A method of organizing decision-making in a planned economy. Types of economic systems and their features. Distinctive features of traditional economics

To better understand how the modern How humanity has learned to find answers to its main questions, it is necessary to analyze the thousand-year history of the development of economic systems of civilization.

Depending on the method of solving the main economic problems and the type of ownership of economic resources, four main types of economic systems: 1) traditional; 2) market (capitalism);3) command (socialism); 4) mixed.

Of these, the most ancient is the traditional economic system.

Traditional economic system - a way of organizing economic life in which land and capital are held in common by the tribe, and limited resources are distributed according to long-standing traditions.

As for the ownership of economic resources, in the traditional system it was most often collective, that is, hunting grounds, arable lands and meadows belonged to the tribe or community.

Over time, the basic elements of the traditional economic system ceased to suit humanity. Life has shown that factors of production are used more efficiently if they are owned by individuals or families rather than collectively owned. In none of the richest countries in the world is collective property the basis of social life. But in many of the world's poorest countries, remnants of such property remain.

For example,The rapid development of Russian agriculture occurred only at the beginning of the 20th century, when the reforms of P. A. Stolypin destroyed collective (community) land ownership, which was replaced by land ownership by individual families. Then the communists, who came to power in 1917, actually restored communal land ownership, declaring the land “public property.”

Having built its agriculture on collective property, the USSR was unable to do so for 70 years of the 20th century. achieve food abundance. Moreover, by the beginning of the 80s, the food situation became so bad that the CPSU was forced to adopt a special “Food Program”, which, however, was also not implemented, although huge amounts of money were spent on the development of the agricultural sector.

On the contrary, the agriculture of European countries, the USA and Canada, based on private ownership of land and capital, succeeded in solving the problem of creating food abundance. And so successfully that farmers in these countries were able to export a considerable share of their products to other regions of the world.

Practice has shown that markets and firms are better at solving the problem of distributing limited resources and increasing the production of vital goods than councils of elders - the bodies that made fundamental economic decisions in the traditional system.

This is why the traditional economic system has, over time, ceased to be the basis for organizing people's lives in most countries of the world. Its elements faded into the background and were preserved only in fragments in the form of various customs and traditions of secondary importance. In most countries of the world, other ways of organizing economic cooperation between people play a leading role.

The traditional one has replaced market system(capitalism) . The basis of this system is:

1) the right of private property;

2) private economic initiative;

3) market organization of distribution of limited resources of society.

Private property rights There is the right of an individual, recognized and protected by law, to own, use and dispose of a specified type and amount of limited resources (for example, a piece of land, a coal mine or a factory), which means and receive income from it. It was the opportunity to own this type of productive resources, such as capital, and to receive income on this basis that determined the second, often used name for this economic system - capitalism.

Private property - recognized by society the right of individual citizens and their associations to own, use and dispose of a certain volume (part) of any type of economic resources.

For your information. At first, the right of private property was protected only by force of arms, and only kings and feudal lords were the owners. But then, having gone through a long path of wars and revolutions, humanity created a civilization in which every citizen could become a private owner if his income allowed him to purchase property.

The right of private property allows owners of economic resources to independently make decisions about how to use them (as long as this does not harm the interests of society). At the same time, this almost unlimited freedom of disposal of economic resources has a downside: owners of private property bear full economic responsibility for the options they choose for its use.

Private economic initiative Each owner of productive resources has the right to independently decide how and to what extent to use them to generate income. At the same time, everyone’s well-being is determined by how successfully he can sell on the market the resource he owns: his labor force, skills, products of his own hands, his own plot of land, the products of his factory, or the ability to organize commercial operations.

And finally, actually markets- organized activity for the exchange of goods in a certain way.

It is the markets:

1) determine the degree of success of a particular economic initiative;

2) form the amount of income that property brings to its owners;

3) dictate the proportions of distribution of limited resources between alternative areas of their use.

The virtue of the market mechanism is that it forces each seller to think about the interests of buyers in order to achieve benefits for himself. If he does not do this, then his product may turn out to be unnecessary or too expensive and instead of benefits he will receive only losses. But the buyer is also forced to take into account the interests of the seller - he can receive the goods only by paying the prevailing market price for it.

Market system(capitalism) - a way of organizing economic life in which capital and land are owned by individuals and scarce resources are allocated through markets.

Markets based on competition have become the most successful way known to mankind for distributing limited productive resources and the benefits created with their help.

Of course, and the market system has its disadvantages. In particular, it generates huge differences in income and wealth levels when some bask in luxury, while others vegetate in poverty.

Such differences in income have long encouraged people to interpret capitalism as an “unfair” economic system and to dream of a better arrangement for their lives. These dreams led to the emergence of XIX century social movement called Marxism in honor of its main ideologist - a German journalist and economist Karl Marx. He and his followers argued that the market system had exhausted the possibilities of its development and became a brake on the further growth of human well-being. Therefore, it was proposed to replace it with a new economic system - command, or socialism (from the Latin societas - “society”).

Command economic system (socialism) - a way of organizing economic life in which capital and land are owned by the state, and the distribution of limited resources is carried out according to the instructions of the central government and in accordance with plans.

The birth of the command economic system was a consequence of a series of socialist revolutions , whose ideological banner was Marxism. The specific model of the command system was developed by the leaders of the Russian Communist Party V.I. Lenin and I.V. Stalin.

According to Marxist theory humanity could dramatically accelerate its path to increased well-being and eliminate differences in the individual well-being of citizens by eliminating private property, eliminating competition and conducting all economic activities of the country on the basis of a single universally binding (directive) plan, which is developed by the leadership of the state on a scientific basis. The roots of this theory go back to the Middle Ages, to the so-called social utopias, but its practical implementation occurred precisely in the 20th century, when the socialist camp arose.

If all resources (factors of production) are declared to be the property of the whole people, but in reality they are completely controlled by state and party officials, then this entails very dangerous economic consequences. The incomes of people and firms no longer depend on how well they use limited resources how much the result of their work is really needed by society. Other criteria become more important:

a) for enterprises - the degree of fulfillment and overfulfillment of planned targets for the production of goods. It was for this that enterprise managers were awarded orders and appointed ministers. It doesn’t matter that these goods could be completely uninteresting to buyers who, if they had freedom of choice, would prefer other goods;

b) for people - the nature of the relationship with the authorities, who distributed the most scarce goods (cars, apartments, furniture, trips abroad, etc.), or holding a position that opens access to “closed distributors”, where such scarce goods can be bought free.

As a result, in command system countries:

1) even the simplest goods people needed turned out to be “scarce.” “Parachuters” became a common sight in the largest cities, that is, residents of small towns and villages who came with large backpacks to buy food, since there was simply nothing in their grocery stores;

2) a lot of enterprises constantly suffered losses, and there was even such an amazing category of them as planned unprofitable enterprises. At the same time, employees of such enterprises still received regular wages and bonuses;

3) the greatest success for citizens and enterprises was to “get” some imported goods or equipment. People started lining up for Yugoslav women's boots in the evening.

As a result, the end of the 20th century. became an era of deep disappointment in the capabilities of the planned-command system, and the former socialist countries began the difficult task of reviving private property and the market system.

When talking about a planned-command or market economic system, it should be remembered that in their pure form they can only be found on the pages of scientific works. Real economic life, on the contrary, is always a mixture of elements of different economic systems.

The modern economic system of most developed countries of the world is of a mixed nature. Many national and regional economic problems are solved here by the state.

As a rule, today the state participates in the economic life of society for two reasons:

1) due to their specificity, some needs of society (maintaining an army, developing laws, organizing street traffic, fighting epidemics, etc.) can be satisfied better than is possible on the basis of market mechanisms alone;

2) it can mitigate the negative consequences of the activities of market mechanisms (too large differences in the wealth of citizens, damage to the environment from the activities of commercial firms, etc.).

Therefore, for the civilization of the late 20th century. The mixed economic system became predominant.

Mixed economic system - a way of organizing economic life in which land and capital are privately owned, and the distribution of limited resources is carried out both by markets and with significant government participation.

In such an economic system the basis is private ownership of economic resources, although in some countries(France, Germany, Great Britain, etc.) there is a fairly large public sector. It includes enterprises whose capital is fully or partially owned by the state (for example, the German airline Lufthansa), but which: a) do not receive plans from the state; b) work according to market laws; c) are forced to compete on equal terms with private firms.

In these countries major economic issues are largely decided by markets. They also distribute the predominant part of economic resources. At the same time some resources are centralized and distributed by the state using command mechanisms in order to compensate for some weaknesses of market mechanisms (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. The main elements of a mixed economic system (I - the scope of market mechanisms, II - the scope of command mechanisms, i.e. control by the state)

In Fig. Figure 2 shows a scale that roughly represents what economic systems various states belong to today.

Rice. 2. Types of economic systems: 1 - USA; 2 - Japan; 3 - India; 4 - Sweden, England; 5 - Cuba, North Korea; 6 - some countries of Latin America and Africa; 7— Russia

Here, the arrangement of numbers symbolizes the degree of proximity of the economic systems of various countries to one type or another. The pure market system is most fully implemented in some countriesLatin America and Africa. Factors of production there are already predominantly privately owned, and government intervention in resolving economic issues is minimal.

In countries like USA and Japan, private ownership of factors of production dominates, but the role of the state in economic life is so great that we can talk about a mixed economic system. At the same time, the Japanese economy has retained more elements of the traditional economic system than the United States. This is why the number 2 (Japanese economy) is slightly closer to the top of the triangle, symbolizing the traditional system, than the number 1 (US economy).

In economies Sweden and Great Britain the role of the state in the distribution of limited resources is even greater than in the USA and Japan, and therefore the number 4 symbolizing them is to the left of the numbers 1 and 2.

In its most complete form, the command system has now been preserved in Cuba and North Korea. Here private property is eliminated, and the state distributes all limited resources.

The existence of significant elements of the traditional economic system on the farm India and others like her countries of Asia and Africa(although the market system prevails here too) determines the placement of the corresponding number 3.

Location Russia(number 7) is determined by the fact that:

1) the foundations of the command system in our country have already been destroyed, but the role of the state in the economy is still very large;

2) the mechanisms of the market system are still being formed (and are still less developed than even in India);

3) factors of production have not yet completely passed into private ownership, and such an important factor of production as land is actually in the collective ownership of members of former collective and state farms, which were only formally transformed into joint-stock companies.

What kind of economic system is Russia's future path towards?

in country A. the state uses planning methods to determine what goods and services should be produced, in what ways who will receive them and how much.

what type of economic system exists in country A? 1. mixed 2. market 3. centralized 4. traditional

Thank you!

1. In which phrase is the word “society” used in a broad sense?

1) The joint stock company held an annual meeting of shareholders.
2) The Society of Book Lovers organized a charity auction.
3) Society unites the past, present and future of humanity.
4) The city community protests against the construction of an expressway
highways.
2. Vera found out that Nadezhda told her classmates her secret. She did not find out the reasons for this act, but simply stopped talking
with hope. What is the best way to deal with interpersonal conflict?
illustrates this example?
1)mediation
2) care
3)arbitration
4) cooperation
3.During a special event, funds were raised for the orphanage.
The interconnection of which spheres of social life is primarily illustrated by
This fact?
1)social and economic
2) political and spiritual
3)economic and political
4)spiritual and economic

4.Are the following judgments about global problems true?
A. Global problems are a consequence of economic
activities of mankind.
B. Solving global problems requires joint efforts from all
humanity.
1) only A is correct
2) only B is correct
3) both judgments are correct
4) both judgments are incorrect
5. Purposeful human activity to obtain new knowledge and
skills are called
1) art
2) education
3) creativity
4)morality
6.Are the following judgments about patriotism true?
A. Patriotism presupposes love and respect for historical traditions
of your country.
B. Patriotism presupposes a good knowledge of national history and
culture.
1) only A is correct
2) only B is correct
3) both judgments are correct
4) both judgments are incorrect
7. Factors (resources) of production include(s)
1) profit
2)needs
3) labor
4) taxes
8.A certain amount of money that citizens and businesses owe
to pay the state is called
1) tax
2) percent
3) costs
4) dividends

9.During the pre-New Year sales in different cities of the world, consumers
actively purchase clothes and shoes at discounted prices. Buyers
often come to the doors of stores long before opening, line up
in long lines. What economic phenomenon is manifested in this
fact?
1) cooperation
2) inflation
3) offer
4)demand
10.Are the following judgments about money true?
A. Money is a measure of the value of goods and services produced.
B. In the modern world, the only form of payment is
use of cash.
1) only A is correct
2) only B is correct
3) both judgments are correct
4) both judgments are incorrect
11.Expected behavior of an individual related to his position in society and
typical for a given social group is called
1)social status
2)social mobility
3)social prestige
4) social role
12. There is a good tradition in S.’s family: every Sunday parents and their
children visit a museum or theater. What role of the family does this illustrate?
example?
1) joint housekeeping
2) distribution of household duties
3) ensuring material wealth
4)spiritual development of children

13.Are the following judgments about social groups true?
A. Each individual can belong to several social groups.
B. In large social groups, personal contacts between everyone are possible
members.
1) only A is correct
2) only B is correct
3) both judgments are correct
4) both judgments are incorrect

“The modern scientific and technological revolution (STR) is characterized by deep integration of science and production, which is expressed in the replacement of traditional technologies and equipment with fundamentally new ones, accompanied by a radical restructuring of the organization of labor and production.<...>
The beginning of the modern scientific and technological revolution dates back to the 50s. XX century. Since that time, scientific activity has become an integral and important part of social production. Science is isolated into an independent sphere with a specific material and technical base, highly qualified workers and a special type of final product and occupies a leading place in production as a direct productive force.<...>
The beginning of a new stage of scientific and technological progress in the development of productive forces is characterized by: features of the dynamics of labor productivity; volumes of production using fundamentally new scientific achievements; the scale of resource conservation of the most important types of raw materials, materials, energy; the transition of most sectors of the economy to a labor-saving type of economic development; increasing the growth rate of funding and economic productivity of scientific research and development.<...>
Scientific and technological revolution decisively changes the position of man... in the production system: he is taken beyond the process of creating a finished product, becomes next to it and acts in relation to it as a controller. Previously, a person transferred first the executive function to the machine (influence with the help of a tool on the object of labor), and then the motor, energy function; Now, along with the reduction of direct human participation in production, there is an expansion of types of labor associated with the performance of control and management functions of an increasingly higher level, with the adoption of responsible decisions.” (Text taken from the book: Social Studies: Tutor Manual / Edited by O.S. Belokrylova, V.I. Filonenko. - Rostov n/D: Phoenix, 2008. - P. 426, 427, 431 - and adapted.)

C1
Make a plan for the text. To do this, highlight the main semantic fragments of the text and title each of them.

According to the text, to what time does the beginning of modern scientific and technological revolution date? Why? Find two explanations in the text.

C4
Using the content of the text and social science knowledge, list any three areas of modern scientific and technological revolution.

C5
Talking in class about the features of modern scientific and technological revolution, the student noted that its development in the 21st century. makes it possible to provide the technical and technological side of solving global problems of humanity. Not all students in the class agreed with this opinion. Which of these two points of view is reflected in the text? Provide a piece of text that helps answer the question.

C6
Do you agree that the scientific and technological revolution is characterized by positive social consequences, thanks to which the omnipotence of man and his superiority over nature was formed? Based on the text and social science knowledge, give two arguments (explanations) in defense of your position.

Researchers note that traditionally in the Belarusian family, the positive example of the mother, father and elders was used to raise children.

family members, as well as the following methods:

Instilling in young children various rules and requirements with the help of lullabies, fun, fairy tales, songs filled with parental love;

Inclusion of children from a very early age in economic and labor activities, communication with elders and peers;

Organizing a council of parents and older family members when children make responsible decisions in life;

Encouraging children to develop self-esteem and such moral qualities as kindness, hard work, diligence, obedience, respect for older family members and other people;

A hint (direct or indirect) is a way of showing children their shortcomings and miscalculations in behavior and activities in an ethical and correct tone;

Reproach is an expression by parents, both in words and in looks, gestures, and facial expressions, of dissatisfaction with the actions and behavior of their children;

The test as a way to test the readiness of children for independent work and family life, to comply with the moral rules and norms of life of their people;

A blessing is a set of parental instructions, teachings, warnings, instructions and requests to children during the most crucial periods of their life (the transition to independent work, military service, marriage).

Describe these methods in terms of their effectiveness, importance for the future lives of children, and humanity. Which of these methods are used in your family?

1) What role does political knowledge play in political activity? 2) What are the consequences of using incorrect information? 3) As a knowledgeable person

turns into a powerful person? 4) What is the importance of correct ideas about reality for making government decisions? PLEASE

Depending on the nature of coordination of economic activities of economic entities (consumers, producers, owners, workers) and the mechanism for managing economic processes (characterization of types of economic systems based on the organizational approach), they distinguish: traditional, market, centrally managed and mixed economic systems.

The organization of economic activities depends on:

• - forms of ownership of the means of production;
• - procedures for making basic economic decisions and methods for coordinating economic activities;
• - motives that stimulate economic activity.

Traditional economics represented by countries with subsistence economies, where the vast majority of the population is engaged in simple agricultural production and consumes most of the products themselves. Commodity production is represented by numerous peasant and craft farms that dominate the economy. The organization of production, its structure, and the rhythm of economic life are based on sacred customs and traditions. Hereditary habits, social roles and statuses determine the foundations of economic life and activity. Ethnic and caste barriers hinder the spread of scientific and technological progress. The countries of the African continent, the Near and Middle East belong to the traditional economy.

Tradition-based regulation is a mode of economic organization in which problems of production and distribution are solved by applying procedures inherited from the past. This mechanism reacts poorly to changes associated with scientific and technological progress and new needs. It is not capable of regulating the economy as a whole with a developed system of social division of labor (but in the field of informal relations in the teams of individual enterprises it occupies a certain place).

Market economy - a method of mutual adaptation of the actions of buyers and sellers under the influence of price changes reflecting fluctuations in supply and demand. Basis market system is self-regulation based on private interest, freedom of choice and the desire for personal benefit of market subjects, private ownership of factors and results of production. State intervention in the economy in these conditions is reduced to a minimum. In a market economic system, the movement of resources, production, distribution, exchange and consumption of created goods are carried out using the market mechanism. The market mechanism is focused on satisfying solvent needs for private goods. It does not provide effective regulation of the production of public goods For satisfying socially priority consumers, since adjustments to people’s economic behavior are carried out spontaneously.

The advantages of such a system are: a constant focus on economic efficiency, opportunities for market entities to receive high incomes, broad rights and freedom of choice for consumers, and the relative cheapness of the state management apparatus.

Disadvantages of the market system: periodic crises in economic development, large differentiation in incomes and living standards of the population, indifference to possible damage to humans and nature on the part of producers, indifference of producers to industries and areas of the economy that are necessary for society, but do not bring profit.

Centrally controlled economy(administrative command mechanism or hierarchy) - a method of achieving coordination in which individual actions of economic entities are subordinated to the directives of the center on the basis of a centralized economic plan. Centrally controlled The economy is based on administrative methods of management and is characterized by a strict dictatorship of the state in the field of economics: the predominance of state ownership of the means of production and all material resources, state directive economic planning, and the financial dictatorship of the state. The planning authority determines for each enterprise the amount of resources that must be used so that it can fulfill its production targets. The distribution of consumer goods among the population is carried out centrally at fixed prices. The economic power of the state in such a system is absolute. With the growing scale of production cooperation, the need for conscious regulation of the economy increases. But its capabilities are determined by the limits of controllability of complex systems. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the boundaries within which government regulation will be effective.

The main advantages of such an economy are its relative stability, as well as social equality, guarantees of employment and a minimum standard of living for all members of society, free education and healthcare.

The main disadvantages of a centrally controlled system are: the inefficiency of the economy, manifested primarily in the shortage of various goods growing from the dictates of the manufacturer over the consumer, the lack of expressed incentives for effective work, and the low standard of living of the majority of the population.

Mixed economy is based on enterprises and structures belonging to different types and types of ownership, and uses a variety of forms of management. Real historical types of socio-economic systems are mixed economies. Any economy is multi-structured. The classification is based on a combination of two criteria: the dominant form of ownership and regulatory methods that ensure the production, distribution, exchange and use of the bulk of goods. These criteria act as the main components in the classification of economic systems. When coordinating the actions of economic entities (consumers, producers, owners, workers), various methods of regulation complement each other, but usually one of the regulatory mechanisms prevails, which ensures the production and consumption of the bulk of economic resources that satisfy the needs of society. In economic analysis, when classifying types of socio-economic systems, the method of abstraction is used, i.e. economic relations are considered in their pure form, focusing on the prevailing form of economic management, abstracting from the less significant economic systems present.

The modern economy at the stage of the information industrial society is presented in the form of various forms of farms and is mixed. In this economy, neither state nor market systems prevail over each other. The market creates effective incentives for growth and development. With command management, the social priority of the need is ensured, but there is a loss in motivation. The relationship between various regulatory mechanisms at a certain stage is determined by the ratio of costs and benefits.

Currently, various models have become widespread mixed an economy in which the distribution of resources is partly carried out on a market basis, and partly ensured by state decisions. This system demonstrates the ability to organically and flexibly combine market efficiency with government regulation, so it can weaken or even remove a number of negative aspects inherent in purely market or purely centralized systems. The most effective in this aspect are the German (social market economy) and Swedish mixed economy models.

The totality of all economic processes occurring in a society on the basis of the property relations and organizational and legal forms that have developed in it represents the economic system of this society. In the last one and a half to two centuries, the following systems have operated in the world:

• - market economy;
• - administrative-command economy;
• - traditional economy;
• - mixed economy.

Each system has its own national models of economic organization, since countries differ in the unique history, level of economic development, social and national conditions.

The transition from one economic system to another gives rise to a special, transitional state of the economy. In a transition economy, there is an intensive development of the institutions of the new system and a more or less rapid elimination (or withering away) of the institutions of the previous system. Transitional economic forms are also possible, for example, privatized enterprises that have not undergone market restructuring.

In any economic system, the primary role is played by the production of goods and services, coupled with their subsequent distribution, exchange, consumption and redistribution.

Each economic system solves the main socio-economic problems in its own way: what and how to produce and on what basis to distribute the created national product.

At the same time, economic systems differ from each other in their fundamentals. Firstly, they have different forms of ownership. Secondly, their economic mechanism is different, thirdly, the methods of motivation to work are economic to varying degrees, and fourthly, the way of organizing decision-making in market and administrative-planned economic systems has significant differences.

An economic system can be considered as a way of organizing the joint activities of people to achieve the maximum possible result. The method of such organization is determined by a number of main, constitutive elements. Let us consider the existing differences by comparing the constituent features of the two economic systems.

Table 1.3.1 Fundamentals of economic theory. Ed. Doctor of Economic Sciences, Professor S.I. Ivanov. M., p. 47

Type of ownership	Information and coordination mechanism	Methods of motivating people to work	Method of organizing decision making
Administrative planning system	State	Vertical transmission from the administrative center to the periphery	Economic to a lesser extent, more - non-economic coercion (punishment for parasitism, the opportunity to obtain housing, etc.	through direct directives, decisions are made by the center
Market system		Price, through the market	Economic	decisions are made by independent producers based on profitability motives and information coming from the market

Within the framework of a particular economic system, there are diverse models of economic development of individual countries and regions. Let us consider the characteristic features of economic systems.

Market economy. The distinctive features of this economic system were private ownership of economic resources (including the main resource for this system - capital); a market mechanism for regulating macroeconomic activity, based on free competition and the presence of many independently operating sellers and buyers of each product.

One of the main prerequisites of this system is the personal freedom of all participants in economic activity, i.e. not only a capitalist-entrepreneur, but also a hired worker. The decisive condition for economic progress was the freedom of enterprise for those who had capital and the freedom of the hired worker to sell his labor power.

The economic mechanism in the economic system under consideration is guided by market conditions, determined primarily by the level and dynamics of prices; commodity producers independently solve the problem of allocating all resources, producing those goods that are in demand on the market. Thus, the market, primarily through prices, coordinates the activities of millions of people.

Entrepreneurs strive to receive more and more income (profit), use natural and labor resources, capital, knowledge as economically as possible, and realize their entrepreneurial abilities as widely as possible in their chosen field of activity. This serves as a powerful incentive for the development and improvement of the economy and reveals the creative possibilities of private property.

During a long evolution in the 20th century. the market economy of free competition has evolved into a modern market economy. Its main features are:

• 1. variety of forms of ownership, among which the leading place is occupied by private property in its various types (from individual to large, corporate). In countries with developed market economies, a kind of multi-layered type of economy has developed. Its top consists of powerful transnational corporations, the middle layer consists of smaller national corporations (both operate on the basis of a joint-stock form of ownership). Its foundation (up to 90% of the total number of enterprises) is made up of partnerships, partnerships and other forms of small business based on individual, family, and cooperative forms of private ownership. These enterprises generate about a third of the gross national product of most developed countries;
• 2. widespread marketing management system. It makes it possible, even before the start of production of goods, to determine their optimal assortment and quality parameters of the created products based on marketing market research, as well as, even before the start of production, to bring the company’s individual costs into line with prevailing prices on the market. The problems of resource allocation within corporations are solved on the basis of strategic planning. At the same time, significant resources are allocated to the development of human capital;
• 3. more active influence of the state on the development of the economy and especially the social sphere. Budgetary allocations finance a significant portion of R&D expenditures, support for agriculture and other industries, as well as huge social expenditures (on education, healthcare, social security, etc.).

Administratively - planned economy. This system previously dominated in the USSR, Eastern European countries and a number of Asian states. The command-administrative system in most countries arose as a result of the interrupted evolution of a market economy.

Its distinctive feature is that it is based on public, and in reality - on state property. It was created through the expropriation of private land ownership and the nationalization in one form or another of all industrial, commercial and other types of enterprises.

The economic mechanism of the administrative-command system has a number of features. It assumes, firstly, direct management of all enterprises from a single center - the highest echelons of state power, which negates the independence of economic entities. Moreover, this management is based on the state plan, which is mandatory (directive) for all enterprises and industries. Secondly, the state completely controls not only production, but also distribution of products, as a result of which free market relationships between individual enterprises are excluded. Thirdly, the state pursues a policy of very low differentiation in wages, which undermines material interest in its results.

The volume, range of products produced, price levels and all other aspects of economic activity were determined based on the political and economic attitudes of the party-bureaucratic elite, the so-called nomenklatura. A significant part of the resources was directed to the development of the military-industrial complex. The system of strict centralized planning did not allow real economic needs to be taken into account, which gave rise to a total permanent deficit in the economy. The orientation of planning primarily towards quantitative natural indicators made the economy immune to the achievements of scientific and technological revolution.

Numerous attempts in the 1950s-1980s. in the USSR and other socialist countries, reforming and improving the planned economy was incompatible with the command-administrative system and was rejected by it. The inability of the command-administrative system to ensure the transition to an intensive type of economic development made radical socio-economic transformations inevitable in almost all socialist (communist) countries. The strategy of economic reforms in these countries is determined by the main trends in the development of world civilization, as a result of which a modern market economy is being built there. Economic theory / Ed. V. A. Smirnova. M.: Finance and Statistics, p. 58.

Traditional economic system based on joint (collective) communal ownership of the main resource for this system - land. The distinctive features of the traditional economic system are as follows: extremely primitive technology associated with the primary processing of natural resources, the predominance of manual labor. All key economic problems are solved according to time-honored customs, religious, tribal and even caste traditions. The organization and management of economic life are carried out on the basis of decisions of the council of elders, instructions of leaders or feudal lords.

The traditional economic system has gone through several stages in its development, the system dominated the world before the market system, but is currently preserved in some of the most backward countries in Asia and Africa, although its elements can also be traced in countries with an average level of development.

Mixed economy-- is an economic system in which both the state and the private sector (enterprises and households) play an important role in the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of all resources and material goods in the country; State intervention in the market economy does not prevail over the regulatory role of the market.

A mixed economy is characteristic of many developed democratic countries of the West. In real life, it is impossible to find a state with a clearly defined economic system. Often elements of one economic system are adjacent to elements of another. Advanced countries (Germany, USA, France, etc.) strive to flexibly combine market efficiency with government regulation of the economy.

Most of the economic resources in a mixed economy are in private hands, numerous small businesses are combined with large corporations, and incentives and free market principles operate effectively.

At the same time, some important areas of the economy (for example, railways, fuel, energy and space complexes, general education and healthcare, social protection, etc.) belong to the state and the government actively influences economic and social processes. In some states, concern for the development of the social sphere is so significant (for example, in Germany or Sweden) that the economy of such countries is often characterized as a social market economy. Economic theory / Ed. V. A. Smirnova. M.: Finance and Statistics, p. 59.

However, none of the existing economic systems can be perfect. Ideal societies exist only in theoretical constructs, but in reality it is important which system is effective and viable.

Thus, it is customary to distinguish the following main types of economic systems: traditional, administrative-command, market and mixed.

Economic systems arose by solving economic problems associated with the distribution of limited resources and the presence of opportunity costs. In other words, the economic system is the way in which economic life is formed in a country and society; the way in which decisions are made about what, how and for whom to produce.

In everyday life, we constantly make various decisions without thinking about why some of them turn out to be successful and others unsuccessful. A little reflection shows that in the case of successful decisions, the goal is correctly set, the probability of achieving it is intuitively correctly assessed, and all reasoning is based on the logic of common sense. There is no doubt that intuition, everyday experience and intuition are quite sufficient for solving the simplest problems of a practical nature in everyday and even management activities that do not require precise analysis and calculation. However, when solving complex management problems in economics and social life, nowadays people rely less and less on experience, intuition and common sense, and turn to precise analysis of the problem, calculations and construction of mathematical models.

This approach to decision analysis was first undertaken within the framework of the theory operations research, appeared during the Second World War. Currently, operations research has transformed from a narrow, specialized theory focused on the effective management of military operations into a general scientific area of ​​research. It is associated with “the application of mathematical quantitative methods to justify decisions in all areas of purposeful human activity” 1.

This theory received further development after the publication by J. von Neumann and O. Morgenstern in 1944 of a work on game theory and economic behavior. This theory provides guidance on how to act rationally under conditions of risk-related uncertainty in the economy. Thus, practical experience, common sense and intuition are replaced by an accurate calculation of all emerging possibilities, i.e. solutions based on the construction of mathematical models.

In such models, firstly, the consequences of decisions made, or their usefulness, are taken into account, secondly, the probability of their implementation in specific conditions is determined, thirdly, by comparing different alternatives according to the relevant parameters, choice optimal or more preferable solution. Depending on the nature of the problem, either the maximum or minimum value of the objective function will be considered optimal, although most often it is necessary to limit ourselves to the best or preferred values. In the economic sphere, the maximum value will correspond, for example, to obtaining the highest profit, achieving the greatest benefit from a concluded transaction, etc.

A characteristic feature of the model under consideration is its rationality, since it is assumed that the subject making the decision reasons and acts reasonably. Therefore, the final decision maker (DM), as well as his consultants, are idealized, rationally acting subjects who may differ significantly from actual people. Further, it is assumed that both the set goals and the rational choice of solution throughout the entire process remain unchanged. In concrete reality, one has to reckon with the influence of various kinds of random and unforeseen events that limit the scope of application of rational methods. Finally, the classical choice model is focused on achieving the optimal solution. In practice, one has to be content with preferable or satisfactory solutions.

The abstract nature of the rational model lies in the fact that it is abstracted not only from the characteristics of specific subjects making decisions, but also from an objective assessment of the relationship between the goals pursued by an individual subject or collective (group, class, community). For example, the target function of an entrepreneur to implement a certain project can bring him maximum profit, therefore from his point of view it can be considered rational, but it can cause irreparable harm to the environment. It is also necessary to take into account the relative nature of rationality itself, since a decision considered rational on the basis of given information may not be rational enough given other information.

The most important requirement that any rational decision must satisfy is that all decision alternatives must be ordered by the appropriate relation preferences, which has the properties of definiteness, comparability and transitivity. Comparability means that of any two alternatives, one of them must be preferable to the other (in the extreme case, indifferent or identical to the other). Criterion transitivity associated with the requirement of a sequence of alternatives. If, for example, the alternative A preferable to alternative IN, and the latter is preferable WITH, then the alternative A will also be preferable to C. Since each alternative depends on an assessment of its consequences, which are usually called utility, it is necessary first of all to evaluate the parameters of utility.

Such an assessment is directly related to the goals that the subject seeks to achieve, and ideally it should correspond to the maximum utility of his actions. If the goal of a subject is to obtain the greatest income, or the highest effect on the return on investment, or the fastest introduction of new capacities, etc., then its utility function must correspond to the maximum value of the objective function. On the contrary, when it seeks to prevent losses or damages in various activities, then its objective function should take into account possible risks and their sizes in order to make them minimal. Based on these premises, Neumann and Morgenstern built the first axiomatic theory of utility. As axioms, they chose statements that are generally consistent with intuitive ideas about assessing the consequences of decisions. Each field of activity has its own specific techniques and means for assessing the usefulness of decision outcomes.

Another aspect of a mathematical decision-making model is concerned with predicting the likelihood of realizing different choice alternatives or decisions. The assessment of this probability is carried out in accordance with the statistical interpretation of this concept.

The rational choice model assumes that the decision maker, under all conditions, chooses the optimal, best course of action. However, this assumption does not take into account the fact that people’s behavior contains not only rational, but also non-rational and even irrational components. Therefore, in the decision-making model put forward by Nobel laureate in economics G. Simon for "administrative person" the latter, on the basis of known information, selects not the optimal, but only a satisfactory solution.

The rational choice model is based on certain general principles, which are considered as the initial premises for the study of economic life. These principles are the result of a systematic synthesis and in-depth analysis of the long-term practice of decision-making by both individuals and firms and other organizations acting as business entities. They are the basic units of the market system of the economy. Some of these principles will seem obvious, others require explanation and argumentation.

How are specific economic decisions made? To answer this question, let's consider the fundamental principles of economic activity related to the limited resources of society. They are the ones who force people to choose between different goods.

The first principle is that To obtain some benefits, people have to give up other benefits.

If you want to buy a sweater, you should refuse to buy boots if you don’t have enough money. The state, if there is a threat to its security, must choose “guns” instead of “butter”. Here, the “guns” symbolize the use of a significant amount of its limited resources for military purposes, and the “butter” symbolizes the use of most of them to increase the well-being of citizens. When making economic decisions, an economic entity must first of all take into account its real capabilities, and then determine what it really needs and only then identify what material goods it would like to have at its disposal. The relationship between the possible and the necessary serves, as we know, as the most important stimulus for human activity in general.

Moving on to the discussion of the next principle of decision-making, it should be recalled that the first principle generally deals with the exchange of material goods, i.e. what must be given up in order to obtain another good. But any good satisfies a certain need and, therefore, has use value; however, it can be exchanged for another good and therefore has exchange value. These considerations are taken into account in the second principle.

The second principle is this: the value of a good is determined by what can be obtained from it, and its value is determined by what should be given for it.

The use value of a good or product is precisely measured by its ability to satisfy any need - material or spiritual - when using it. In this case, the good acts as a means to achieve some goal. In previous literature, this concept was called use value, which could cause confusion, since the latter term characterizes the individual needs of the subject in receiving benefits, and often is not even quantified.

Exchange value good characterizes the relationship, or proportion, between a given good and other goods that can be obtained for it by refusing it.

If we denote this good by A, and other benefits that can be obtained at his expense, through IN, then the exchange value can be expressed by the ratio TV/pA, Where type - corresponding parameters indicating the quantities of goods exchanged. The value of a good as a goal determines what must be given for it or what must be given up in order to get it at one’s disposal. In the process of exchange, one thus has to make a choice: to give up one good in order to receive another good. Therefore, before deciding to purchase one good, it is necessary to compare the costs and benefits of another good. Such costs are called alternative, because they characterize costs lost opportunities, i.e. exactly what one has to give up in order to get the desired benefit. Since money is most often used for this, exchange value is expressed in money.

Within the framework of the entire social economy, economists include all goods that are not used for the production of other goods as final goods. Their totality is expressed in the concept of gross domestic product (GDP), which consists of final goods acquired by households (C) and the government (b), as well as goods added to the investments of firms (G), this also includes net exports (N10, those. difference between export and import. If we denote the totality of all final goods of a country through GDP, then it can be expressed by the formula

The third principle is that When making decisions, rational, or reasonable, people always compare the marginal values ​​of their benefits and costs.

A decision or action is considered rational in economics when the marginal utility, or the benefit obtained from the use of an additional, marginal unit of consumption, will exceed the benefit from the use of a marginal unit of resource. Consequently, resources will be used to produce goods until each additional unit of them brings more benefit than the cost of their acquisition. Marginal benefits or costs are the smallest quantities economists work with when making decisions in specific circumstances. This same practice must be followed by every rationally acting subject.

When making decisions, people primarily pursue their own interests and therefore strive to satisfy their needs in the present. However, they do not forget to take care of the future as well. Therefore, they not only consume existing goods, but also strive to save them for the future and even increase their quantity.

The fourth principle postulates that people must care about the future.

Such care is manifested, firstly, in the simple storage of goods for their future consumption or use. The longer the shelf life of a good, the easier it is to make a decision about the possibility of its consumption and use in the future. The most important stored goods include fixed capital, i.e. machinery, equipment, buildings and structures of the enterprise. Here, the main efforts should be aimed at the rational use of capital and its timely renewal through depreciation. Saved goods can also be used as a resource for the production of new goods and often even in larger quantities. Such benefits may primarily include money and other financial resources.

The fifth principle is that, When caring about the future, people take into account its uncertainty.

Since the future is always uncertain and unknown to anyone, one can only make various assumptions about it. The most important theoretical means of predicting the future are probabilistic methods. They are based on statistical interpretation of past and present events and probable assessment of their implementation in the future. All probabilistic forecasts are based on the same assumption. When making economic decisions about the future, business entities must compare their probabilistic assumptions with the actual results that actually occurred. Such analysis will help them learn from the discrepancies between their assumptions and reality, and thereby learn from their own mistakes.

Firstly, probabilistic assessments of the future, in turn, rely on adaptive expectations when an economic entity assumes that the same features and development trends that occurred in the past will remain in the future. Secondly, such estimates may be based on rational expectations, when the subject can, to one degree or another, take into account the consequences of the decisions he makes and their impact on future events. A critical analysis of such consequences will give him the opportunity to make adjustments to the decisions made.

In the practice of economic activity, taking into account the uncertainty of future events is achieved by creating insurance stocks, which make it possible to reduce or even eliminate damage in the event of unfavorable developments. The activities of numerous insurance companies and societies are subordinated to the same goal, which undertake the obligation, through insurance premiums, to pay certain amounts for damage incurred to insured persons, enterprises and firms. Another way to account for uncertainty is desire to avoid risk, when the likelihood of an unfavorable development of events becomes high enough. This trend is clearly visible when investing capital, when foreign companies refuse to invest in the economies of developing countries. The third way to take uncertainty into account is to maximum resource savings and cost minimization, which is usually called economy mode. Such savings make it possible to save resources for unforeseen events in the future.

The sixth principle suggests that people are responsible for the consequences of their decisions.

Although this principle seems quite obvious, the degree of responsibility for decisions made in different socio-economic systems is far from the same. In a subsistence economy, full responsibility for the decision made falls on the individual economic entity, since it is he and his family who are responsible for the success or failure of the decision. In a peasant community, where major decisions are made collectively, all members of the community pay for it. In a planned, centralized society, all decisions are made “at the top”, and they are executed “at the bottom”, and, in fact, no one bears any responsibility for the decisions.

In a market economy, both the individual, the cooperative, and the company are responsible for the decision made with their property. If, for example, a business entity received a loan to open a business, then if the business fails, he risks his own property. Thus, a market economy fosters responsibility for decisions made and therefore promotes rational choice and careful consideration of all their consequences.

The seventh principle suggests that people respond to incentives arising in connection with changing conditions and circumstances in the economy.

Whenever economic conditions in society change, for example, market conditions, taxes rise, production costs rise, etc., rationally acting subjects react to them by making new decisions. For example, when taxes increase, the prices of goods rise and, accordingly, the demand for goods and business activity decreases. Typically, business entities and the market as a whole are sensitive to changes that arise within the economic system.

When considering the listed principles, we were talking about decision-making by individual economic entities, be it an individual, an enterprise or a firm. However, in real economic life they all interact with each other, and therefore most often economic decisions are made jointly, for example by two people in buying and selling, by members of a cooperative or by a meeting of shareholders of a company. The result of such interaction and decision-making is the exchange of material goods and services between people and the establishment of trade.

The eighth principle reveals the importance of trade for society, emphasizes that she turns out to be mutually beneficial for its participants.

The need for exchange and trade in labor products is an inevitable result of the increasing division of labor. In ancient agrarian society, as history teaches us, subsistence farming prevailed, in which all the necessary goods of life were produced and consumed by closed households. However, gradually people realized the need to exchange some of their goods for others that they had in excess or were not produced at all. Already the first major division of labor in agriculture into agricultural and livestock labor gave a significant impetus to the development of exchange and trade between pastoral and agricultural tribes. The appearance of artisans and their concentration in the first cities accelerated the process of exchange and trade between the large rural population and urban artisans, who could not exist without exchanging the products they produced for agricultural products. The emergence of craft workshops and the first manufactories ultimately led to industrial production and the emergence of national markets.

Market exchange facilitates the process of further division of labor, since as a result, individual producers begin to specialize in what they can do better and more economically than others. The same should be said about enterprises, firms and even individual countries. As a result, both producers and consumers benefit.

The ninth principle states that The market serves as the most important way of organizing economic activity.

At first glance, it seems that with decentralized decision-making by millions of different economic entities pursuing different goals, no order can arise in the market. But A. Smith was the first to clearly point out that it is the “invisible hand” of the market that helps unite the efforts of various individuals. We now know that this unifying force is the price mechanism, which informs society what goods and services are considered valuable and to what extent. And this information serves as an incentive for entrepreneurs to use the most economical means and factors of production of goods. Prices also affect income distribution. Thanks to this, the market allocates society's limited resources to those who can use them more efficiently. However, the market is not designed to fairly distribute the resulting social wealth. The state is called upon to perform this function.

The tenth principle states that under certain conditions, the state can intervene in market regulation and have a positive impact on it.

This occurs when the market fails to allocate available resources efficiently. Economists characterize this situation as insolvency, or market failure. A similar situation arises with different externalities for the market, when the actions of some people have a negative impact on the well-being of other people. This is the case in cases of violation of environmental safety by enterprises in the chemical, oil, metallurgical and other industries. In an effort to obtain high incomes, they often do not pay attention to the construction of treatment facilities and thereby harm the natural environment and the people living in it. The market cannot have any impact on such economic entities. The state can force them to allocate the necessary funds for the treatment of industrial waste by adopting laws on the preservation of the natural environment.

Another case of market failure is that it cannot influence the level of prices in it. Such prices are set spontaneously, or spontaneously, as a result of the interaction of its many participants. The ability of some economic entities to establish price levels in the market is characterized as their power over the market. The market itself does not have such power. Its task is to carry out free competition in the market, which is disrupted by the emergence of various monopoly associations on it. In order to create a free competitive environment, the state passes laws limiting the power of monopolies.

The third case of market failure relates to social justice market distribution. As discussed above, the function of the market is to allocate society's limited resources efficiently, rather than to equally distribute the products derived from them. The market gives goods to those who can pay for them, rather than to those who need them most. Ensuring social justice in society is a function of the government, which, through taxation and other social protection measures, somewhat equalizes the income of the population and provides assistance to its least affluent layers.

The economic activity of each country is made up of the work of numerous economic entities, which include individuals, enterprises, firms, companies, etc. Therefore, the decisions they make, together with economic policies and specific government decisions, ultimately determine the successes and failures in achieving the overall welfare and standard of living of the country.

There are many attempts to explain the differences in living standards in different countries. This is often explained by references to the government’s economic policy, the activities of trade unions and workers themselves in defense of their rights, increased competition with other countries, the availability of mineral resources, etc. Without denying the well-known dependence of a country’s well-being and its standard of living on these and other reasons, it should be said that the determining economic reason is productivity social labor.

The eleventh principle states that The standard of living of the population directly depends on the country's ability to produce goods and services.

It is well known that the standard of living in different countries is far from the same and even in one country it changes over time. This level depends on the income per person, and the latter, in turn, is determined by labor productivity, namely the number of goods and services produced per unit of time. Consequently, the well-being of a country ultimately depends on the labor productivity of its amateur population.

The twelfth principle states that prices rise when the government prints too much money.

When excess money is issued, it depreciates and a inflation. Accordingly, prices rise and the money supply in circulation increases. Such an inflationary spiral can unwind more and more over time and have an extremely negative impact on all phenomena of economic life, as the economic history of many countries, including ours, shows. If the cause of inflation is so clear, then why do governments have such difficulty eliminating it? As is known, a decrease in inflation rates in the short term is associated with an increase in unemployment, and therefore one has to choose between inflation and unemployment.

• Ventzel E.S. Operations research. - M., 1980. - P. 9.
• Neumann J., Morgenstern O. Game theory and economic behavior. - M., 1970.