The term morphological norms of the Russian literary language. Lecture "morphological norms of the Russian language". Declension of nouns
Morphological norms kilogram eggplant instead of kilogram of eggplant, white tulle instead of white tulle, in front of six hundred spectators instead of in front of six hundred spectators, in their house instead of in their house, go instead of go.
Features of the use and formation of forms of adjectives
It may be difficult to form some comparative and superlative forms of qualitative adjectives, as well as to use these forms in speech.
Comparative forms are most often formed using suffixes -ee/s: smart - smarter/smarter. If the stem of an adjective ends in g, k, x, and d, t, st, sk, zk, then the suffix is used -e and consonant alternation occurs: soft - softer, strict - stricter, quiet - quieter, rich - richer, young - younger, thick - thicker, low - lower. Only occasionally is the suffix used -she: early - earlier, old - older, thin - thinner, bitter - bitter, distant - further, long - longer. Several adjectives form the comparative degree from another root: good is better, bad is worse, small, small is less.
The meaning of comparison can be expressed using words more/less(comparative degree) and words most/most(superlative): more suitable, most difficult, most difficult.
Attention! It is absolutely unacceptable to use both ways of expressing a comparison at the same time. It is forbidden: this task more difficult her than the previous one; He most great aish y poet. Right: this task is difficult her than the previous or this task more more difficult than the previous one; he's great aish y poet or he most great poet. This also applies to the use of adverbs: you cannot say runs more fast her
, Right runs fast her
or runs more fast.
But: the best, the worst.
It must be taken into account that not all qualitative adjectives form degrees of comparison in general (for example, the words immortal, blind due to their meaning, they cannot be used in a comparative degree) and with the help of suffixes in particular. In this case, you can use the words to express comparison more, less, most: more urgent, less gloomy, youngest.
Adjectives are used comparatively with nouns in the genitive case (oranges are sweeter than lemons) or with a union than (today the weather is warmer than yesterday).
Features of the use and formation of forms of numerals
Difficulties arise when forming case forms of numerals and combining them with nouns. Most numerals are declined according to the third declension, whileV compound and complex cardinal numbers Every part must change: performed in front of nine hundred and sixty-seven spectators. Numeral thousand inflected as a first declension noun. Numerals fourty And one hundred in indirect cases they have only one form - forty, one hundred; but as part of complex numerals one hundred changes differently: three hundred, three hundred, three hundred,
about three hundred.
When declension compound ordinal numbers only their last part changes (like adjectives): two thousand fourteen - to two thousand fourteen - to two thousand fourteen.
Collective numbers (from two to ten) are used only with the following nouns:
a) calling males (five friends, four sons);
b) having only a plural form (three jeans, two shorts);
V) children, people, guys, face(meaning “man”) and words denoting baby animals ( three children, five young people, several unfamiliar faces, seven kids, six kittens);
d) with personal pronouns (there are two of us, there are five of them);
e) and also when they themselves act as a noun (two people entered, three in gray overcoats).
Attention! Combinations of compound numerals with nouns that do not have a singular form like 22 days - twenty two days unacceptable. Right: twenty-two days, twenty-three pieces of scissors, twenty-four pairs of trousers, twenty-four mangers.
Words both, one and a half have two generic forms: both friends (with both friends), a year and a half, both tasks, one and a half apples and both tasks (both tasks, both tasks), one and a half thousand. It is worth paying attention to the fact that the words one and a half, one and a half, one and a half hundred in indirect cases (except for the accusative) they have the form one and a half, one and a half hundred (less than an hour and a half has passed, I have one and a half thousand rubles, they sent out receipts to one and a half hundred subscribers).
In phrases with nouns in the nominative case, the numeral manages genitive case of a noun (sixty houses built); in indirect cases the numeral agrees with the main word expressed by the noun (about sixty houses). Numerals thousand, million, billion in all cases they retain control: a million inhabitants, for a million inhabitants, about a million inhabitants.
After numerals one two three four the singular form of nouns is used (two apples, three episodes), and after numerals from five onwards - plural (five apples, twelve episodes). Numerals one and a half, one and a half hundred in the nominative and accusative cases, singular nouns are governed, and in other cases the noun is in the plural form: invited one and a half dozen students - talked with one and a half dozen students.
Features of the use and formation of pronoun forms
Violations in the formation of certain forms of pronouns are primarily associated with possessive pronouns his, her, theirs, which do not change in literary language (with his friends, about her plans,
in their house).
When the personal pronoun he is used in indirect cases with prepositions, the initial is added to it n-: I'm proud of him - I'll see him n them.
Pronouns play an important role in the organization of text when they replace other words. Demonstrative pronouns are used for this purpose. (this, that, that, etc.) pronominal adverbs (there, there, then, etc.), personal pronoun he (she, it, they), relative pronoun which. If a sentence contains several nouns, then it is unacceptable to use personal pronouns he, she, his, hers, because this can lead to ambiguity: This herring was given to me by the saleswoman Lyuba; due to the hot weather, she was already plowing. You also need to be careful when constructing complex sentences with the word which, otherwise it may not be clear what we are talking about:The parents of the children who today had to fight for the title of “smartest” gathered in the hall. It is impossible to determine from this proposal who will compete for this title - parents or children.
Shortcomings may be associated with the use of a reflexive pronoun myself, which has no gender or number forms and can refer to all persons and both numbers (The commandant told the janitor to take the tenant’s things to his place. Who will get the things?) . Usually the real meaning of the pronoun myself matcheswith the real meaning of the subject (I'll pour myself some tea) but it may not match (remember the people unable to take care of themselves). The reflexive pronoun can also be used in impersonal sentences (I managed to force myself to stop it). Ambiguity is usually created when the infinitive is associated with another character: The teacher asked the student to take the notebooks to his home. For accuracy, broader context is needed, for example: The teacher had a hard time carrying the notebooks home, and he asked the student to help him.
The use of a possessive pronoun in the text may also cause difficulties. mine: The teacher asked the student to put his notebooks on his desk- it remains unclear on whose table the notebooks should be placed. To avoid inaccuracy, you need to remember the following: a) if in a sentence the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun, and the object is a noun, then belonging to the object is expressed by a pronoun him, her, them: I found my brother in my room - I found my brother in his room;
b) if the subject and object are expressed by nouns of the same number and gender, the sentence must be changed so that one person is named: The teacher asked to put the notebooks on his (the teacher's) table; At the teacher’s request, the student placed the notebooks on his (the student’s) table.
Morphological norms of the modern Russian language (noun)
Russian language. Preparing students for final certification: OGE, Unified State Exam. All classes.
Morphological norms- these are the norms for the correct formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech. Their violation leads to errors that make it difficult to understand the statement and indicate the speaker’s low speech culture: kilogram eggplant instead of kilogram of eggplant, white tulle instead of white tulle, in front of six hundred spectators instead of in front of six hundred spectators, in their home instead of in their house, go instead of go.
Morphological norms for the use and formation of nouns
Difficult cases of determining the gender of nouns
Inanimate nouns sometimes change gender over time, which can lead to
to the emergence of equal options: banknotes and banknotes, dahlia and dahlia, hangnail and hangnail, pancakes and pancakes, spasm and spasm. Pay attention to the gender of the following paired nouns: women's sandal, football boot, sports leg warmer, comfortable sneaker, leather moccasin, steel rail, children's sandal, house slipper (slipper), elegant shoe, patent leather boot. You should also remember what gender these words belong to: significant adjustment, delicious pancake, railway reserved seat, long tentacle, comfortable mezzanine, light parcel, dark veil, heavy dumbbell, old callus, roofing felt, chocolate truffle, transparent tulle, white queen, new shampoo.
Most inanimate indeclinable common nouns are neuter (strict jury, crystal sconce), but in some cases it corresponds to a generic concept or an old form: seventh avenue(Street), fresh kohlrabi(cabbage), flavored coffee(old forms “coffee”, “coffee”), delicious salami(sausage), successful penalty(free kick), sultry sirocco(African wind).
The gender of nouns naming persons depends on gender: charming miss, London dandy.
Nouns that name persons by profession are masculine, although they can also name female persons (like inflected nouns): military attaché, experienced impresario, famous sculptor V. Mukhina.
The indeclinable names of animals and birds usually refer to the masculine gender, but the context must be taken into account: a fleet-footed emu, a funny cockatoo, but the chimpanzee fed the baby. In some cases, the generic concept is taken into account: delicious iwasi(herring), African tsetse(fly).
The gender of indeclinable proper names is determined by the generic concept: deep Limpopo (river), picturesque San Bartolomeo (island).
The gender of compound words (abbreviations) is determined in two ways. If the word does not change, then according to the gender of the main word in the full name: UN adopted resolution(United Nations) , RIA reported(Russian News Agency). If the word is inflected, then the gender is determined on a general basis - by the ending and the final sound of the stem: enter a technical university(higher education institution), The Ministry of Foreign Affairs made a statement(Ministry of Foreign Affairs); But: TASS is authorized to declare(Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union).
The gender of a compound word is usually determined by the word that expresses a more general concept (beautiful admiral butterfly) or according to the first part (comfortable chair-bed).
Nominative plural
Among masculine nouns of the second declension, the most common endings are-s/-s and -a/-s: computers, policies, trains, professors.
When choosing an ending, you need to consider the following factors:
a) ending -and I have nouns denoting paired concepts: eyes, sides, horns;
b) words consisting of one syllable usually have an ending -ы/-и (cakes, noises), but there are exceptions (houses, varieties);
c) words consisting of two syllables with stress on the first, as a rule, have an ending -and I: boat - boats, watchman - watchman; if the stress falls on the second syllable, then the plural usually ends -ы/-и: watermelon - watermelons;
d) endings are common in words of three or more syllables -s/-s with emphasis on the middle of the word: pharmacists, contracts (contracts are acceptable);
e) foreign words ending in accents -er/-er, usually have an ending -s/-s: officer - officers, engineer - engineers, driver - drivers;
e) words on -tor/-sor usually have an ending -ы/-и (investor - investors), although in animate nouns, which are often used in speech, the stressed ending becomes common -a/-z: editors, commentators, but doctors, professors;
g) nouns in -l/-l and -r/-ry with stress on the first syllable usually have an ending -and I:
shako - shako, poplar - poplar.
It must be borne in mind that sometimes the choice of ending depends on the meaning and compatibility of the word:
passes(documentation) - omissions(oversights, absenteeism);
tones(changes of color) - tones(sound);
brakes(devices) - brakes(obstacles);
teachers(teachers) - teachers(mentors);
of bread(on the vine) - breads(baked);
fur(skins) - furs(blacksmiths);
camps(military, tourist) - camps(political groups);
housing(buildings, military units) - buildings(torso);
sons(from parents) - sons(homeland);
image(icons) - images(in art), etc.
Neuter nouns usually have the ending - post office box (saucer - saucers, window - windows), much less often - s/-i (shoulder - shoulders).
Some nouns are characterized by non-standard formation of the nominative plural form:
a) masculine nouns -young in the plural they have the suffix -yat- and unstressed ending -a: calf - calves, kitten - kittens;
b) nouns in -anin/-yanin plural ends in -ane/-yane: citizen - citizens, peasant - peasants.
Attention! The owner is the owners, the child is the children, the person is the people, the chicken is the chickens, the ship is the ships, the bottom is the bottom, the awl is the awl.
Collective, abstract nouns have only the singular form: goodness, faith, children, old things.
Some concrete nouns do not have a singular form: scissors, jeans.
The names of substances usually have one form: either the plural ( ink, sawdust), or the only one ( milk, sugar, coal), but when denoting a variety or variety of a substance, they are often used in the plural ( wonderful cheese - Altai cheeses).
Genitive plural
In most cases, the following pattern applies: if in the initial form (nominative singular) a word has a zero ending, then in the genitive plural the ending is usually non-zero: apricot - a lot of apricots, bone - a lot of bones, potion - no potion (-th in such forms it is included in the basis, not being the ending); and vice versa: newspaper - no newspapers, business - a lot of things to do. But there are violations of this pattern: one soldier is many soldiers, one partisan is a detachment of partisans, a share is several shares, a dress is many dresses.
For nouns starting with - anin/-yanin(except for the word family man, which does not change in numbers), as well as words master, boyar, master, Tatar in the genitive plural there is a zero ending with a cut-off - in: many Slavs, Bars, citizens, Tatars.
Most names of fruits and vegetables that are masculine and start with a hard consonant have the ending -s: a kilogram of tomatoes, tangerines, eggplants.
The names of paired objects usually have a zero ending in the genitive plural: a pair of boots, a pair of stockings, but a pair of boots and boots.
Attention! A pair of shoes, five herons, several candles, five sheets and sheets, no pasta, a pair of jeans, from a manger, many Buryats and Buryats, no comments, no adjustments, several Turks, from the ears.
Features of the declension of some nouns and phrases
Among the nouns there is a fairly large group of indeclinable words:
a) foreign words with vowels -o, -u, -yu, -i, -e, percussion -a: coat, stew, menu, coffee, bourgeois;
b) foreign language names for female persons: lady, madam, miss;
c) Russian surnames -ovo, -ago, -yh/-their and Ukrainian on -ko: Sedykh, Zhivago, Shevchenko;
d) many foreign-language names and surnames: Jacqueline, Dumas.
In complex words with the first part floor- in indirect cases it is replaced by semi-: half a year - about half a year.
In the singular genitive case of masculine nouns there are two endings:
-a/-ya and -u/-ya: a lot of people - a lot of people, a cup of tea - a cup of tea. Forms on -у/-у usually preserved if the noun depends on the verb: drink kvass, add sugar.
In the prepositional case singular, inanimate masculine nounssecond declension may have endings -е or -у/-у: think about the garden (addition) - work
in the garden (circumstance). In some cases, the choice of ending depends on the meaning and compatibility of the noun: in the first row - in a number of cases, all in sweat - to work hard, the only one in the world - in the world and death is red, to be out of spirit - as if in spirit.
Morphological norms of the modern Russian language (verb)
Russian language. Preparing students for final certification: OGE, Unified State Exam. All classes.
The formation of some verb forms can cause certain difficulties.
1. When forming imperfective verbs, in some cases there is an alternation of vowels about -A based on: arrange - arrange, be late - be late. But when forming similar forms from verbs determine, concentrate It must be remembered that the options condition, concentrate are acceptable, and the literary norm is condition, concentrate.
Attention! Put - put (it is unacceptable to put, put!).
2. It is necessary to remember the alternation of salts m-zh, k-ch, v-vl, f-fl, p-pl, b-bl, m-ml, st-sch, t-ch, d/z-f, s-sh basis in the formation of a number of forms: oven - bake - bakes; lie down - lie down - lie down - lie down, guard - guard - guard - guard; catch - catch, shine - shine, weigh - weigh - weigh. But: weave - weave - weave.
Attention! burn - burn - burn - burn - burn - burn; want - want - want - wants - want - want - want; run - run - run - run - run - run - run.
3. Sometimes it is possible to have variant forms: listen - listen and listen(equal); wave, sprinkle - wave, sprinkle(basic), wave, shout(acceptable); drip - drip(from rooftops, from crane) , (on) dripping(medicine).
4. Pay attention to the future tense forms of verbs to recover, to become weak, to weaken(verbs ending in -et indicate that the action is directed at the subject): I will recover, I will become weak, you will recover, you will become weak, he will recover, you will become weak, etc.
5. A number of verbs do not have some forms of present and future tense:
The 1st person singular form is not used for verbs: eclipse, find yourself, defeat, be born, moan, convince, be convinced;
verbs do not have 1st and 2nd person singular and plural forms: boil, boil, boil away(about water) roll down, step on(about the time), surround, come to fruition, turn out, happen, distribute, create, take place, flow, succeed;
If necessary, you need to use descriptive constructions: I will be able to win (convince); I will win.
6. From verbs with a suffix -Well- The following past tense forms are formed:
with loss of suffix: arise - arose, penetrate - penetrated, get used to - got used to, get wet - got wet, dry up - dried up, die - died, disappear - disappeared;
equal options: to stall - stalled and stalled, to sour - sour and soured, to smell - smelled and smelled, wither - withered and withered, to undergo - suffered and was subjected;
main options go out - go out, freeze - freeze, dry - dry, go out - go out, but it is acceptable to go out, freeze, dry out, go out.
7. Some verbs do not form the imperative form: weigh, see, hear, be able, hate, happen, want, etc.
Attention! Lie down - lie down (!), sit down - sit down, sit down, run - run, look for - look for, put down - put down, go - go, go (!).
MORPHOLOGICAL NORMS OF THE MODERN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE (PARTICIPLE AND GERDIFICIPLE)
When using participles in speech, sometimes difficulties arise associated with the formation of forms of participles and gerunds, as well as with their use in sentences.
1. When forming participle forms, you need to keep in mind the following:
a) active past participles are formed from a past tense stem ending in a vowel using a suffix -vsh-, and from the stem to the consonant - using - w-:
buy - bought, carry - carried;
Attention! Wipe - wiped, bruise - bruised.
B) there is no need to confuse the suffixes of passive past participles -nn-(-n-), -enn- (-en-) and -t-:
assembled, sealed, finished drinking. All things have been removed (not taken away!);
c) when forming participles from reflexive verbs, postfix -xia remains: Wavering shadows fell on the walls;
d) forms of present passive participles (with suffixes) are not used -im-, -eat-, -om-) from verbs: take care, beat, knit, iron, cook, hold, regret, know, have, treat, bake, write, spoil, cut, set, pull, teach, clean, whisper, etc.; past tense: return, get, force, overshadow, pass, remind, fly around, wait, wish, love, greet, run, look at, push, etc.
2. When using participles in speech, you must pay attention to the following:
a) there is no need to confuse active (a sign of the one who performs the action) and passive (the sign of who (what) is subject to the action) participles: a scientist studying an object - an object being studied by a scientist;
b) the passive meaning can be expressed not only by passive participles, but also by active ones, formed from reflexive verbs with the suffix (postfix) -sya: the subject we are studying is the subject we are studying. But the use of forms is unacceptable a child getting dressed by his mother, a dinner being prepared by the cook; the use of reflexive participles is justified if there is no corresponding passive participle or it is rarely used: cf. the text I wrote was not preserved - the text I wrote was not preserved.
3. When forming forms of gerunds, a number of points need to be taken into account:
a) imperfective participles are formed from the stem of the present tense of imperfective verbs using a suffix -a/-z: build - build - building, gallop - gallop - galloping; From some verbs, gerunds are formed using a suffix (not widely used and perceived as outdated) -teach/-yuchi: being, driving, regretting, playing, walking, sneaking;
Attention! Climb - climbing, swim - swimming, pinch - pinching, wave, sprinkle - waving, rash (permissible wave, rash), suffer - suffering (in artistic speech - suffering), listen - listening (hearing - obsolete)
b) not all verbs form gerunds:
as a rule, from imperfective verbs that do not have vowels at the base of the present tense (to lie - lie): beat, twist, lie, eat, reap, wait, pour, crush, drink, tear, sleep, rub, sew, etc.;
from verbs with alternation in the stems of the infinitive and present tense z-zh, s-sh (cut - cut, dance - dance): weigh, knit, appear, mow, lick, scratch;
from imperfect verbs to -ch, -nut: protect, burn, can, bake, guard, cut, flow, wither, go out, stall, grow stronger, freeze, get wet, smell, sink, pull;
gerunds from imperfective verbs are not used arrest, run, stab, climb, plow, sing, be born, freeze, want;
c) perfect participles are formed from the base of the past tense (infinitive) of perfect verbs using a suffix -in (write - having written), sometimes using a suffix -а/-я (come - having arrived, subtract - subtracting) or suffixes - lice, -shi (usually from reflexive verbs) (laughing, ascending);
d) an error is the use of one suffix instead of another: in a sentence After answering, he hung up you need to use a gerund answering; Such obsolete forms are preserved only in phraseological units: hand on heart, headlong, reluctantly.
Morphology – a section of grammar in which the grammatical properties of words are studied, i.e. grammatical meanings, means of expressing grammatical meanings and grammatical categories.
The peculiarity of the Russian language is that the means of expressing grammatical meanings often vary. At the same time, the options may differ in shades of meaning, stylistic coloring, sphere of use, correspond to the norm of the literary language or violate it. The skillful use of options allows you to more accurately express a thought, diversify your speech, and testifies to the speech culture of the speaker.
The largest group consists of options whose use is limited by the form of speech (written or oral), functional style or genre. Thus, in colloquial speech there are often forms of the genitive plural: orange, tomato instead of oranges, tomatoes; from her, from her instead of from her, from her. The use of such forms in written and official oral speech is considered a violation of the morphological norm.
Morphological norms of the modern Russian literary language regulate the formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, etc.).
Rules for the use of nouns
1. Gender of nouns
1) Gender of nouns ending in – ь
2) Common nouns
There are over 200 such nouns in modern language. General gender does not have a special grammatical meaning, like the meanings of masculine, feminine and neuter, and is a conventional designation for a group of feminine nouns of a certain semantics, which, depending on the gender of the person designated, are combined with masculine and feminine adjectives: terrible bully And terrible bully, big slob And big slob.
Poor guy, know-it-all, upstart, dirty guy, goofy, smartass, bully, crammer, feisty, gourmet, left-handed, couch potato, good fellow, klutz, fidget, suck-up, cheeky, self-educated, orphan and etc.
3) Gender of indeclinable nouns of foreign origin
Indeclinable nouns reveal their gender syntactically, in phrases (military attache) and proposals ( The press attache of the Ministry of Emergency Situations appeared on TV).
The gender of indeclinable nouns is related to the semantics of the word. First of all, there is a distinction between animate and inanimate nouns. Most words denoting inanimate objects are neuter (woolen muffler, modern sconce, strict jury). This rule has a number of exceptions related to the influence of various analogies: a Russian synonym, the gender of a word denoting a generic concept, etc. In such cases, the noun can be used as bigender. For example: euro – Wed R. and m.r.; Esperanto – Wed R. and m.r.; whiskey - Wed R. and m.r. (rarely - female r.); penalty – m.r. and Wed R. Words avenue, salami – and. R.
Animate nouns denoting female persons are feminine, and masculine nouns are masculine. (old lady, rich rentier); denoting both (counterpart, protégé, incognito, croupier) are bigeneric (my protégé is my protégé).
Nouns denoting animals and birds are masculine, regardless of the gender of the animal (funny pony), except in cases where the female is meant (The chimpanzee fed the baby). Words hummingbird And kiwi are bigeneric - m.r. and f. R. (influenced by the word “bird”), ivasi, tsetse – and. R.
The gender of nouns denoting geographical names is determined by the generic name, as well as the names of press organs: Capri attracted tourists(island). The Times wrote(newspaper).
4) Gender of compound words (abbreviations)
Compound abbreviations (abbreviations), formed by combining the initial letters of the words of the full name, determine their gender by the gender of the leading (core) word of the compound name: UN (United Nations)- and. R.; CSKA (Central Sports Club of the Army) – m.r.
Many abbreviations with a hard consonant, which, based on the leading word, are qualified as feminine and neuter nouns, in use acquire the masculine generic form: university, Ministry of Internal Affairs, TASS, DOSAAF, REGISTRY OFFICE and etc.
5) Names of persons by profession, position, academic or military rank
These names retain the masculine form even when they refer to a woman. (geologist, director, associate professor, general), since for a long time only men were the bearers of these professions and titles. To indicate gender in these cases, the semantic agreement of the verb - predicate in the past tense is often used (Therapist Nikolaeva finished the appointment).
Parallel names are easily formed if a given specialty (profession, occupation) is equally associated with female and male labor (seller - saleswoman, orderly - nurse), and also if these names relate to the field of sports, art, or are associated with a relationship to a public organization (athlete - athlete, singer - singer, citizen - citizen, communist - communist).
Very often, paired feminine gender names are not neutral, but have a colloquial stylistic connotation. These are words in – sha, – iha. They have a distinctly disdainful connotation. (librarian, doctor). To officially designate the occupation and professions of women (for example, in a questionnaire), masculine nouns are preferable (graduate student, laboratory assistant).
Nevertheless, fluctuations in the forms of agreement have increased in the language, and in oral speech the following options have become possible: young physicist Yakovleva - young physicist Yakovleva; the first female cosmonaut Tereshkova - Soviet cosmonaut Tereshkova.
2. Nominative-accusative masculine plural
Fluctuations in the norm and cases of double choice are observed in the endings of the nominative-accusative case of the masculine plural. You can or can't say Officer A, engineer ra, turner, doctor, professor, doctor?
In modern Russian there is already a fairly large group of words in which the ending – ы/-и is replaced by the ending – а/-я: address - addresses, shore - shores, doctor - doctors, director - director A, boat - boat A, district - district A, order - order A, passport - passport A, professor - professor A, variety - variety A, gutter – gutter A, skull – skull A, watchman - watchman A, promissory note - promissory note me and others
On the other hand, the Russian literary language allows forms with the ending – ы/-и and with the ending – а/-я in words: inspectors - inspectors, mechanics - mechanics, anchors - anchors, searchlights - searchlights, cruisers - cruisers, camps - camps, vacations - vacations, sectors - sectors, editors - editors, outbuildings - outbuildings, carts - carts and etc.
It should be borne in mind that in book styles preference is given to the ending - ы, while in colloquial styles the ending - a is allowed.
The endings - ы, - and can act as a word-forming device - to distinguish between different words that have the same base: bread in the oven - bread from the fields, electrical wires - farewell to the army, color a (color) – color s (in the flowerbed), etc.
3. Genitive plural of nouns
There are certain difficulties associated with using genitive plural forms of nouns. TO
nouns that raise doubts when choosing endings in the genitive plural include nouns whose stem ends in – in: Georgian, Armenian, Vologda resident.
These nouns denote a person’s nationality, his connection with a certain territory, with a particular city. These words in the genitive plural have a zero ending: a Georgian entered - many Georgians came. In addition, in this form the stem suffix – in may be dropped: an Armenian knows Russian - no Armenians; the southerner spoke with an accent - there are many southerners in the city.
As a rule, neuter nouns also have a zero ending: substance - substances, place - places, matter - affairs, apple - apples, shoulder - shoulders. True, there are exceptions: shoulder - shoulders, bottom - bottoms, log - logs, point - glasses, clouds - clouds.
Those masculine nouns that are difficult to attribute to one classification or another also have a zero ending: one arshin - many arshins, one felt boot - many felt boots, one hussar - many hussars, dragoons, partisans, soldiers, times, shoulder straps, boots, stockings (socks).
In addition, you should remember the forms: one orange - many oranges, one eggplant - many eggplants, tangerines, tomatoes, hectares, grams, kilograms.
And: splashes - splashes, gills - gills, name day - name day, pasta - pasta, mansion - mansion, bloomers - bloomers, everyday life - everyday life, rake - rake, rake, harp - harp, manger - manger.
Standards for using numerals
1. To indicate quantity, they are mainly used quantitative numerals (for example, five rooms, ten little Indians etc.). In some cases, they are used to denote quantity along with cardinal numerals collective(two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine; the last two numerals are practically not used).
Collective numbers used:
a) with masculine and general nouns: two friends, three orphans;
b) with nouns that have only plural forms: two scissors, three days;
c) with nouns children, guys, people, face(meaning “person”): two children, three unknown faces;
d) with personal pronouns we, you, they: There are two of us, there are five of them;
e) with substantivized numerals and adjectives denoting persons: two military men entered; three patients.
In indirect cases with inanimate nouns, cardinal numerals are used: more than three days.
It is necessary to remember that collective numbers cannot be combined with nouns denoting female persons (you cannot say: three students, four friends). They also cannot be combined with masculine nouns denoting animals (you cannot say: three wolves).
2. When using a collective number both - both in combination with feminine nouns in indirect cases the forms are used both, both, both etc. These numerals are not used with nouns that do not have a singular form, since they do not have a gender category. You can't say: at both gates Can: at both gates.
3. B compound cardinal numbers all words forming them are declined, and nouns denoting countable objects agree with numerals in all cases except the nominative and accusative. For example: A series of manuals with three hundred and sixty-seven drawings. But: The manual contains three hundred and sixty-seven drawings.
4. With a mixed number, the noun is governed by a fraction and is used in the singular genitive case: five and three fifths meters, But: five meters; seven and two thirds kilograms, But: seven kilograms.
Standards for using adjectives
1. Full and short forms of adjectives. The short forms are predominantly bookish: The lecture is interesting and instructive. Full forms of adjectives are usually used in colloquial speech: The lecture is interesting and instructive. With the full form of the adjective, used in the nominative case as a compound predicate, as a rule, there cannot be controlled words, but with the short form, they can. For example: he was sick with a sore throat; he is capable of music(but one cannot say - he was sick with a sore throat, he was capable of music).
The full form of the adjective indicates a permanent attribute, the short form indicates a temporary one: beautiful girl(at all), the girl is beautiful(At the moment).
2. When forming short forms of adjectives ending in - (natural, artificial, solemn) fluctuations are observed: natural - natural, artificial - artificial, solemn - solemn. Currently, both options are possible both in written and oral speech, but the truncated form (in - en) is more common.
3. When forming analytical (compound) forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives, the following forms are errors: better, worse, less beautiful, less smart etc., since the second word itself already expresses the meaning of a superlative or comparative degree.
4. The following synthetic forms of the comparative degree of adjectives are accepted in the literary language: closer, bolder, higher, more flexible, deeper, duller, more expensive, hotter, louder, shorter, stronger, lighter, smaller, softer, lower, rarer, sharper, sweeter, stricter, narrower, quieter, tighter, biting, brighter(but not more lively, louder, more dexterous, sweeter, sharper).
5. The full and short forms of the adjective are not used as homogeneous members of the sentence. You can't say: The house is stone and very durable. Need to: The house is stone and very durable.
Norms for the use of some proper names
1. Surnames do not decline to - ago, - yago, - yh, - their, - ovo, - ko (-enko). For example: Zhivago, Sedykh, Dolgikh, Durnovo, Franco.
2. As a rule, non-Russian surnames ending in unstressed – a, – z are declined. For example: the works of Pablo Neruda, the songs of Bulat Okudzhava, the films of Akira Kurosawa.
Morphology- this is a systematized set of word forms (declension, conjugation paradigms), as well as rules for their use, and at the same time it is a section of grammar that studies and describes these forms and rules.
Let's consider morphological norms according to their belonging to one or another part of speech.
Noun
Difficulty in use noun concern the grammatical categories of gender, number and case.
Difficulties arise when determining genus categories at a noun:
1) Nouns with subjective evaluation suffixes (-ishk-, -ishk-, -ushk-, -ishk ) retain the gender of the word from which they originate: house - big house(masculine) barn - old barn(masculine) sparrow - young sparrow(masculine) perch - small perch(masculine) voice - strong voice(masculine) the letter is a ridiculous letter(neuter), etc.
2) The gender of indeclinable nouns is determined by the meaning of the word. Inanimate nouns are usually neuter: aloe, coat, taxi, cocoa, piano, popsicle, jersey, jelly, jury, muffler, kimono, puree, stew, radio etc. However, there are exceptions: Avenue - feminine (less often neuter); bolero (Spanish national dance) - masculine and neuter; whiskey - neuter and masculine; kohlrabi - female; mango - masculine and neuter; sirocco (sultry wind in Africa) - masculine; penalty - masculine and neuter gender; salami - female; Urdu, Hindi (languages) - masculine, coffee - male.
Indeclinable names of persons are masculine or feminine depending on the gender of the person designated, for example: words lady, miss, frau belong to the feminine gender; dandy, croupier, attache belong to the masculine gender, etc.
Some words belong to the general gender, as they can denote male and female persons: counterpart, incognito, protégé, Sami (nationality), Somalia (nationality), etc.
3) Indeclinable names of animals (for example: dingo, greyhound, hummingbird, cockatoo, kangaroo, marabou, pony, chimpanzee and etc. ) in accordance with the literary norm, they are classified as masculine. The exceptions are the words: Ivasi , tsetse belong to the feminine gender.
The names of animals in a sentence can be used as feminine words if the text contains an indication of a female animal, for example: Kangaroo feeding baby.
4) The gender of indeclinable geographical names is determined by the noun denoting the generic concept: Missouri refers to the feminine gender, since the generic concept is river, Erie – neuter, since the generic concept is lake, etc.
The same principle is used to determine the gender of indeclinable nouns, which are the names of magazines, newspapers, clubs, sports teams, etc., for example: Manchester (football club) is masculine, " Sports review » is feminine, as it is the name of a newspaper, etc.
5) For letter abbreviations, the gender is associated with their morphological form. As a rule, abbreviations are not declined; their gender is usually determined by the gender of the main word: VDNH (feminine, since the main word is exhibition), Emergency (neuter gender, since the main word is position), etc. However, these kinds of abbreviations often exhibit deviations from this rule, especially in cases where the abbreviations become familiar and begin to decline. For example, NEP refers to the masculine gender, although the core word is feminine (politics); Ministry of Foreign Affairs - masculine, although the core word is neuter (ministry); HAC - masculine, although the core word commission is feminine.
6) Certain masculine words in the Russian language denote both male and female persons. Such nouns denote persons by profession, occupation, positions and titles, for example: hero, associate professor, professor, lawyer, economist, accountant, attorney, prosecutor and so on.
Case ending options:
1) In the instrumental case of the singular, feminine nouns have possible variant endings in accordance with the literary norm -oh(s)/-oh(s) (water - water, country - country), which differ only in stylistic coloring: ending -oh characteristic of bookish, official or poetic speech, and the ending -oh has a neutral character, i.e. it is used in any style.
2) Material nouns in the genitive singular have possible variant endings -A And -at : snow - snow, sugar - sugar etc. Forms with endings -y in literary language are permissible only when denoting a part of the whole: bought some sugar(But sugar production), got drunk on tea(But tea growing). In addition, forms ending -y are characteristic of oral, colloquial speech, and forms with the ending -A neutral. In written form the forms are -y found in stable combinations: give the heat, there was no agreement, give up, no passage, no passage, without asking etc. These forms are also found in words with a diminutive meaning: onion, seagull, kvass and etc.
3) Nouns in the genitive plural form can have a zero ending or an ending -s . The ending is considered literary -s : apricots, oranges, bananas, grams, kilograms, tangerines, tomatoes, tomatoes, rails, socks(But:stocking) and etc .
The following groups of nouns have a zero ending:
a) name of units of measurement: volt, ampere, watt, hertz, kilowatt, ohm etc., but hectares, grams, inches, coulombs, lux, microns, pounds, feet, yards;
b) some names of vegetables and fruits: apples, pomegranate;
c) some names of persons according to military units: soldiers, partisans, hussars, but: officers, generals, captains, majors, sappers, miners;
d) names of persons by belonging to national groups: Buryats, Georgians, Gypsies, Bulgarians, Ossetians, Turkmen etc., but Belarusians, Kalmyks, Kyrgyz, Tajiks, Yakuts and etc.
You should remember the genitive case forms of the words: saucers, cases, shares, skittles, nannies, coasts, towels, sheets, boots, candles, shoes, awls, mangers.
4) The declination of surnames and geographical names deserves special attention:
a) last names -co type Korolenko, Shevchenko, Sidorenko do not bow down;
b) last names -ago, -yago, -ovo, -yh, -ikh do not bow: Chernykh's dictionary, Zhivago's novel;
c) if the surnames coincide with common nouns, then female surnames are not declined ( met Anna Sokol), and men's bow ( met Vladimir Sokol). In the latter case, several options are possible: surnames with suffixes -ec, -ek, -ok, -ate It is better to decline without dropping the vowel: Ivan Zayats, Timofey Perets; surnames ending in a soft consonant, denoting male persons, are declined as masculine nouns, although, being common nouns, they can be feminine words, cf.: Ivan Rys, Vladimir Dal.
d) Russian surnames -in, -ov have an ending in the instrumental case -th : Frolov, Ivanov, Kalinin. Geographical names with suffixes –in , -s have endings in the instrumental case -ohm : the city of Kalinin, the village of Golyshmanovo. Ending -ohm also have foreign-language surnames -in, -ov : Darwin, Chaplin, Calvin. Female foreign-language surnames do not incline to a consonant.
e) foreign language surnames with a vowel (except for unstressed ones) -and I) with a preceding consonant) are not declined: works by Rimbaud, operas by Meringue, paintings by Leonardo da Vinci. From surnames to drums –and I) only Slavic ones are inclined ( Skovoroda's philosophy). Foreign language surnames with unstressed ones –and I) bow: poems by Pablo Neruda, theory by Campanella. Foreign language surnames –ia don't bow ( sonnets of Heredia), on -and I lean ( Beria's office).
5) Difficulties arise in cases where the surname refers to two persons. Here you should adhere to the following rules:
a) if the surname has two masculine names or masculine nouns, then it is put in the plural form ( August and Wilhelm Schlegel, father and son of Oistrakh);
b) with two female names, the surname is used in the singular form ( Tamara and Irina Press),
c) if the surname is accompanied by male and female names, then it retains the singular form ( Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt), but when combining husband and wife, brother and sister, the surname is used in the plural ( husband and wife Robins, brother and sister Nuringa);
d) with the words spouse, brothers, sisters, the surname is most often used in the singular form ( Kent spouses, Grimm brothers, Koch sisters).
Features of the formation of plural forms:
1) In the nominative plural, most words, according to the norms of the literary language, correspond to the ending - s(s) : mechanics, bakers, turners, searchlights etc. However, the ending option is possible -A . Forms with ending -A usually have a conversational or professional tone. Only in some words does the ending -a correspond to the literary norm (in approximately 70 words), for example: addresses, shore, side, board, century, bill of exchange, director, doctor, chute, millstone, bin, boat, jacket, bell, body, dome, master, number, district, vacation, sail, passport, cook, cellar, train, professor, grade, watchman, tenor, paramedic, cold, cadet, anchor, etc..
Sometimes forms with endings -A And - s(s) differ in meaning, cf.: fur(tanned animal skins) and furs(blacksmiths); buildings(torsos of people or animals) and housing(buildings; large military formations); camps(socio-political groups) and camps(parking lots, temporary settlements); of bread(cereal plants) and breads(baked); sable(fur) and sables(animals); wires(electric) and farewell(someone); orders(insignia) and orders(in medieval society, for example, the Order of the Sword), flowers(plants) - colors(paints).
2) Nouns on –anin(-yanin) ) plural ends in –any : citizen - citizens, peasant - peasants etc.
Adjectives
In the field of adjectives, special attention should be paid to the use of short forms and degrees of comparison.
1) Short forms of adjectives express temporary characteristics, while full adjectives name permanent characteristics, cf.: child is cheerful - child is cheerful. Short adjectives are characteristic of book speech.
2) It is unacceptable to combine the short and full forms of adjectives in a series of homogeneous members, for example, a sentence like Solution thoughtful and objective (the correct option is The decision is thoughtful and objective or The decision is thoughtful and objective ).
3) When forming short forms of adjectives, options are possible: –en And –enen : responsible - responsible, natural - natural and so on. Forms on –en are neutral in nature, and the shapes are –enen – emphatically bookish.
4) Outside the literary norm there are forms of simple comparative degree like livelier, louder, richer, sweeter, sweeter, more beautiful, longer etc. These are colloquial forms, their literary variants are livelier, louder, richer, sweeter, more beautiful, longer. When forming comparative forms of adjectives, you should remember:
a) suffix -her(s) is the most common, it is added to the final consonant of the stem if it does not end in -k-, -g-, -x-: newer (newer), more beautiful (beautiful), stronger (stronger); option -to her is more conversational;
b) suffix -e forms comparative forms from stems on -k-, -g-, -x , while alternations are possible k//h, g//f, x//w : light//lighter, tight//tighter, dry//drier;
c) for some adjectives, comparative forms are formed from a stem equal to the root, with the suffix being cut off -k-, -ok-: close - closer, liquid - thinner, tall - higher, wide - wider. In some cases, this suffix is added to stems -t-, -d-, -st-, -sk-, -zk- : young - younger, rich - richer, simple is simpler, flat - flatter, viscous- more viscous. Sometimes other types of alternations are observed: sweet - sweeter, deep- deeper, later - later, beautiful - more beautiful;
d) in the formation of the comparative degree of several adjectives, suppletivism (change of stem) is observed: good- better, bad- worse, small and small - less;
d) suffix -she joins singular adjectives: distant - further, bitter - bitter. This suffix has a colloquial connotation.
5) When using comparative forms, the object of comparison must be indicated. They do not correspond to the norms of literary language, since there is no object of comparison, sentences like 1) Cons, unfortunately, more . 2) It has been proven that pessimists and whiners are much more more often picked up cold infections, get sick more seriously And take longer to recover .
6) Common mistakes in the use of adjective forms are:
a) the formation of comparative and superlative degrees of comparison by combining complex and simple forms, for example: 1) This step tougher reflects the age crisis. 2) For heroism, the police officer will be awarded higher rank. 3) Japanese motorists tried to do more better motor. 4) The work plan is thought out before the smallest details and etc.
b) the formation of pleonastic combinations ( much worse, a little stronger, a little more expensive );
c) the formation of comparative forms from relative adjectives;
d) superlative forms formed from adjectives in the positive degree using a prefix most (most profitable , most pleasant ).
7) Simple form of comparative degree (more interesting, stronger) stylistically neutral, it is used in all styles; complex (more interesting, more powerful)- characteristic of bookish speech. Simple superlative form ( most beautiful, strongest) has a bookish coloration, complex ( the most beautiful, the strongest) - neutral.
Numeral
Difficulties in using numerals arise when they are declined, which is associated with the recently widespread analyticism (immutability of forms).
1) When declension, you should remember: in compound cardinal numerals all words are declined ( eighty eight, eighty eight), in complex cardinal numbers both parts are declined ( eighty, eighty, about eighty). In modern colloquial speech, the inflection of complex numerals is lost, which is also facilitated by the professional speech of mathematicians, but in official speech the norm requires the inclination of both parts of complex numerals.
In ordinal numbers only the last word is declined ( on the one hundred and fifty-third day).
2) Does not correspond to the literary norm of education type for twenty three days , since compound numerals should not include collective numerals.
3) Stylistically different forms eight (colloquial) and eight (book). The numeral has a colloquial connotation one and a half hundred .
4) In complex words with the first part expressed as a cardinal numeral, the numeral is usually used in the genitive case: eight hundred and fiftieth anniversary , With orocadegree, twenty-meter etc. The exception is compound nouns with the first part ninety , one hundred : ninety-kilometer , century and etc.
5) Collective numbers ( two, three... ten, both, both ) are not used in official speech, although their meanings coincide with cardinal numerals. But even in colloquial speech their use is limited: they are not combined with names of feminine persons, with inanimate nouns, with names of high ranks and positions (hero, general, professor, etc.). Collective numerals are combined with the names of male persons (except for the names of high ranks and positions): two boys, six soldiers; with the names of the cubs: seven kids, five wolf cubs; with substantivized adjectives: seven mounted, four military, with nouns that have only a plural form or denote paired objects: two scissors, three sleds.
6) Indefinite words a lot, several, how many, so many allow variant forms of dative/accusative cases: a lot/a lot , several/several and so on. The dative case forms have a bookish tone, the accusative case forms have a colloquial tone.
7) Use of counting numbers ( ten, hundred, dozen etc.) is colloquial in nature.
8) An indication of a quantity in excess of any measure can be indicated by a combination including the form “ more than » ( more than four days) .
Such combinations are not applicable to nouns denoting people and especially valuable objects.
9) In combinations like “ two or more » the form of nouns depends on the numeral: two or more tasks , But no assignments .
10) With numerals one and a half (one and a half ), one and a half hundred in the nominative case, nouns are used in the singular genitive form, in oblique cases - in the plural form: one and a half glasses, one and a half glasses and etc.
11) In phrases denoting dates, nouns do not change with declension: May 1, to May 1, about May 1 .
Pronoun
It is necessary to note the following features of the use of pronominal forms:
1) After simple prepositions in personal pronouns in indirect cases appears n : u n his, k n to him, s n them, in n eat, in n to her etc.; But thanks to him , towards her and so on.
2) Interrogative pronouns Who And What do not have categories of gender and number. When pronoun Who The predicate verb is used in the masculine gender ( Who's late to class?), with the pronoun What - neuter ( What happened? ). In combination with a pronoun Who type definitions this, different, different take a masculine or feminine form depending on the actual gender of the person referred to by the pronoun ( Who it? Who is she?).
3) If the role of the subject is a noun or a 3rd person pronoun, then belonging to the actor can only be expressed by a pronoun mine : Somebody of passengers (passenger) forgot mine umbrella in a subway car.
If the subject is the personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons ( me, you, we, you ), then the belonging of someone/something to an actor can be expressed by a pronoun mine and pronouns my, yours, ours, yours, although in real speech the first is preferred: Outside the city I met theirs/mine comrades.
4) Accusative case of the reflexive pronoun myself may refer to different persons mentioned in a sentence: Friends don't let me jokeabove oneself . Pronoun here above oneself may be meaningful To friends And to me . Such ambiguity should be avoided. It is better to construct this proposal differently: Friends don't allow me to joke with them(if we are talking about a joke addressed to friends) and Friends don't allow me to joke about myself(if we are talking about a joke at my expense).
5) Pronouns You And your can be used as a form of polite address to one person and in this case will be written with a capital letter: Why You do you think that Yours will the audience like the performance?
6) It is necessary to differentiate in the use of pronouns myself And most . The first means " on one's own"and is used with personal pronouns and animate nouns: Department head myself(he himself) decided to hold a meeting. For inanimate nouns, a pronoun myself can be used to clarify, emphasize, or highlight something. Self the meeting went well. Pronoun most used to draw attention to some feature of an object: The meeting began to considerhimself essence of the problem. Pronoun herself in the accusative case it has two forms: the most, which is bookish and also outdated, and herself , which is perceived as more modern.
7) Pronoun differences such And that's how it is are that the first is used most often as a definition and has a connotation of reinforcement: Such We were welcomed for the first time. Pronoun that's how it is used as a predicate, in particular in stable revolutions like and was like that : The cheese fell out, there was a cheat with itthat's how it is .
8) Pronouns every , anyone, anyone are close in meaning, but not interchangeable. Wed: Athletes were preparing for competitionsevery day(i.e. all days without exception). That summer we passedall sorts of competitions(i.e. different). The athletes were ready to compete inany day(i.e. on one of the days, on any day, it doesn’t matter which).
9) Pronouns usually indicate the last nouns used in the text that are in the same grammatical form (gender and number). Violation of this rule leads to errors, cf.: A letter arrived on the ship. Soon it weighed anchor . (Correct option: A letter arrived on the ship. Soon it weighed anchor ).
10) Frequent errors in the use of pronouns are:
a) grammatical errors ( When a new generation arrives, we check their level of training );
b) unjustified replacement of pronouns (word combinations are erroneous: without any benefit, could you advise us something etc.);
c) incorrect choice of possessive pronouns (cf. The doctor asked the sister to take her blood test from the laboratory );
d) speech redundancy (cf. before his death, to my native village and etc.).
Adverbs
1) Frequent errors in the use of adverbs, as well as in the use of adjectives, are errors in the formation of forms of degrees of comparison, cf.: more dexterous, more flexible and etc.; pleonastic combinations: better, worse and so on.
2) Colloquial adverb completely has the meaning “completely”, “finally” and is used with the verbs chop off, tear off, separate, etc.: His arm was completely cut off. Marya's ear would be completely torn off.
It must not be mixed with other colloquial dialect permanently “firmly, tightly attach, attach). The following sentences incorrectly use the adverb completely instead of permanently , which should be replaced by an adverb completely : Their idea seemed to be completely devoid of common sense. They completely deny.
3) Adverb somewhere indicates an uncertain location of the event. It is not recommended to use it in the meaning of “approximately” or “somehow”. The following sentences would be wrong: I'll arrive around eight. Somehow I feel sorry for him.
Verb
Difficulty in use verb forms .
1) When forming imperfective forms from perfective verbs using a suffix -yva(-iva) alternation of sounds may occur o//a at the core. In this case, parallel forms are formed: stipulate - stipulate, authorize - authorize and other forms with -O- basically correspond to strictly literary usage, and the forms with -A- are used in colloquial speech. If in doubt, consult a dictionary.
2) In modern Russian there is a group of redundant verbs that form variant personal forms, for example: move - move, move; rinse - rinse, rinse; wave - wave, wave; splash - splash, splash and etc.
Such forms may differ either in meaning or stylistic coloring. For example, partial or complete divergence in meaning occurs among verbs splashes - splashes, shines - shines, gnaws - gnaws, moves - moves, drips - drips, throws - throws, drips - drips, snorts - snorts.
Some shapes differ stylistically: stylistically neutral shapes are shapes dozes, sways, waves, splashes, prowls, and forms like prowls, whips, pinches are colloquial.
3) Some verbs in -no form variant forms of the past tense with the suffix -Well and without it: got used to it And used to it, faded And faded; in modern stylistics the latter are preferred.
4) Verb turn out to be requires an adjective or participle after itself in the instrumental case: The table was set . Verb replacement turned out to be verb was allows you to use the short form of the participle: The table was set . Mixing the forms of participles leads to an error: The hospital was closed .
Participle
The use of participles and gerunds gives speech a touch of bookishness. Some participles, for example passive ones with the suffix - om- have a bookish, solemn sound: Carried faithful servants in the rocking chair, pale, motionless, suffering from a wound, Karl appeared(Pushkin).
Active past participles, formed from prefixed verbs, are close in meaning to adjectives: blue - blue, sweaty - sweaty, timid - timid, tanned - tanned etc. In live speech they are often interchanged, but it should be remembered that the use of verbal adjectives is colloquial in nature.
1) Errors in the use of participles are related to their formation:
a) for example, “illegal” forms - otdata, naslat, ubrata, etc.;
b) when forming participles, the postfix may be lost –xia , cf.: unbreakable dishes and etc.;
c) erroneous contamination of the degree of comparison and participle: important, preeminent and etc.;
d) formation of the subjunctive mood of the verb from the past participle: who would like spend your holidays abroad...;
e) real participles with the suffixes ush (yush), ash (yash) are not formed from verbs of the perfect form (examples of erroneous formation:: making, writing, etc.).
2) It is possible to erroneously replace passive participles with active ones: nations, oppressed inhumane system...
3) Erroneous combination of a participial phrase and a subordinate attributive clause: people who know...
4) When constructing sentences, the author must take into account the correlation between the tenses of the participle and the predicate verb. A sentence like All patients then in the clinics were examined , since the correlation between the time of the participle attribute and the predicate verb is not observed.
5) It is necessary to avoid stringing together participial phrases that make the sentence cumbersome, cf.: The mechanical properties of steel, tested on samples made from rods forged from a piece cut from the profit of ingots, presented in table No. 2, meet the requirements of the technical specifications.
6) It is necessary to observe the correct word order in the participial phrase. So, the sentence would be wrong - Delegates arriving at the conference must register.
Participle
1) Participles in - lice (taking - taking, giving - giving ) are common in colloquial speech and undesirable in books and writing. In options sticking out - sticking out and so on. the second form (archaic) is used only in phraseological units.
2) Participles in - teach(-uchi) (looking, walking, driving, walking ) bear the color of folk poetic speech and archaism and are therefore used for stylization purposes.
3) Errors in the use of gerunds:
a) erroneous formations (imperfective participles are formed from the present tense stem using the suffix a(i); perfect participles are formed from the infinitive stem using the suffix c): greeting, noticing, looking closely, scratching and etc.;
b) erroneous combinations of perfective and imperfective participles as homogeneous members are possible: defining quantities and measuring gravity …;
c) discrepancy between the type of circumstance expressed by a gerund or participial phrase and the predicate verb ( Approaching the river, we stopped the horses );
d) the following rule is often violated: the subject, denoting a person, performs an action denoted by the predicate, and an action denoted by the gerund ( Having prepared the ship for sailing, departure is carried out as follows... );
e) you cannot use the participial phrase in an impersonal sentence (for example: After seeing my friend off, I felt sad ). However, if an impersonal construction allows for the action of an active subject who is not named in the sentence, but is assumed, then the use of an adverbial phrase is possible: Looking at his behavior, you might think...
f) constructions in which the participial phrase refers to a verbal noun are unacceptable ( The snake's teeth serve to hold the egg without crushing the shell.) .
Morphological norms of the Russian language are norms associated with the peculiarities of the formation of forms of various parts of speech.
Difficult cases of using a noun
Gender of nouns
In the Russian language, the gender of nouns is determined not only by its meaning, that is, on the basis of the real gender of the persons or animals called the noun, but also on the basis of the formal factor - by the end of the nominative case singular.
There are 4 groups of nouns in relation to the category of gender: masculine, feminine, neuter and common gender.
Masculine gender includes nouns ending in a hard consonant ( verb, wolf) or suffix -tel ( keeper, denominator), borrowed words starting with –l, -ry, -n ( aerosol, shampoo), as well as the names of the months; The feminine gender includes nouns ending in –а, -я and ending in a soft consonant and sibilant ( rye, corn); The neuter gender includes nouns ending in -о, -е ( ruling, minority), on –mya ( banner, time) and the word child.
Common nouns include words with the endings –a, -я, which can denote both female and male persons, depending on who we are talking about ( grump, greedy, bully, touchy, rake, simpleton, clever). If nouns of the general gender designate persons as male, then they agree with adjectives, pronouns and verbs in the masculine gender, if they designate persons of the female gender, then, accordingly, they agree with these parts of speech in the feminine gender ( Kolya is such an arrogant person. Lena is so arrogant).
Masculine nouns denoting female persons by profession, occupation ( doctor, professor, accountant, cashier, director, architect, librarian, deputy, foreman, veterinarian, manager etc.) can agree with a verb in the feminine form, and in recent decades this tendency has prevailed in the literary language ( Our strict director has always taken discipline issues seriously).
Type of abbreviations determined most often by the reference word ( The IMF (fund) received interest on loans). In some cases, if a word has a long tradition of use, is difficult to decipher by a native speaker, and in appearance resembles a word of some kind, its gender can be determined by analogy. (The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ministry) received a note of protest).
Gender of borrowed nouns, if they refer to indeclinables, is determined primarily by the meaning of the word, correlated with the category of animateness - inanimateness. Most indeclinable inanimate nouns of foreign origin belong to the neuter gender, for example: bureau, ghetto, depot, jelly, mango, metro, coat, puree, stew, sago, jam, dressing table, fillet, jury, argo, foyer, interview.
The exception is nouns, the gender of which is determined by the gender of Russian words that are similar in meaning. These are nouns avenue (cf. street - f.r.), kohlrabi (cf. cabbage - f.r.), penalty (cf. free kick - m.r.), salami (cf. sausage - f.r.).
Pay special attention to the noun coffee, which for centuries was to be used in Russian only as a masculine word (once, in the 18th century, this word was pronounced and written as a masculine word - coffee or coffee). In modern literary language, it is considered acceptable to use in oral colloquial speech, by analogy with other borrowed nouns coffee as a neuter word. However, it must be taken into account that educated, intelligent people still more often use this word in the masculine gender.
Animate borrowed indeclinable nouns are classified as masculine or feminine depending on the gender of the person designated. Therefore nouns attache, bourgeois, dandy, impresario, entertainer, croupier, maestro, rentier, receptionist- masculine, and lady, frau, madam, miss, lady- female.
Animate borrowed indeclinable nouns denoting animals are masculine, unless it is specifically indicated that a female is meant. For example: A white cockatoo was sitting on a branch, a little pony was walking, a pink flamingo was visible in the distance; But The Hummingbird laid a tiny egg and the Kangaroo carried the baby in her pouch.
Borrowed indeclinable nouns denoting geographical names belong to the same gender as nouns - generic concepts ( lake, mountain, city etc.): picturesque Missouri, deep-water Orinoco, beautiful Ontario, lively Montevideo.
In the Russian language there is a group of nouns whose gender cannot be determined, since they do not have a singular form: gates, name days, holidays, trousers and etc.
Exercises.
Exercise 1.Make up phrases “noun + adjective” with the given words, independently selecting adjectives of the appropriate kind.
Avenue, aerosol, parcel, meringue, borjomi, sconce, bourgeois, veil, riding breeches, house, jury, cockatoo, kohlrabi, coffee, lady, salmon, menu, corn, mocha, mole, penalty, pony, purse, salami, tulle, flamingo, foyer, frau, tsetse, shampoo, San Francisco, Nagasaki, Mississippi, Tbilisi, Tokyo, Ontario, Delhi.
Exercise 2. From the nouns given below, write down the indeclinables and determine their gender. Which words have fluctuations in gender? Which words only have a plural form?
Curlers, bikini, biennale, bureau, whiskey, tour, ghetto, depot, child, domino, blinds, jelly, koala, coffee, mango, subway, coat, jam, journeyman, puree, stew, soprano, spaghetti, dressing table, fillet, hippie.
Exercise 3. Divide the nouns into three groups: 1) feminine nouns; 2) masculine nouns; 3) common nouns.
Attache, author, jury, bulldozer, mediocrity, grumbler, counterpart, bigwig, doctor, head, thug, dandy, greedy, victim, bully, arrogant, boss, snake, impresario, incognito, cockatoo, hummingbird, entertainer, croupier, maestro, touchy, rake, porter, protégé, simpleton, pig, sweet tooth, servant, penny, jersey, daredevil, headman, judge, toastmaster, travesty, smart girl, chimpanzee, sneak, taxi, Hindi.
Exercise 4.Determine the type of abbreviations. Unscramble these abbreviations
UN, USA, district department of internal affairs, hydroelectric power station, housing office, housing cooperative, SPbSPU, CIS, BDT, FIFA, VGTRK, traffic police, minimum wage, GDP, LDPR, IMF, registry office, OVIR.
Declension of nouns
Proper names. Some difficulties in declension of nouns may arise in connection with proper names, since not all proper nouns change by case. This applies primarily to Russian surnames ending in -yh, -ikh, -ago, -yago, -evo, and Ukrainian surnames ending in -ko, for example: Chernykh, Plokhikh, Durnovo, Zhivago, Solovago, Chernenko, Vasilenko, Kovunenko, Shevchenko.
The problem of declension of proper nouns is associated primarily with foreign-language proper names. It should be remembered that foreign language proper nouns (names and geographical names) ending in a vowel do not change by case, for example: Orly, Eri, Falcone, Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea del Sarto, Domenico El Greco, Filippino Lippi, Gericault, Olivier, Consuelo, Audrey, Lee. Foreign-language male surnames ending in a consonant, in contrast to surnames ending in a vowel, are declined, for example: Peter Paul Rubens - Peter Paul Rubens, Anthony van Dyck - about Anthony van Dyck, Balzac - Balzac, Charles Dickens - Charles Dickens. Foreign-language female names and surnames ending in a hard consonant, and foreign-language and Russian female surnames ending in a hard consonant, also do not change by case, for example: Kaufman, Vivien, Carmen, Voynich, Topar, Kogan, Avlas, Vetryak, Baronchuk, Bogorad, Lilich.
Exercises.
Exercise 1. Open the brackets and form the correct form of proper names.
I really like the works of (Erich-Maria Remarque);
He never agreed with (Charles Darwin) and his theory;
Our company signed a contract with the director of Gazprom (Alexey Miller);
Yesterday, negotiations took place between the presidents of Russia and France (Dmitry Medvedev) and (Nicolas Sarkozy);
The director has already received consent from (Nicole Kidman) to participate in the filming;
This is not the first visit (Orhan Pamuk) to our country;
The duel that took place between (Pushkin) and (Dantes) ended tragically for the Russian poet;
The journalist interviewed a famous Russian artist (Andrei Makarevich), State Duma deputy (Pavel Medvedev) and writer (Victoria Tokareva);
She was an ardent admirer of creativity (Georges Sand).
The category of animateness - inanimateness is based on the distinction between living and inanimate, but grammar does not always correspond to this principle. So, in Russian the word dead man- animate, and the word dead body- inanimate. Animate nouns have the same plural forms of the accusative and genitive cases, but inanimate nouns do not. For example:
Exercises.
Exercise 1.Open the brackets and choose the correct form of the noun
We study (bacteria/bacteria).
Domestos kills (all known microbes / all known microbes).
From the crime report: “This morning, passers-by found (a corpse / corpse, dead person / dead man) in the park.
The children were flying (a kite/kite) in the park.
He thought he saw (a ghost/ghost) at the end of the alley.
The writer introduced (a new character/new character) into the story.
He loved (his teddy bear) so much.
The fisherman caught (three fish).
For dinner he fried and ate (three fish).
All foreigners buy (matryoshka dolls) as Russian souvenirs.
Language - grammatical norms. Grammatical norms are usually divided into two types: morphological norms and syntactic norms. In today's lecture we will talk about morphological norms.
Morphological norms- these are the rules for using grammatical forms of different parts of speech. Morphological norms regulate morphology- a section of linguistics that includes the study of word forms and ways of expressing grammatical meanings, as well as the study of parts of speech and their characteristics.
2. Morphological norms of nouns
The main difficulty in studying morphological norms is the presence of variations that appear due to the constant interaction of old and new ways of forming grammatical forms.
In the morphological norms of nouns, we turn to the categories of gender and case.
Despite the fact that we quite easily determine the gender of many nouns, guided by the ending (“zero”/ь, а/я, о/е), there is a group of words for which determining the gender can be difficult. Most often, fluctuations are observed in the classification of nouns as masculine or feminine. As in the case of stress, these vibrations are distributed over different types, that is, they form variant forms of word gender :
1) Equal options: unt - unt, shutter - shutter, stack - stack.
2) Stylistic options (characterized by different stylistic affiliations): shoe(common) – shoes(colloquial) key(common) – keys(prof.).
3) Literary and obsolete versions: hall - hall, boot - boot, rail - rail.
4) Semantic variants (words in which the generic ending helps to distinguish the lexical meaning): district(division of state territory) – districts(surrounding area), career(1) a place of open mining or 2) an accelerated pace of a horse) – career(prominent position in society).
Vary forms of words denoting male and female persons by profession, position, rank . Such nouns do not always have a full-fledged analogue to denote a female person. There are options:
1) Bigender nouns - masculine nouns, but can also be used to refer to female persons: doctor, lawyer, deputy, professor, captain.
2) Parallel, stylistically neutral nouns: teacher - teacher, artist - artist, student - student.
3) Stylistic nouns in which the feminine form is stylistically reduced, has a colloquial or vernacular character: doctor - doctor, conductor - conductor, director - headmistress.
Requires special attention assigning gender to indeclinable nouns , since in many of them we cannot be guided by the ending, and the translation of these words into Russian varies. For example: what kind of word sconce? If we try to translate it, there will be different options: lamp / night light - masculine, lamp - feminine. You cannot use a translation to determine the gender of a borrowed noun! There are rules:
1) Inanimate foreign nouns belong to the neuter gender: cafe, metro, taxi, interview, aloe. There are exceptions to this group: masculine gender: coffee, sirocco(dry winds), names of drinks (brandy) and languages ( Hindi, Dari). To the feminine gender: salami, kohlrabi, avenue. But gradually parallel forms begin to develop: whiskey, coffee, car, penalty(and m.r. and s.r.), tsunami, madrasah(m. b. and f. b.).
2) Animate foreign language nouns can belong to both masculine and feminine gender: my/my counterpart, this/that attache. In the names of animals ( cockatoo, kangaroo, chimpanzee, pony) the masculine gender acts as the main gender, and the feminine gender as an additional gender and depends on the context.
3) In words - geographical names, the gender is determined by the gender of the reality they designate: deep Mississippi(river → and. R.), multi-million dollar / festive Tokyo(city → m.r., capital → and. R.).
4) In abbreviations and compound words the norm is unstable. But in general, the gender is determined by the main word: ISUTU(university → m.r.), UN(organization → and. R.). But there are exceptions here too: university(s.r. → m.r.), NATO– North Atlantic Treaty Organization (f. → With. r.), Ministry of Foreign Affairs (s.r. → m.r.), etc. began to be perceived as independent words and “changed” gender.
We can find various options in the case system of the Russian language.
Nominative
Variant endings may be observed Y/N And AND I in plural forms of masculine nouns : agreement s– agreement A, mechanic And– locksmith I . The main one is the graduation rate Y/N , then as an option AND I most often acts as a colloquial one.
Genitive
1). For example, some masculine nouns in the genitive singular vary in the main ending AND I (tea, sugar) with additional options U/S (tea, sugar). Usually ending U/S can be used in the following cases:
· for nouns with a real meaning when indicating their quantity - that is, to designate a part of the whole ( glass of cha Yu, kilogram sugar at, piece of cheese at ). However, if the noun is accompanied by a modifier, you need to choose the form with the ending AND I (a cup of hot tea I, a pack of dried tobacco A );
· for collective and abstract nouns with the meaning of quantity ( few people at, a lot of noise at );
· in phraseological units ( without a year at week, from sight at to the eye, to the world at along the thread);
· in negative sentences ( poco Yu no, refusal at did not have).
2) In the Genitive plural, masculine nouns have four variants of case endings: OB/EV(a lot of table ov , muse ev ), TO HER(a lot of pencil to her ) And null ending(a lot of boot). The following groups of masculine nouns have rare zero endings:
names of paired items ( boot, boot, stocking / But sock ov/, shoulder straps);
· names of some nationalities, mainly in nouns with a letter stem – n And - R (English, Armenians, Bulgarians);
Prepositional
In the Prepositional case to the main option - ending E in some cases endings are added U: to the workshop e- to the workshop at (in this case the option U – colloquial): grow into the forest at– know about the forest e (the ending distinguishes the shade in the meaning: circumstance and object), n and current account e- be in good standing at (in phraseological expressions).
Usually, when choosing an ending, you should take into account the context, that is, pay attention to what meaning is realized in the word.
3. Morphological norms of adjectives.
In the normative aspect of the morphology of adjectives, two complex issues are: the formation of forms of degrees of comparisons and the difference between full and short forms of adjectives.
Formation of degrees of comparison of adjectives. There are simple and compound degrees of comparison of adjectives. The simple comparative form is formed using suffixes - her And - to her(colloquial): faster - faster, some adjectives form comparative degrees using the suffix - e: more lively, louder, more dexterous, sweeter. The simple superlative form of adjectives is formed using suffixes –aysh(ii) (Supreme), –eysh(ii) (beautiful).
The compound comparative form is formed using the word more, and excellent using the word most ( This house is tall, but the one next door is taller. This house is the tallest in the city).
Traditional speech errors in the formation of forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives are associated with: 1) confusion of simple and compound forms of degrees of comparison ( taller, most beautiful) and 2) the absence of a comparison object ( This room is brighter. Need + than that).
Full and short forms of the adjective
There are differences between the full and short forms of an adjective, so these forms cannot always replace each other.
1) Stylistic difference: short forms are characteristic of book speech, long forms are neutral in their stylistic coloring.
2) Semantic difference: short forms indicate a temporary attribute of an object, full forms indicate a permanent one.
3) Syntactic difference: short forms can have dependent words, full forms cannot.
4. Morphological norms of numerals.
There are rules for using numerals:
1) In complex and compound cardinal numbers all parts are declined (book with st A five Yu ten Yu six Yu pages).
2) When declension of complex and composite ordinal numbers, only the last word in the numeral changes (to be born in one thousand nine hundred ninety two year).
3) Cardinal numbers (except for the numeral alone) are not combined with words denoting paired objects, such as: sleigh, scissors, day, trousers, glasses etc. (not allowed: twenty-two days, thirty-three scissors) – you should use the expression edit: The twenty-second day / twenty-two days have passed. Thirty-three scissors were purchased.
4) Collective numbers are combined only with animate masculine nouns (two young men, three men) and are not combined with feminine nouns (you cannot say: three girls, only: three girls).
5) When combining a noun with a numeral denoting a fraction, the noun must be in the singular genitive case (you cannot: 12.6 kilometer ov , only: 12.6 kilometer A ).
6) Numerals one and a half And one and a half hundred have only two case forms: in the Nominative and Accusative cases: one and a half – one and a half And one and a half hundred, in all other cases one and a half And one and a half hundred. These numerals are combined with nouns in the Genitive singular (Name and Vin. case): one and a half spoons, and in the plural (all other cases): about one and a half hundred pages.
5. Morphological norms of pronouns.
Their own morphological norms apply when using pronouns:
1) Pronoun They does not correlate with collective nouns (people, youth, merchants). It is forbidden: People went to the polls together because they understood how important it was. Should They → He or people → People.
2) Personal pronouns cannot be used as a second subject or object. It is forbidden: Plyushkin, he is the negative hero of the novel.
3) When there are two subjects, personal and possessive pronouns require additional clarification or rephrasing of the sentence as a whole so that there is no ambiguity. It is forbidden: The professor invited the graduate student to read his report(whose? Professor or graduate student?).
4) In indefinite pronouns with suffixes - this, -either, -something suffix -That forms the meaning of "unknown" suffix -or forms the meaning “any”, and the suffix –something – the meaning “unimportant” (You cannot: Anyone or someone knocks on the door. Only: Someone is knocking).
5) Determinative pronouns any, any And every cannot replace each other (Cannot: Every person is responsible for his own life. Only: Everyone…).
6. Morphological norms of verbs.
Let us briefly turn to the basic morphological norms governing the use of verbs:
1) The verb pairs differ stylistically: see - see, hear - hear, lift - lift, climb - climb etc. The first version is bookish - literary, the second - colloquial.
2) Verbs with alternation O//A based on: conditioned O pour in – conditioned A pour in, concentrate O focus – concentrate A read etc. are also distinguished as bookish (O form) and colloquial (A form).
3) For so-called insufficient verbs ( win, convince, find, dare, feel) the form of the 1st person singular of the future tense has a compound character ( I can/can/must win).
4) The so-called abundant verbs have two forms of the present tense with a stylistic or semantic difference. For example: waves - waves(book and colloquial version), moves(moves) – drives(leads, encourages).
5) For verbs in the past tense, the main form is without a suffix -Well (get wet - get wet, get used to it - got used to it).
6) Unity of aspectual and tense forms of verbs - a rule according to which all verbs within one sentence must be used in the same grammatical form. It is forbidden: On vacation he rested and again was studying favorite thing. Only: got busy!
7) In a special form of the verb - gerund - suffix -V– normative, suffix – lice- colloquial. It is forbidden: Read lice book. Only: Read V book.
Thus, in this lecture we became acquainted with the concept of “morphological norm” and found out how to form the forms of words belonging to different parts of speech. In case of difficulty, it is recommended to refer to grammar dictionaries.