Svedberg degeneration of energy. Swedberg Richard. Theoretical foundations of physics
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Theodor Svedberg Theodor Svedberg (Swedish: The Svedberg) (August 30, 1884, Valbo, February 26, 1971, Kopparberg) Swedish physical chemist, member of the Swedish Academy of Sciences. Contents 1 Biography ... Wikipedia
- (Svedberg) (1884 1971), Swedish physical chemist, foreign member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1966). Experimentally confirmed (1906) the theory of Brownian motion of A. Einstein and M. Smoluchowski. Created (1919) the ultracentrifugation method, designed (1923)… … encyclopedic Dictionary
Svedberg Theodor (30.8.1884, Valbo, ‒ 26.2.1971, Kopparberg), Swedish physical chemist, member of the Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1907 he graduated from Uppsala University and worked there. Since 1949, director of the Institute of Nuclear Chemistry (G. Werner Institute). Basic... ...
Svedberg, Theodor Theodor Svedberg Theodor Svedberg (Swedish: The Svedberg) (August 30, 1884, Valbo, February 26, 1971, Kopparberg) Swedish physical chemist, member of the Swedish Academy of Sciences ... Wikipedia
- (1884 1971) Swedish physical chemist, foreign member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1966). Experimentally confirmed (1906) the theory of Brownian motion of A. Einstein and M. Smoluchowski. Created (1919) the ultracentrifugation method and applied it (1925) to determine... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
- (Svedberg) Theodor (1884 1971), Swedish chemist, awarded the 1926 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the development of the ultracentrifuge (1923). Svedberg used it to study colloids and large MOLECULES, which made it possible for the first time to determine... ... Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary
- (Svedberg) Theodor (30.8.1884, Valbo, 26.2.1971, Kopparberg), Swedish physical chemist, member of the Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1907 he graduated from Uppsala University and worked there. Since 1949, director of the Institute of Nuclear Chemistry (G. Werner Institute). Main works... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
In chemistry, 1926.
Born on August 30, 1884 on the Flerang estate, near Gävle (Sweden), the only child of Elias Svedberg, manager of an iron foundry, and Augusta Alstermark. The father often took long country walks with the boy and allowed him to conduct experiments in the factory laboratory. While studying at the Karolinska School in Örebro, Svedberg became interested in physics, chemistry and biology. Although he was more interested in botany, he decided to become a chemist in order to “look deeper” into biological processes.
In January 1904 he entered Uppsala University, and in September 1905 he received a bachelor's degree. His first article was published that same year. Svedberg continued to study at the University of Uppsala, and in 1907 he was awarded a doctorate for his dissertation on colloidal systems, in which he described a new method of using oscillatory electrical discharges between metal electrodes located in a liquid to obtain colloidal solutions of metals. He experimentally confirmed (1907) the theory of Brownian motion of Einstein and Smoluchowski, proved the existence of molecules (1907) and contributed to modern ideas about the atomic-molecular structure of matter.
In 1912 Svedberg became the first lecturer in physical chemistry at Uppsala University and remained in this position for 36 years. He became famous for his studies of the physical properties of colloidal systems.
The size of large colloidal particles could be determined by measuring their rate of precipitation, as shown by Jean Baptiste Perrin (Nobel Prize in Physics, 1926), but most colloidal particles settle slowly and this method was impractical. There was a need to speed up the process, and, consequently, to develop a more advanced method, which led to the creation of the ultracentrifuge.
Svedberg believed that the sedimentation of colloidal particles could be accelerated under the conditions of a stronger gravitational field created by a high-speed centrifuge. During an eight-month internship at the University of Wisconsin in 1923, he began building an optical centrifuge in which the precipitation of particles was recorded by photography. Since the particles moved, not only by settling, but also by convection currents, Svedberg was unable to determine their sizes. Since the high thermal conductivity of hydrogen could eliminate temperature differences, and, consequently, convection currents, he, by constructing a wedge-shaped cell and rotating it in a hydrogen atmosphere, together with his colleague G. Rinde, achieved deposition without convection (1924).
A year later, Svedberg discovered that proteins could also be made to precipitate out of solution. He showed that all molecules of this protein are monodisperse, in contrast to the polydisperse particles of colloidal inorganic systems. Moreover, the size of the molecule can also be inferred from the sedimentation rate of the protein.
In 1926, Svedberg was awarded the Nobel Prize “for his work in the field of dispersed systems.”
In a new physical chemistry laboratory specially built for Svedberg by the Swedish government after he was awarded the Nobel Prize, he spent another 15 years improving the design of the centrifuge. In January 1926, she tested her new model with oil rotors and achieved 40,100 rpm. Five years later, he created a new model, where the number of revolutions per minute had already reached 56,000. A long series of improvements in the design of the rotor led to the fact that in 1936 the centrifuge could make 120,000 revolutions per minute. At this speed, a force of 525,000 F (where F is the force of gravity) acted on the settling system.
The next stage of the study was the analysis of the sedimentation characteristics of 100 proteins (including hemoglobin and hemocyanin) involved in the respiratory processes of many animals. It has been proven that the molecules of all these proteins are spherical, monodisperse and have a high molecular weight. Extending his ultracentrifuge research to other biopolymers, Svedberg discovered that carbohydrates such as cellulose and starch formed long, thin, polydisperse molecules.
Thanks to Svedberg's discoveries, the ultracentrifuge became a major tool for biochemical analytical research for decades, and the rate of precipitation of biopolymers is measured in units called "svedberg".
Svedberg's research, along with the work of A. Tiselius (Nobel Prize, 1948) on electrophoresis, became a tool for establishing the uniqueness of protein molecules in size and structure, and this became a prerequisite for Sanger (Nobel Prize 1958 and 1980) to determine their amino acid sequences and for crystallographic work Kendrew and Perutza (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1962).
Svedberg was also interested in the phenomenon of radioactivity. His work with Daniel Strömholm (1871–1961) showed that some radioactive elements are chemically indistinguishable from each other and occupy the same place in the Periodic Table. This discovery anticipated the study of isotopes by F. Soddy (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1921). In the late 1920s, Svedberg studied the effect of alpha particles emitted by radioactive substances on protein solutions. Following the discovery of the neutron in 1932 by James Chadwick (1891–1974), Svedberg designed a small neutron generator to study neutron irradiation and produce radioactive isotopes as chemical and biological tracers.
In 1949, Svedberg retired, but by a special decree he was allowed to retain the post of director of the Gustav Werner Institute of Nuclear Chemistry, which had recently been created at Uppsala University, where, mainly thanks to his efforts, a synchrocyclotron was installed.
Svedberg made a major contribution to strengthening the connection between academic science and the practical application of scientific achievements. During the Second World War, he achieved the development of synthetic rubber production in Sweden.
Considering science international, he invited foreign scientists to work at Uppsala University.
He was a man of lively mind and varied interests. An excellent amateur photographer, he seriously studied the photography process. In the 1920s, using different wavelengths to photograph the Codex Argenteus (Gothic Bible, 500 AD), he discovered that ultraviolet rays made visible the subtle composition in which it was written.
He was interested in botany and was the owner of one of the best botanical collections in Sweden.
Works: Energy degeneration. M. - L., 1927; Formation of colloids/ Per. from English L., 1927; Colloidal chemistry 2nd ed. / Per. from English M., 1930; The Ultracentrifuge. Oxford, 1940 (with K.O.Pedersen).
Kirill Zelenin
“Both in the main work of my life - colloid chemistry, and in botany - my hobby, I always chose the wide expanses of the tundra.”
Theodor Swedberg.
Swedish chemist Theodor Svedberg was born August 30, 1884. on the Flerang estate, near the town of Gavle. He was the only child of Elias Svedberg, an engineer and manager of a local iron foundry, and Augusta (Alstermark) Svedberg. The boy's father often took long country walks with him, instilling in him an interest in nature. He also allowed young Svedberg to conduct experiments in the small laboratory of the iron foundry.
While studying at the Karolinska School in Örebro, Svedberg became particularly interested in physics, chemistry and biology. Although he was most interested in botany, he decided to become a chemist because he believed that it would allow him to “look deeper” into biological processes. IN January 1904 Theodor entered Uppsala University and from that time connected with it almost his entire life. He studied with great perseverance and showed extraordinary abilities in the natural sciences. Here Svedberg became acquainted with the just published “Theoretical Chemistry” by V. Nernst, as well as new works. “The Nature of Colloids” and G. Bredig “Inorganic Enzymes”. The science of colloids fascinated him and gave him confidence that the study of colloidal systems would help explain processes in living organisms. A comparative analysis of crystalloids and colloids also seemed important to him, since the existence of molecules was still disputed by some scientists, led by W. Ostwald. IN 1905 Svedberg received a bachelor's degree and became an assistant at the Uppsala Chemical Institute, two years later he received a master's degree and began lecturing in chemistry at the university, and in December 1907. he received his Ph.D. Already in his first scientific work in 1905 Svedberg, using an induction coil for sputtering metals in an electric spark during an oscillatory discharge in liquids, obtained more than 30 organosols of various metals and thereby laid the foundation for deep physicochemical studies of sols, which constituted his main interest in the next 15 years. Photographing traces of colloidal particles in Zsigmondy's ultramicroscope, Svedberg conducted ( 1906 ) on colloidal objects, direct experimental verification of the theory of fluctuations and. These results, described in the Ph.D. "The doctrine of colloidal solutions" ( 1907 ), were of great theoretical importance for proving the reality of the existence of molecules and for substantiating modern molecular kinetic concepts. Svedberg carried out a thorough determination of diffusion coefficients in colloidal solutions of gold, sulfur, etc. In a review of Svedberg’s dissertation, Ostwald admitted defeat: "The first proof of the kinetic theory has been obtained".
IN 1912 Svedberg became the first lecturer in physical chemistry at Uppsala University and remained in this position for 36 years. He became famous for his studies of the physical properties of colloidal systems.
The size of large colloidal particles could be determined by measuring the rate of their precipitation, as shown (Nobel Prize in Physics, 1926 ), and yet most colloidal particles settle slowly, and this very technology seemed impractical. To determine the size of particles in colloidal solutions, S. used the one designed by Richard Zsigmondy. He was able to prove that colloidal solutions obey the classical physical and chemical laws for dilute solutions. However, in most cases, this method did not provide the ability to determine the size of the smallest particles and the particle size distribution.
There was a need to speed up the process, and thus to develop a more advanced method, which led to the creation of the ultracentrifuge. Svedberg believed that the sedimentation of colloidal particles would be accelerated under the conditions of a stronger gravitational field created by a high-speed centrifuge. During his time at the University of Wisconsin 1923, where he was a visiting professor for 8 months, Svedberg began to create an optical centrifuge in which the deposition of particles would be recorded by photography. Since the particles moved, not only by settling, but also under the influence of conventional currents, Svedberg could not determine the particle sizes using this method. He knew that hydrogen's high thermal conductivity could help eliminate temperature differences and therefore convection currents. By constructing a wedge-shaped cell and placing the rotating cell in a hydrogen atmosphere, Svedberg 1924, having already returned to Sweden, together with his colleague Hermann Rinde, achieved sedimentation without convection.
December 1924 Their first article about the ultracentrifuge was published, in which the authors wrote: “The centrifuge we designed allows us to determine particles that are not visible in an ultramicroscope with great accuracy.”
A year later, Svedberg discovered that biological macromolecules (proteins) could also be made to precipitate out of solution. He proved that all molecules of a given protein are monodisperse (i.e., have the same size), in contrast to particles of metal colloidal systems, which are polydisperse, since their sizes are completely different. Moreover, the rate of protein sedimentation can also infer the size of the molecule. This conclusion was the first indication that protein molecules have a clearly defined mass and shape. As a result of Svedberg's discoveries, the centrifuge became the main tool for biochemical research. Now the rate of precipitation is measured in units named after Svedberg. IN 1926 Svedberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his work in the field of dispersed systems." In his opening speech on behalf of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, H. G. Söderbaum said: “The movement of particles suspended in a liquid ... clearly demonstrates the real existence of molecules, and therefore of atoms - a fact all the more significant since only recently an influential school of scientists declared these material particles to be a figment of the imagination.”
In his Nobel Lecture, which he gave the following year, Svedberg, after reviewing the technical and theoretical problems associated with his work, described the great potential importance that he believed the ultracentrifuge would have for progress in many fields, including medicine, physics , chemistry and industry.
In a new physical chemistry laboratory specially built for Svedberg by the Swedish government, he spent another 15 years improving the design of his centrifuge. IN January 1926 the scientist tested a new model of ultracentrifuge with oil rotors, in which he achieved 40,100 revolutions per minute. And 5 years later he created a new model, where the number of revolutions per minute reached 56,000. A long series of improvements in the design of the rotor led to the fact that in 1936 the centrifuge could make 120,000 revolutions per minute. At this speed, a force of 525,000 g acted on the settling system.
Thanks to Svedberg's discoveries, the ultracentrifuge became the main tool for biochemical analytical research for decades, and the rate of precipitation of biopolymers is measured in units called " swedberg" [
1 swedberg = 10 −13 sec]Throughout his life, Svedberg was also interested in the phenomenon of radioactivity. His work with Daniel Strömholm proved that some radioactive elements previously thought to be different are chemically indistinguishable from each other and occupy the same place in the periodic table. This discovery anticipated the study of isotopes by Frederick Soddy. At the end 20s. Svedberg studied the effect of alpha particles emitted by radioactive substances on protein solutions. After opening in 1932. James Chadwick of the neutron, a particle with no electrical charge, Svedberg constructed a small neutron generator to study the effects of neutron irradiation and produce radioactive isotopes as chemical and biological tracers.
During World War II he developed industrial methods for producing synthetic rubbers in Sweden.
Svedberg's research, along with the work of A. Tiselius (Nobel Prize, 1948 ) by electrophoresis, became a tool for establishing the uniqueness of protein molecules in size and structure, and this became a prerequisite for Sanger’s definition (Nobel Prize 1958 And 1980 ) their amino acid sequences and for the crystallographic work of Kendrew and Perutz (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1962 ). It has been proven that the molecules of all proteins are round in shape, monodisperse and have a high molecular weight. Expanding his research to other biological macromolecules using an ultracentrifuge, Svedberg discovered that carbohydrates such as cellulose and starch form long, thin, polydisperse molecules.
Svedberg was also interested in the phenomenon of radioactivity. His joint work with Daniel Strömholm showed that some radioactive elements are chemically indistinguishable from each other and occupy the same location in the Periodic Table. This discovery anticipated the study of isotopes by F. Soddy (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1921 ). At the end 1920s Svedberg studied the effect of alpha particles emitted by radioactive substances on protein solutions. After opening in 1932 James Chadwick neutron, Svedberg designed a small neutron generator to study neutron irradiation and produce radioactive isotopes as chemical and biological tracers.
In 1949, Svedberg retired, and yet, by a special decree, he was allowed to retain the post of director of the Gustav Werner Institute of Nuclear Chemistry, which had recently been created at Uppsala University, where, mainly thanks to his efforts, a synchrocyclotron was installed.Considering science international, he invited foreign scientists to work at Uppsala University.Working at the intersection of sciences, Svedberg made a significant contribution to the unification of physics, chemistry and biology.
Svedberg published 228 articles and 12 books on colloid chemistry and macromolecular substances, nuclear chemistry and radiobiology. The latest publication (on proton radiotherapy) was published in 1965, when he was 81 years old.. He constantly maintained contacts with foreign scientists and visited laboratories in Germany many times ( 1913 ), Austria ( 1916 ), England, France, Denmark, USA and Canada ( 1920-1923 ).
(b. 1950) - American sociologist, one of the world's most famous specialists in the field of "new economic sociology". He specialized in legal sciences and sociology. He has a law degree from Stockholm University and a degree in sociology from Boston College (1978). He currently teaches sociological theory and economic sociology as a professor at Stockholm University. His areas of interest are the history of economic sociology (since the mid-1980s) and sociological theory. According to S., sociology at this stage takes on the character of “comparative macrosociology.” Its main features are its focus on comparative research between countries, the formulation of questions affecting integral social systems, problems of global ecology, the organization of economic relations, and demography. At the same time, according to S., economic sociology shared, along with economic history, an interest in the emergence and variability of current market systems and other economic institutions.
S.'s main contribution to the history of economic sociology is the creation of the concept of the market as a social structure, the essence of which is the integration of economic and sociological relations into market analysis. S. substantiated the inadequacy of defining market relations through price-forming mechanisms (which is typical for economic theory), since this does not give a complete picture of the basic interaction of individuals included in the market. In his analysis of the history of the market (from antiquity to modern times), S. pays special attention to the consideration of market relations through the concepts of “exchange” and “competition.” Guided by the developments of economists A. Marshall and D. Carleton and the ideas of sociologists M. Weber and G. Simmel, S. created historical typologies of markets as social structures that differ significantly from each other in the degree of development of exchange and depending on the level of development of competition. This approach made it possible to overcome the limitations of the traditional approach to the market as a mechanism for regulating the demand and supply of labor and to consider the market as a complex social phenomenon with the right to its own existence.
Main works: "Economic Sociology: The Past and Future of Current Sociology" (1987); "Economics and Sociology - Rethinking Their Boundaries: Conversations with Economists and Sociologists" (1990); “Sociology of Economic Life” (1992, co-authored with M. Granovetter); "Textbook on Economic Sociology" (1994, co-edited with N. Smelser); "Max Weber and the Idea of Economic Sociology" (1998); "Joseph Schumpeter - His Life and Work" (1999); "Entrepreneurship: A Social Science Perspective" (2000), etc.
From S.'s works, fragments of his section "Markets as Social Structures" from the "Textbook on Economic Sociology" were translated into Russian (in the journal: "Personality. Culture. Society" for 2002; translation by G.N. Sokolova).
G.N. Sokolova
Other news on the topic.
Svedberg Theodor Svedberg Career: Chemist
Birth: Sweden, 30.8.1884
Born near Gävle (Sweden), the only child of Elias Svedberg, manager of an iron foundry, and Augusta Alstermark. The father often took long country walks with the boy and allowed him to conduct experiments in the factory laboratory. While studying at the Karolinska School in Örebro, Svedberg became interested in physics, chemistry and biology. Although he was more interested in botany, he decided to become a chemist to gain a deeper insight into biological processes.
In January 1904 he entered Uppsala University, and in September 1905 he received a bachelor's degree. His first article was published that same year. Svedberg continued to study at the University of Uppsala, and in 1907 he was awarded a doctorate for his dissertation on colloidal systems, in which he described a new technique for using oscillatory electrical discharges between metal electrodes located in a liquid to obtain colloidal solutions of metals. He experimentally confirmed (1907) the theory of Brownian motion of Einstein and Smoluchowski, proved the existence of molecules (1907) and contributed to modern ideas about the atomic-molecular structure of matter.
In 1912 Svedberg became the first lecturer in physical chemistry at Uppsala University and remained in this position for 36 years. He became famous for his studies of the physical properties of colloidal systems.
The size of large colloidal particles could be determined by measuring the rate of their precipitation, as shown by Jean Baptiste Perrin (Nobel Prize in Physics, 1926), but most colloidal particles settle slowly, and this very technology seemed impractical. There was a need to speed up the process, and thus to develop a more advanced method, which led to the creation of the ultracentrifuge.
Svedberg believed that the sedimentation of colloidal particles could be accelerated under conditions of a stronger gravitational field created by a high-speed centrifuge. During an eight-month internship at the University of Wisconsin in 1923, he began to develop an optical centrifuge in which the precipitation of particles was recorded by photography. Since the particles moved, not only by settling, but also under the influence of convection currents, Svedberg was unable to determine their sizes. Since the high thermal conductivity of hydrogen could eliminate temperature differences, and thus convection currents, he, by constructing a wedge-shaped cell and rotating it in a hydrogen atmosphere, together with his colleague G. Rinde, achieved deposition without convection (1924).
A year later, Svedberg discovered that proteins could still be forced to precipitate from solution. He showed that all molecules of this protein are monodisperse, in contrast to polydisperse particles of colloidal inorganic systems. Moreover, based on the rate of protein sedimentation, it is also possible to draw a conclusion about the size of the molecule.
In 1926, Svedberg was awarded the Nobel Prize for his work in the field of dispersed systems.
In the new physical chemistry laboratory, specially built for Svedberg by the Swedish government after he was awarded the Nobel Prize, he spent another 15 years improving the design of the centrifuge. In January 1926, she tested her new model with oil rotors and achieved 40,100 rpm. Five years later, he created a new model, where the number of revolutions per minute had already reached 56,000. A long series of improvements in the design of the rotor led to the fact that in 1936 the centrifuge could make 120,000 revolutions per minute. At this speed, a force of 525,000 F (where F is the power of gravity) acted on the settling system.
The next stage of the study was the analysis of the sedimentation characteristics of 100 proteins (including hemoglobin and hemocyanin) involved in the respiratory processes of many animals. It has been proven that the molecules of all these proteins are spherical, monodisperse and have a healthy molecular weight. Extending his ultracentrifuge research to other biopolymers, Svedberg discovered that carbohydrates such as cellulose and starch formed long, thin, polydisperse molecules.
Thanks to Svedberg's discoveries, the ultracentrifuge became the main instrument of biochemical analytical research for decades, and the speed of precipitation of biopolymers is measured in units called Svedberg.
Svedberg's research, along with the work of A. Tiselius (Nobel Prize, 1948) on electrophoresis, became a tool for establishing the uniqueness of protein molecules in size and structure, and this became a prerequisite for Sanger (Nobel Prize 1958 and 1980) to determine their amino acid sequences and for crystallographic work Kendrew and Perutza (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1962).
Svedberg was also interested in the phenomenon of radioactivity. His joint work with Daniel Strömholm (1871-1961) showed that some radioactive elements are chemically indistinguishable from each other and occupy the same location in the Periodic Table. This discovery anticipated the study of isotopes by F. Soddy (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1921). In the late 1920s, Svedberg studied the effect of alpha particles emitted by radioactive substances on protein solutions. Following the discovery of the neutron in 1932 by James Chadwick (1891-1974), Svedberg constructed a small neutron generator to study neutron irradiation and produce radioactive isotopes as chemical and biological tracers.
In 1949, Svedberg retired, and yet, by a special decree, he was allowed to retain the post of director of the Gustav Werner Institute of Nuclear Chemistry, which had recently been created at Uppsala University, where, mainly thanks to his efforts, a synchrocyclotron was installed.
Svedberg made an enormous contribution to strengthening the connection between academic science and the practical application of scientific achievements. During the Second World War, he achieved the development of synthetic rubber production in Sweden.
Considering science international, he invited foreign scientists to work at Uppsala University.
He was an uncle with a lively mind and varied interests. An excellent amateur photographer, he thoroughly studied the process of photography. 1920s, using different wavelengths when photographing the Codex Argenteus, (Gothic Bible, 500 AD), he discovered that ultraviolet rays made visible the poorly visible composition in which it was written.
He was interested in botany and was the owner of one of the best botanical collections in Sweden.