. The source gives interesting information about the superiority of Russian artillery, about the transition to the side of the Russian Polotsk peasants. The chronicler shows the tsar as a zealous owner of his “fatherland” - Polotsk: after the capture of the city, Ivan the Terrible conducts a population census.
“Correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and Andrei Kurbsky” is polemical in nature. In it, Kurbsky accuses the tsar of striving for autocracy and mercilessly terrorizing talented commanders. The fugitive sees this as one of the reasons for military failures, in particular, the surrender of Polotsk. In his response letters, Grozny, despite the rude epithets addressed to the former governor, justifies his actions to him. In the first message, for example, Ivan IV justifies his territorial claims to the Livonian land as his “patrimony.”
The “Tale of the Coming of Stefan Batory to the City of Pskov” reflects one of the events of the Livonian War: the defense of Pskov. The author very picturesquely describes the “unquenchable fierce beast” of King Stephen, his inexorable “lawless” desire to take Pskov and, in contrast, the decision of all participants in the defense to stand “firmly.” The source shows in sufficient detail the location of the Lithuanian troops, the course of the first attack, and the firepower of both sides.
Bright representative psychological-economic school, V. O. Klyuchevsky, saw the defining beginning of the turbulent history of the 16th century in the claim of princes to absolute power. Briefly, but clearly examining the foreign policy tasks of the Russian state, he noted that at the heart of the complex diplomatic relations that had begun with the countries of Western Europe was the “national idea” of further struggle for the unification of all ancient Russian lands.
In “Russian History in Descriptions of Its Main Figures” by N. I. Kostomarov, published over a period of fifteen years from 1873, the character of each figure is presented in accordance with the historical situation. He gave great importance subjective factor in history. He sees the cause of the conflict between Ivan the Terrible and Sigismund in personal hostility due to an unsuccessful matchmaking. According to Kostomarov, the choice of means to achieve the well-being of the human race was made by Ivan the Terrible unsuccessfully, and for this reason he does not fit the concept of a “great man.”
The monograph by V.D. Korolyuk, the only one for the Soviet period, is entirely devoted to the Livonian War. It accurately highlights the fundamentally different visions of Ivan the Terrible and the Elected Rada of the foreign policy tasks facing Russia at that time. The author describes in detail the international situation that was favorable for the Russian state before the start of the war; the course of military operations itself is poorly covered.
According to A.A. Zimin and A.L. Khoroshkevich, the war acted as a continuation of domestic policy by other means for both warring parties. The outcome of the conflict for Russia was predetermined for a number of objective reasons: the complete ruin of the country, the oprichnina terror that destroyed the best military personnel, the presence of fronts in both the West and the East. The monograph emphasizes the idea of the national liberation struggle of the Baltic peoples against the Livonian feudal lords.
R. G. Skrynnikov in his “Russian History” paid very little attention to the Livonian War, believing that Ivan the Terrible did not need to resort to military action to gain access to the Baltic. The Livonian War is covered in overview; much more attention is paid to the internal politics of the Russian state.
Among the kaleidoscope of views on the history of the Livonian War, two main directions can be distinguished, based on the advisability of choosing the country’s foreign policy course in specific historical conditions. Representatives of the first believe that among many foreign policy tasks, resolving the Baltic issue was a priority. These include historians of the Soviet school: V. D. Korolyuk, A. A. Zimin and A. L. Khoroshkevich. Characteristic of them is the use of a socio-economic approach to history. Another group of researchers considers the choice in favor of war with Livonia to be erroneous. This was first noted by the 19th century historian N.I. Kostomarov. R. G. Skrynnikov, professor at St. Petersburg University, in his new book “Russian History of the 9th – 17th centuries” believes that the Russian government could have peacefully established itself on the Baltic coast, but failed to cope with the task and brought to the fore the military seizure of the harbors of Livonia. The pre-revolutionary historian E.F. Shmurlo took an intermediate position, considering the “Crimea” and “Livonia” programs to be equally urgent. The choice of one of them at the time described, in his opinion, was influenced by secondary factors.
1. CAUSES OF THE LIVONIAN WAR
The main directions of Russian foreign policy centralized state emerged in the second half of the 15th century, under Grand Duke Ivan III. They boiled down, firstly, to the struggle on the eastern and southern borders with the Tatar khanates that arose on the ruins of the Golden Horde; secondly, to the struggle with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland associated with it by the bonds of the union for the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian lands captured by Lithuanian and partly Polish feudal lords; thirdly, to the struggle on the northwestern borders with the aggression of the Swedish feudal lords and the Livonian Order, who sought to isolate the Russian state from the natural and convenient access it needed to the Baltic Sea.
For centuries, the struggle on the southern and eastern outskirts was a common and constant thing. After the collapse of the Golden Horde, the Tatar khans continued to raid the southern borders of Russia. And only in the first half of the 16th century, a long war between the Great Horde and the Crimea absorbed the forces of the Tatar world. Moscow's protege has established itself in Kazan. The alliance between Russia and Crimea lasted for several decades, until the Crimeans destroyed the remnants of the Great Horde. The Ottoman Turks, having subjugated the Crimean Khanate, became a new military force that the Russian state faced in this region. After the Crimean Khan attacked Moscow in 1521, the Kazan people broke vassal relations with Russia. The struggle for Kazan began. Only the third campaign of Ivan IV was successful: Kazan and Astrakhan were taken. Thus, by the mid-50s of the 16th century, a zone of its political influence had formed to the east and south of the Russian state. In her person a strength grew that could resist the Crimea and the Ottoman Sultan. The Nogai horde actually submitted to Moscow, and its influence in the North Caucasus increased. Following the Nogai Murzas, the Siberian Khan Ediger recognized the power of the tsar. The Crimean Khan was the most active force holding back Russia's advance to the south and east.
The foreign policy question that has arisen seems natural: should we continue the onslaught on the Tatar world, should we finish the struggle, the roots of which go back to the distant past? Is the attempt to conquer Crimea timely? Two different programs collided in Russian foreign policy. The formation of these particular programs was determined by international circumstances and the balance of political forces within the country. The elected Rada considered a decisive fight against Crimea timely and necessary. But she did not take into account the difficulties of implementing this plan. Vast expanses of “wild fields” separated what was then Russia from Crimea. Moscow did not yet have any strongholds along this path. The situation spoke more in favor of defense than offensive. In addition to military difficulties, there were also great political difficulties. Entering into conflict with Crimea and Turkey, Russia could count on an alliance with Persia and German Empire. The latter was under constant threat of Turkish invasion and lost a significant part of Hungary. But in this moment The position of Poland and Lithuania, which saw the Ottoman Empire as a serious counterweight to Russia, was of much greater importance. The joint struggle of Russia, Poland and Lithuania with Turkish aggression was associated with serious territorial concessions in favor of the latter. Russia could not abandon one of the main directions in foreign policy: reunification with the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands. The program of struggle for the Baltic states seemed more realistic. Ivan the Terrible disagreed with his parliament, deciding to go to war against the Livonian Order and try to advance to the Baltic Sea. In principle, both programs suffered from the same flaw - impracticability at the moment, but at the same time both were equally urgent and timely. However, before the start of hostilities in the western direction, Ivan IV stabilized the situation on the lands of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, suppressing the rebellion of the Kazan Murzas in 1558 and thereby forcing the Astrakhan ones to submit.
Even during the existence of the Novgorod Republic, Sweden began to penetrate the region from the west. The first serious skirmish concerns XII century. At the same time, the German knights began to implement their political doctrine - “March to the East”, crusade against the Slavic and Baltic peoples with the aim of converting them to Catholicism. In 1201 Riga was founded as a stronghold. In 1202, the Order of the Sword Bearers was founded specifically for actions in the Baltic states, which conquered Yuryev in 1224. Having suffered a series of defeats from Russian forces and the Baltic tribes, the Swordsmen and Teutons formed the Livonian Order. The intensified advance of the knights was stopped during 1240 - 1242. In general, peace with the order in 1242 did not protect against hostilities with the crusaders and Swedes in the future. The knights, relying on the help of the Roman Catholic Church, captured a significant part of the Baltic lands at the end of the 13th century.
Sweden, having its interests in the Baltic states, was able to intervene in Livonian affairs. The Russian-Swedish war lasted from 1554 to 1557. Attempts by Gustav I Vasa to involve Denmark, Lithuania, Poland and the Livonian Order in the war against Russia did not yield results, although initially it was the order that pushed the Swedish king to fight the Russian state. Sweden lost the war. After the defeat, the Swedish king was forced to pursue an extremely cautious policy towards his eastern neighbor. True, the sons of Gustav Vasa did not share their father’s wait-and-see attitude. Crown Prince Eric hoped to establish complete Swedish dominance in Northern Europe. It was obvious that after the death of Gustav, Sweden would again take an active part in Livonian affairs. To some extent, Sweden's hands were tied by the aggravation of Swedish-Danish relations.
The territorial dispute with Lithuania had a long history. Before the death of Prince Gediminas (1316 - 1341), Russian regions accounted for more than two-thirds of the entire territory of the Lithuanian state. Over the next hundred years, under Olgerd and Vytautas, the Chernigov-Seversk region (the cities of Chernigov, Novgorod - Seversk, Bryansk), the Kiev region, Podolia (the northern part of the lands between the Bug and the Dniester), Volyn, Smolensk region.
Under Vasily III, Russia laid claim to the throne of the Principality of Lithuania after the death in 1506 of Alexander, whose widow was the Russian sovereign’s sister. In Lithuania, a struggle began between the Lithuanian-Russian and Lithuanian Catholic groups. After the latter's victory, Alexander's brother Sigismund ascended the Lithuanian throne. The latter saw in Vasily a personal enemy who laid claim to the Lithuanian throne. This exacerbated already strained Russian-Lithuanian relations. In such a situation, the Lithuanian Sejm in February 1507 decided to start a war with its eastern neighbor. The Lithuanian ambassadors in the form of an ultimatum raised the question of the return of lands transferred to Russia during recent wars with Lithuania. It was not possible to achieve positive results in the negotiation process, and military operations began in March 1507. In 1508, in the Principality of Lithuania itself, the uprising of Prince Mikhail Glinsky, another contender for the throne of Lithuania, began. The rebellion received active support in Moscow: Glinsky was accepted into Russian citizenship, in addition, he was given an army under the command of Vasily Shemyachich. Glinsky conducted military operations with varying success. One of the reasons for the failures was the fear of the popular movement of Ukrainians and Belarusians who wanted to reunite with Russia. Not having sufficient funds to successfully continue the war, Sigismund decided to begin peace negotiations. On October 8, 1508, the “eternal peace” was signed. According to it, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for the first time officially recognized the transfer to Russia of the Seversky cities annexed to the Russian state during the wars of the late 15th – early 16th centuries. But despite some success, the government Vasily III did not consider the war of 1508 to be a solution to the issue of Western Russian lands and considered the “eternal peace” as a respite, preparing for the continuation of the struggle. The ruling circles of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were also not inclined to come to terms with the loss of the Seversky lands.
But in the specific conditions of the mid-16th century, a direct clash with Poland and Lithuania was not envisaged. The Russian state could not count on the help of reliable and strong allies. Moreover, the war with Poland and Lithuania would have to be waged in difficult conditions hostile actions both from Crimea and Turkey, and from Sweden and even the Livonian Order. Therefore, the Russian government did not consider this foreign policy option at the moment.
One of the important factors that determined the tsar’s choice in favor of the fight for the Baltic states was the low military potential of the Livonian Order. The main military force in the country was knightly order swordtails. Over 50 castles scattered throughout the country were in the hands of the order authorities. Half of the city of Riga was subordinate to the supreme authority of the master. The Archbishop of Riga (the other part of Riga was subordinate to him) and the bishops of Dorpat, Revel, Ezel and Courland were completely independent. The knights of the order owned estates on fief rights. Large cities, such as Riga, Revel, Dorpat, Narva, etc., were actually an independent political force, although they were under the supreme authority of the master or bishops. Clashes constantly occurred between the Order and the spiritual princes. The Reformation spread rapidly in the cities, while chivalry remained largely Catholic. The only body of central legislative power was the Landtags, convened by the masters in the city of Wolmar. The meetings were attended by representatives of four classes: the Order, the clergy, the knighthood and the cities. The resolutions of the Landtags usually had no real significance in the absence of a unified executive power. Close ties have long existed between the local Baltic population and the Russian lands. Ruthlessly suppressed economically, politically and culturally, the Estonian and Latvian populations were ready to support the military actions of the Russian army in the hope of liberation from national oppression.
The Russian state itself by the end of the 50s. XVI century was a powerful military power in Europe. As a result of reforms, Russia has become significantly stronger and has achieved significantly more high degree political centralization than ever before. Permanent infantry units were created - the Streltsy army. Russian artillery also achieved great success. Russia had not only large enterprises for the production of cannons, cannonballs and gunpowder, but also well-trained numerous personnel. In addition, the introduction of an important technical improvement - the carriage - made it possible to use artillery in the field. Russian military engineers have developed a new effective system engineering support for attacking fortresses.
In the 16th century, Russia became the largest trading power at the junction of Europe and Asia, whose craft was still suffocated by the lack of non-ferrous and precious metals. The only channel for the supply of metals is trade with the West through the intermediary of Livonian cities. The Livonian cities - Dorpat, Riga, Revel and Narva - were part of the Hansa, a trade association of German cities. Their main source of income was intermediary trade with Russia. For this reason, attempts by the English and Dutch merchants to establish direct trade relations with the Russian state were stubbornly suppressed by Livonia. Back at the end of the 15th century, Russia tried to influence the trade policy of the Hanseatic League. In 1492, opposite Narva, the Russian Ivangorod was founded. A little later the Hanseatic court in Novgorod was closed. The economic growth of Ivangorod could not help but frighten the trade elite of the Livonian cities, which were losing huge profits. In response, Livonia was ready to organize an economic blockade, the supporters of which were also Sweden, Lithuania and Poland. In order to eliminate the organized economic blockade of Russia, a clause on freedom of communications with European countries through Swedish possessions was included in the peace treaty of 1557 with Sweden. Another channel of Russian-European trade passed through the cities of the Gulf of Finland, in particular Vyborg. The further growth of this trade was hampered by contradictions between Sweden and Russia on border issues.
Trade on the White Sea, although of great importance, could not solve the problems of Russian-Northern European contacts for many reasons: navigation on the White Sea is impossible for most of the year; the path there was difficult and long; contacts were one-sided with a complete monopoly of the British, etc. The development of the Russian economy, which needed constant and unimpeded trade relations with European countries, posed the task of gaining access to the Baltic.
The roots of the war for Livonia should be sought not only in the described economic situation of the Moscow state, they also lay in the distant past. Even under the first princes, Rus' was in close communication with many foreign countries. Russian merchants traded in the markets of Constantinople, and marriage alliances linked the princely family with European dynasties. In addition to overseas merchants, ambassadors of other states and missionaries often came to Kyiv. One of the consequences Tatar-Mongol yoke for Rus' there was a forced reorientation of foreign policy to the East. The War for Livonia was the first serious attempt to bring Russian life back on track and restore the broken connection with the West.
International life posed the same dilemma for every European state: to ensure an independent, independent position in the sphere of international relations or to serve as a simple object of the interests of other powers. The future of the Moscow state largely depended on the outcome of the struggle for the Baltic states: whether it would join the family of European nations, having the opportunity to independently communicate with the states of Western Europe.
In addition to trade and international prestige, the territorial claims of the Russian Tsar played an important role among the causes of the war. In the first message of Ivan the Terrible, it is not without reason that he declares: “... The city of Vladimir, located in our patrimony, the Livonian land...”. Many Baltic lands have long belonged to the Novgorod land, as well as the banks of the Neva River and the Gulf of Finland, which were subsequently captured by the Livonian Order.
One should not discount such a factor as social. The program of the struggle for the Baltic states met the interests of the nobility and the upper classes of the townspeople. The nobility counted on local distributions of land in the Baltic states, as opposed to the boyar nobility, which was more satisfied with the option of annexing the southern lands. Due to the remoteness of the “wild field” and the impossibility of establishing a strong central government there, at least at first, landowners - boyars had the opportunity to take the position of almost independent sovereigns in the southern regions. Ivan the Terrible sought to weaken the influence of the titled Russian boyars, and, naturally, took into account primarily the interests of the noble and merchant classes.
Given the complex balance of power in Europe, it was extremely important to choose a favorable moment to begin military operations against Livonia. It came for Russia at the end of 1557 - beginning of 1558. The defeat of Sweden in the Russian-Swedish war temporarily neutralized this fairly strong enemy, which had the status of a naval power. Denmark at this moment was distracted by the deterioration of its relations with Sweden. Lithuania and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were not bound by serious complications of the international order, but were not ready for a military clash with Russia due to unresolved internal issues: social conflicts within each state and disagreements over the union. Proof of this is the fact that in 1556 the expiring truce between Lithuania and the Russian state was extended for six years. And finally, as a result of military operations against the Crimean Tatars, there was no need to fear for the southern borders for some time. The raids resumed only in 1564 during a period of complications on the Lithuanian front.
During this period, relations with Livonia were quite tense. In 1554, Alexei Adashev and clerk Viskovaty announced to the Livonian embassy their reluctance to extend the truce due to:
Failure of the Bishop of Dorpat to pay tribute from the possessions ceded to him by the Russian princes;
The oppression of Russian merchants in Livonia and the destruction of Russian settlements in the Baltic states.
The establishment of peaceful relations between Russia and Sweden contributed to a temporary settlement of Russian-Livonian relations. After Russia lifted the ban on the export of wax and lard, Livonia was presented with the terms of a new truce:
Unimpeded transportation of weapons to Russia;
Guarantee of payment of tribute by the Bishop of Dorpat;
Restoration of all Russian churches in Livonian cities;
Refusal to enter into an alliance with Sweden, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania;
Providing conditions for free trade.
Livonia did not intend to fulfill its obligations under the truce concluded for fifteen years.
Thus, the choice was made in favor of resolving the Baltic issue. This was facilitated by a number of reasons: economic, territorial, social and ideological. Russia, being in a favorable international situation, had high military potential and was ready for a military conflict with Livonia for possession of the Baltic states.
2. PROGRESS AND RESULTS OF THE LIVONIAN WAR
2.1 First stage of the war
The course of the Livonian War can be divided into three stages, each of which differs slightly in the composition of the participants, duration and nature of the actions. The reason for the outbreak of hostilities in the Baltic states was the fact that the Bishop of Dorpat did not pay the “Yuryev tribute” from the possessions ceded to him by the Russian princes. In addition to the oppression of Russian people in the Baltic states, the Livonian authorities violated another point of the agreement with Russia - in September 1554 they entered into an alliance with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, directed against Moscow. The Russian government sent Master Furstenberg a letter declaring war. However, hostilities did not begin then - Ivan IV hoped to achieve his goals through diplomatic means until June 1558.
The main goal of the first campaign of the Russian army in Livonia, which took place in the winter of 1558, was the desire to achieve a voluntary concession of Narva from the Order. Military operations began in January 1558. Moscow horse armies led by Kasimov’s “Tsar” Shah Ali and Prince. M.V. Glinsky entered the land of the Order. During the winter campaign, Russian and Tatar troops, numbering 40 thousand soldiers, reached the Baltic coast, ravaging the surroundings of many Livonian cities and castles. During this campaign, Russian military leaders twice, on the direct orders of the tsar, sent letters to the master to resume peace negotiations. The Livonian authorities made concessions: they began collecting tribute, agreed with the Russian side on a temporary cessation of hostilities and sent their representatives to Moscow, who, during difficult negotiations, were forced to agree to the transfer of Narva to Russia.
But the established truce was soon violated by supporters of the military party of the Order. In March 1558 Narva Vogt E. von Schlennenberg ordered the shelling of the Russian fortress of Ivangorod, provoking a new invasion of Moscow troops into Livonia.
During the second campaign to the Baltic states in May-July 1558. The Russians captured more than 20 fortresses, including the most important - Narva, Neuschloss, Neuhaus, Kiripe and Dorpat. During the summer campaign of 1558. The troops of the Moscow Tsar came close to Revel and Riga, ravaging their surroundings.
The decisive battle of the winter campaign of 1558/1559. happened near the city of Tiersen, where on January 17, 1559. met a large Livonian detachment of the Riga domprost F. Felkerzam and the Russian Advanced Regiment led by the governor, Prince. V.S. Silver. In a stubborn battle, the Germans were defeated.
In March 1559 The Russian government, considering its position quite strong, through the mediation of the Danes, agreed to conclude a six-month truce with Master W. Furstenberg - from May to November 1559.
Having received in 1559 an extremely necessary respite, the order authorities, led by G. Ketler, became on September 17, 1559. new master, secured the support of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Sweden. Ketler in October 1559 broke the truce with Moscow. The new master managed to defeat the detachment of governor Z.I. with an unexpected attack near Dorpat. Ochina-Pleshcheeva. Nevertheless, the head of the Yuryevsky (Derpt) garrison, Voivode Katyrev-Rostovsky, managed to take measures to defend the city. For ten days, the Livonians unsuccessfully stormed Yuryev and, not deciding on a winter siege, were forced to retreat. The siege of Lais in November 1559 was equally unsuccessful. Ketler, having lost 400 soldiers in the battles for the fortress, retreated to Wenden.
The result of the new large offensive of the Russian troops was the capture of one of the strongest fortresses of Livonia - Fellin - on August 30, 1560. A few months earlier, Russian troops led by governors Prince I.F. Mstislavsky and Prince P.I. Shuisky occupied Marienburg.
Thus, the first stage of the Livonian War lasted from 1558 to 1561. It was conceived as a punitive demonstration campaign given the obvious military superiority of the Russian army. Livonia stubbornly resisted, counting on the help of Sweden, Lithuania and Poland. Hostile relations between these states allowed Russia, for the time being, to conduct successful military operations in the Baltic states.
2.2 Second stage of the war
Despite the defeat of the Order, the government of Ivan the Terrible was faced with a difficult choice: either to cede the Baltic states in response to the ultimatum statement of Poland and Lithuania (1560), or to prepare for war against the anti-Russian coalition (Sweden, Denmark, the Polish-Lithuanian state and the Holy Roman Empire) . Ivan the Terrible attempted to avoid conflict through a dynastic marriage with a relative of the Polish king. The matchmaking turned out to be unsuccessful, as Sigismund demanded territorial concessions as a condition of marriage.
The successes of Russian weapons accelerated the beginning of the collapse of the “Cavalier Teutonic Order in Livonia.” In June 1561, the cities of Northern Estonia, including Revel, swore allegiance to the Swedish king Eric XIV. The Livonian state ceased to exist, transferring its cities, castles and lands under the joint authority of Lithuania and Poland. Master Ketler became a vassal of the Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund II Augustus. In December, Lithuanian troops were sent to Livonia and occupied more than ten cities. The Moscow side initially managed to reach an agreement with the Kingdom of Sweden (on August 20, 1561, a truce was concluded in Novgorod with representatives of the Swedish king Eric XIV for 20 years).
In March 1562, immediately after the end of the truce with Lithuania, Moscow governors ravaged the outskirts of Lithuanian Orsha, Mogilev and Vitebsk. In Livonia, troops of I.F. Mstislavsky and P.I. Shuisky captured the cities of Tarvast (Taurus) and Verpel (Polchev).
In the spring of 1562 Lithuanian troops carried out retaliatory raids on Smolensk places and Pskov volosts, after which battles unfolded along the entire line of the Russian-Lithuanian border. Summer - autumn 1562 Lithuanian troops continued to attack border fortresses in Russia (Nevel) and on the territory of Livonia (Tarvast).
In December 1562 Ivan IV himself set out on a campaign against Lithuania with an army of 80,000. Russian regiments in January 1563 moved to Polotsk, which had an advantageous strategic position at the junction of the Russian, Lithuanian and Livonian borders. The siege of Polotsk began on January 31, 1563. Thanks to the actions of Russian artillery, the well-fortified city was taken on February 15. An attempt to make peace with Lithuania (with the condition of consolidating the achieved successes) failed.
Soon after the victory at Polotsk, the Russian army began to suffer defeats. The Lithuanians, alarmed by the loss of the city, sent all available forces to the Moscow border under the command of Hetman Nikolai Radziwill.
Battle on the river Ulle January 26, 1564 turned into a heavy defeat for the Russian army due to the betrayal of the prince. A.M. Kurbsky, a Lithuanian intelligence agent who conveyed information about the movements of Russian regiments.
1564 brought not only the flight of Kurbsky to Lithuania, but also another defeat from the Lithuanians - near Orsha. The war became protracted. In the autumn of 1564 The government of Ivan the Terrible, not having the strength to fight several states at once, concluded a seven-year peace with Sweden at the cost of recognizing Swedish power over Revel, Pernov (Pärnu) and other cities of Northern Estonia.
In the autumn of 1564 The Lithuanian army, which included Kurbsky, launched a successful counter-offensive. In agreement with Sigismund II, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey also approached Ryazan, whose raid led the king into panic.
In 1568, the enemy of Ivan IV, Johan III, sat on the Swedish throne. In addition, the rude actions of Russian diplomats contributed to the further deterioration of relations with Sweden. In 1569 Under the Union of Lublin, Lithuania and Poland merged into a single state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1570, the Russian Tsar accepted the peace terms of the Polish king in order to be able to oust the Swedes from the Baltic states by force of arms. A vassal kingdom was created on the lands of Livonia occupied by Moscow, the ruler of which was the Danish prince Magnus of Holstein. The siege of Swedish Revel by Russian-Livonian troops for almost 30 weeks ended in complete failure. In 1572, a struggle began in Europe for the Polish throne, which had become empty after the death of Sigismund. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was on the verge of civil war and foreign invasion. Russia hastened to turn the course of the war in its favor. In 1577, a victorious campaign of the Russian army to the Baltic States took place, as a result of which Russia controlled the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland, excluding Riga and Revel.
At the second stage, the war became protracted. The fight was waged on several fronts with varying success. The situation was complicated by unsuccessful diplomatic actions and the incompetence of the military command. Failures in foreign policy led to a sharp change in domestic political course. Many years of war led to economic crisis. The military successes achieved by 1577 could not subsequently be consolidated.
2.3 Third stage of the war
A decisive turning point in the course of hostilities was associated with the emergence at the head of the Polish-Lithuanian state of the experienced military leader Stefan Batory, whose candidacy for the Polish throne was nominated and supported by Turkey and Crimea. He deliberately did not interfere with the advance of Russian troops, delaying peace negotiations with Moscow. His first concern was to decide internal problems: suppression of the rebellious gentry and restoration of the army's combat effectiveness.
In 1578 The counter-offensive of Polish and Swedish troops began. The stubborn struggle for Verdun Castle ended on October 21, 1578. heavy defeat of the Russian infantry. Russia lost one city after another. Duke Magnus went over to Bathory's side. The difficult situation forced the Russian Tsar to seek peace with Batory in order to gather forces and strike in the summer of 1579. a decisive blow to the Swedes.
But Batory did not want peace on Russian terms and was preparing to continue the war with Russia. In this he was fully supported by his allies: the Swedish king Johan III, the Saxon Elector Augustus and the Brandenburg Elector Johann Georg.
Batory determined the direction of the main attack not on devastated Livonia, where there were still many Russian troops, but on Russian territory in the region of Polotsk, a key point on the Dvina.
Alarmed by the invasion of the Polish army into the Moscow state, Ivan the Terrible tried to strengthen the garrison of Polotsk and its combat capabilities. However, these actions are clearly too late. The siege of Polotsk by the Poles lasted three weeks. The city's defenders put up fierce resistance, but, bearing huge losses and having lost faith in the help of Russian troops, they surrendered to Batory on September 1.
After the capture of Polotsk, the Lithuanian army invaded the Smolensk and Seversk lands. After this success, Batory returned to the capital of Lithuania - Vilna, from where he sent a message to Ivan the Terrible reporting victories and demanding the concession of Livonia and recognition of the rights of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to Courland.
Preparing to resume hostilities next year, Stefan Batory again intended to advance not in Livonia, but in the northeastern direction. This time he was going to take possession of the Velikiye Luki fortress, which covered the Novgorod lands from the south. And again, Batory’s plans turned out to be unsolved by the Moscow command. Russian regiments found themselves stretched along the entire front line from the Livonian city of Kokenhausen to Smolensk. This mistake had the most negative consequences.
At the end of August 1580 The army of the Polish king (48-50 thousand people, of which 21 thousand were infantry) crossed the Russian border. The royal army that set out on the campaign had first-class artillery, which included 30 siege cannons.
The siege of Velikiye Luki began on August 26, 1580. Alarmed by the enemy’s successes, Ivan the Terrible offered him peace, agreeing to very significant territorial concessions, most notably the transfer of 24 cities to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in Livonia. The tsar also expressed his readiness to renounce claims to Polotsk and the Polotsk land. However, Batory considered Moscow's proposals insufficient, demanding all of Livonia. Apparently, even then, plans were being developed in his circle to conquer the Seversk land, Smolensk, Veliky Novgorod and Pskov. The interrupted siege of the city continued, and on September 5, the defenders of the dilapidated fortress agreed to surrender.
Soon after this victory, the Poles captured the fortresses of Narva (September 29), Ozerishche (October 12) and Zavolochye (October 23).
In the battle of Toropets, the army of the prince was defeated. V.D. Khilkov, and this deprived the southern borders of Novgorod of protection.
Polish-Lithuanian detachments continued military operations in this area even in winter. The Swedes, having taken the Padis fortress with great difficulty, put an end to the Russian presence in Western Estonia.
The main target of Batory's third strike was Pskov. June 20, 1581 The Polish army set out on a campaign. This time the king was unable to hide his preparations and the direction of the main attack. The Russian governors managed to get ahead of the enemy and deliver a warning strike in the area of Dubrovna, Orsha, Shklov and Mogilev. This attack not only slowed down the advance of the Polish army, but also weakened its strength. Thanks to the temporary stop of the Polish offensive, the Russian command was able to transfer additional military contingents from Livonian castles to Pskov and strengthen fortifications. Polish-Lithuanian troops in the fall and winter of 1581. stormed the city 31 times. All attacks were repulsed. Batory abandoned the winter siege and on December 1, 1581. left the camp. The moment has come for negotiations. The Russian Tsar understood that the war was lost, and for the Poles, further presence on Russian territory was fraught with heavy losses.
The third stage is largely Russia's defensive actions. Many factors played a role in this: the military talent of Stefan Batory, the inept actions of Russian diplomats and commanders, and a significant decline in Russia's military potential. Over the course of 5 years, Ivan the Terrible repeatedly offered peace to his opponents on terms unfavorable for Russia.
2.4 Results
Russia needed peace. In the Baltic states, the Swedes went on the offensive, the Crimeans resumed raids on the southern borders. The mediator in the peace negotiations was Pope Gregory XIII, who dreamed of expanding the influence of the papal curia in Eastern Europe. Negotiations began in mid-December 1581 in the small village of Yam Zapolsky. The congresses of ambassadors ended on January 5, 1582 with the conclusion of a ten-year truce. The Polish commissars agreed to cede to the Moscow state Velikiye Luki, Zavolochye, Nevel, Kholm, Rzhev Empty and the Pskov suburbs of Ostrov, Krasny, Voronech, Velyu, which had previously been captured by their army. It was specifically stipulated that the Russian fortresses that were besieged at that time by the troops of the Polish king were subject to return if they were captured by the enemy: Vrev, Vladimerets, Dubkov, Vyshgorod, Vyborets, Izborsk, Opochka, Gdov, Kobylye fortification and Sebezh. The foresight of the Russian ambassadors turned out to be useful: according to this point, the Poles returned the captured city of Sebezh. From my side Moscow State agreed to the transfer to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth of all cities and castles in Livonia occupied by Russian troops, of which there were 41. Yam - the Polish truce did not apply to Sweden.
Thus, Stefan Batory secured most of the Baltic states for his kingdom. He also managed to achieve recognition of his rights to the Polotsk land, to the cities of Velizh, Usvyat, Ozerische, and Sokol. In June 1582, the terms of the Yam-Zapolsky truce were confirmed at negotiations in Moscow, which were conducted by Polish ambassadors Janusz Zbarazhsky, Nikolai Tavlosh and clerk Mikhail Garaburda. The parties agreed that the end date of the truce concluded in Yama Zapolsky should be considered St. Peter and Paul (29 June) 1592
On February 4, 1582, a month after the conclusion of the Yam-Zapolsky Truce, the last Polish troops left Pskov.
However, the Yam-Zapolsky and “Peter and Paul” peace agreements of 1582 did not end the Livonian War. The final blow to Russian plans to preserve part of the cities conquered in the Baltic states was dealt by the Swedish army under the command of Field Marshal P. Delagardie. In September 1581, his troops captured Narva and Ivangorod, the defense of which was led by governor A. Belsky, who surrendered the fortress to the enemy.
Having gained a foothold in Ivangorod, the Swedes soon went on the offensive again and soon occupied the border Yam (September 28, 1581) and Koporye (October 14) with their districts. On August 10, 1583, Russia concluded a truce with Sweden in Plus, according to which the Swedes retained the Russian cities and Northern Estonia they occupied.
The Livonian War, which lasted almost 25 years, ended. Russia suffered a heavy defeat, losing not only all its conquests in the Baltic states, but also part of its own territories with three important border fortress cities. On the coast of the Gulf of Finland, only the small fortress of Oreshek on the river remained behind the Moscow state. Neva and a narrow corridor along this water artery from the river. Arrows to the river Sisters, with a total length of 31.5 km.
The three stages in the course of military operations are of a different nature: the first is a local war with a clear advantage of the Russians; at the second stage, the war has become protracted, an anti-Russian coalition is taking shape, battles are taking place on the border of the Russian state; the third stage is characterized primarily by Russia’s defensive actions on its territory; Russian soldiers demonstrate unprecedented heroism in the defense of cities. The main goal of the war - the solution of the Baltic issue - was not achieved.
CONCLUSION
Thus, based on the above material, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. It is quite difficult to say whether the choice in favor of war with Livonia was timely and correct. The need to solve this problem for the Russian state seems clear. The importance of unhindered trade with the West dictated the need for the Livonian War in the first place. Russia under Ivan the Terrible considered itself the heir to the Rus of Novgorod, Kyiv, etc., and therefore had every right to lay claim to the lands occupied by the Livonian Order. At a certain period, completely isolated from Europe, having strengthened, Russia needed to restore interrupted political and cultural contacts with Western Europe. It seemed possible to restore them only by ensuring high international prestige. The most accessible route, unfortunately, was through war. The reasons that caused the Livonian War turned out to be relevant subsequently. All the successors of Ivan the Terrible tried to strengthen themselves on the Baltic coast and raise the international status of Russia, until Peter the Great managed to do this.
2. Livonian War 1558 – 1583 has three stages. From a punitive expedition it turned for Russia into a war on several fronts. Despite the initial defeat of the Livonian Order, it was not possible to consolidate the success. A strong Russia did not suit its neighbors, and former rivals in Europe joined forces against it (Lithuania and Poland, Sweden and the Crimean Khanate). Russia found itself isolated. The protracted hostilities led to the depletion of human and financial resources, which, in turn, did not contribute to further successes on the battlefield. It is impossible not to take into account the influence on the course of the war of many subjective factors: the military leadership and political talent of Stefan Batory, cases of treason by prominent military leaders, low level commanders in general, diplomatic miscalculations, etc. At the third stage, the threat of capture loomed over Russia itself. The key point at this stage we can confidently consider the defense of Pskov. Only the heroism of its participants and the timely actions of the authorities to strengthen the defense saved the country from final defeat.
3. Ultimately, the historical task of obtaining free access to the Baltic Sea could not be solved. Russia was forced to make territorial concessions under the terms of peace treaties with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden. But despite the unsuccessful end of the war for Russia, some positive results can be identified: the Livonian Order was finally defeated, in addition, the Russian state managed to avoid irreparable land losses. It was the Livonian War of 1558 - 1583. for the first time loudly voiced one of the priority directions in Russian foreign policy for the next hundred and fifty years.
The consequences of the Livonian War affected many areas of Russian life. Years of tension in the economy led to an economic crisis. Heavy taxes led to the desolation of many lands: Novgorod, Volokolamsk district, etc. Failures in military operations, political dissent of the Rada, the betrayal of some boyars and numerous attempts to discredit them by the enemy, the need to mobilize society became the reasons for the introduction of the oprichnina. The foreign policy crisis, thus, directly affected the domestic policy of the state. The social upheavals of the 17th century have their roots in the era of Ivan the Terrible.
The defeat in the Livonian War seriously damaged the prestige of the Tsar and, in general, of Russia. In the peace treaty, Ivan IV is referred to only as the “Grand Duke”; he is no longer “the Tsar of Kazan and the Tsar of Astrakhan.” A completely new political situation developed in the area of the Baltic coast, in particular, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was ousted from Livonia by the Swedes.
The Livonian War rightfully occupies a prominent place in the history of the Russian state.
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