Calculation of protective grounding. Terrain and its influence on the combat operations of troops. Seasonal changes in tactical terrain properties Purpose of calculating protective grounding

Due to the ongoing clashes in different countries of the world, television screens are constantly broadcasting news reports from one or another hot spot. And very often there are alarming messages about military operations, during which various multiple launch rocket systems (MLRS) are actively involved. It is difficult for a person who is in no way connected with the army or military to navigate the wide variety of all kinds of military equipment, so in this article we will tell the common man in detail about such death machines as:

• Heavy flamethrower system based on a tank (TOS) - the Buratino multiple launch rocket system (an infrequently used but very effective weapon).
• Multiple launch rocket system (MLRS) "Grad" - widely used
• The modernized and improved “sister” of the Grad MLRS is a reactive one (which the media and ordinary people often call “Typhoon” because of the chassis from the Typhoon truck used in the combat vehicle).
• The multiple launch rocket system is a powerful weapon with a long range, used to destroy almost any target.
• Having no analogues in the whole world, unique, awe-inspiring and used for total annihilation, the Smerch multiple launch rocket system (MLRS).

"Pinocchio" from a bad fairy tale

In the relatively distant year 1971, in the USSR, engineers from the Transport Engineering Design Bureau, located in Omsk, presented another masterpiece of military power. It was a heavy flamethrower multiple rocket launcher system "Buratino" (TOSZO). The creation and subsequent improvement of this flamethrower complex was kept top secret. Development lasted 9 years, and in 1980 the combat complex, which was a kind of tandem of the T-72 tank and a launcher with 24 guides, was finally approved and delivered to the Armed Forces of the Soviet Army.

"Pinocchio": application

TOSZO "Buratino" is used for arson and significant damage:

• enemy equipment (except armored);
• multi-storey buildings and other construction projects;
• various protective structures;
• manpower.

MLRS (TOS) "Buratino": description

Like the Grad and Uragan multiple launch rocket systems, the Buratino TOSZO was first used in the Afghan and second Chechen wars. According to 2014 data, the military forces of Russia, Iraq, Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan have such combat vehicles.

The Buratino multiple launch rocket system has the following characteristics:

• The weight of the TOS with a full set for combat is about 46 tons.
• The length of "Pinocchio" is 6.86 meters, width - 3.46 meters, height - 2.6 meters.
• The caliber of the shells is 220 millimeters (22 cm).
• The shooting uses uncontrolled rockets that cannot be controlled after they are fired.
• The longest firing distance is 13.6 kilometers.
• The maximum affected area after one salvo is 4 hectares.
• The number of charges and guides is 24 pieces.
• The salvo is aimed directly from the cockpit using a special fire control system, which consists of a sight, a roll sensor and a ballistic computer.
• The shells for completing the ROZZO after the salvos are fired are carried out using a transport-loading (TZM) machine model 9T234-2, with a crane and a loading device.
• "Buratino" is managed by 3 people.

As can be seen from the characteristics, just one salvo of "Pinocchio" is capable of turning 4 hectares into a blazing hell. Impressive power, isn't it?

Precipitation in the form of "Hail"

In 1960, the USSR monopolist in the production of multiple launch rocket systems and other weapons of mass destruction, NPO Splav, launched another secret project and began developing a completely new MLRS at that time called “Grad”. Making adjustments lasted 3 years, and the MLRS entered the ranks of the Soviet Army in 1963, but its improvement did not stop there; it continued until 1988.

"Grad": application

Like the Uragan MLRS, the Grad multiple launch rocket system showed such good results in battle that, despite its “advanced age,” it continues to be widely used to this day. "Grad" is used to deliver a very impressive blow to:

• artillery batteries;
• any military equipment, including armored;
• manpower;
• command posts;
• military-industrial facilities;
• anti-aircraft complexes.

In addition to the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, the Grad multiple rocket launcher system is in service with almost all countries of the world, including almost all continents of the globe. The largest number of combat vehicles of this type is located in the USA, Hungary, Sudan, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Vietnam, Bulgaria, Germany, Egypt, India, Kazakhstan, Iran, Cuba, and Yemen. Ukraine's multiple launch rocket systems also contain 90 Grad units.

MLRS "Grad": description

The Grad multiple launch rocket system has the following characteristics:

• The total weight of the Grad MLRS, ready for combat and equipped with all shells, is 13.7 tons.
• The length of the MLRS is 7.35 meters, width - 2.4 meters, height - 3.09 meters.
• The caliber of the shells is 122 millimeters (just over 12 cm).
• For firing, basic 122 mm caliber rockets are used, as well as fragmentation high explosive shells, chemical, incendiary and smoke warheads.
• from 4 to 42 kilometers.
• The maximum affected area after one salvo is 14.5 hectares.
• One salvo is carried out in just 20 seconds.
• A full reload of the Grad MLRS takes about 7 minutes.
• The reactive system is brought into firing position in no more than 3.5 minutes.
• Reloading the MLRS is only possible using a transport-loading vehicle.
• The sight is implemented using a gun panorama.
• The Grad is controlled by 3 people.

"Grad" is a multiple launch rocket system, the characteristics of which even today receive the highest rating from the military. Throughout its existence, it was used in the Afghan War, in the clashes between Azerbaijan and Nagorno-Karabakh, in both Chechen wars, during military operations in Libya, South Ossetia and Syria, as well as in the civil war in Donbass (Ukraine), which broke out in 2014 year.

Attention! "Tornado" is approaching

"Tornado-G" (as mentioned above, this MLRS is sometimes mistakenly called "Typhoon", so for convenience both names are given here) is a multiple launch rocket system, which is a modernized version of the Grad MLRS. The design engineers of the Splav plant worked on the creation of this powerful hybrid. Development began in 1990 and lasted 8 years. For the first time, the capabilities and power of the reactive system were demonstrated in 1998 at a training ground near Orenburg, after which it was decided to further improve this MLRS. To obtain the final result, the developers improved the Tornado-G (Typhoon) over the next 5 years. The multiple launch rocket system was introduced into service with the Russian Federation in 2013. At this time, this combat vehicle is only in service with the Russian Federation. "Tornado-G" ("Typhoon") is a multiple launch rocket system that has no analogues anywhere.

"Tornado": application

MLRS is used in combat to destroy targets such as:

• artillery;
• all types of enemy equipment;
• military and industrial buildings;
• anti-aircraft complexes.

MLRS "Tornado-G" ("Typhoon"): description

"Tornado-G" ("Typhoon") is a multiple launch rocket system, which, due to the increased power of ammunition, greater range and built-in satellite guidance system, surpassed its so-called "big sister" - the Grad MLRS - by 3 times.

Characteristics:

• The weight of the fully loaded MLRS is 15.1 tons.
• The length of "Tornado-G" is 7.35 meters, width - 2.4 meters, height - 3 meters.
• The caliber of the shells is 122 millimeters (12.2 cm).
• The Tornado-G MLRS is universal in that, in addition to the basic shells from the Grad MLRS, you can use new generation ammunition with detachable cumulative combat elements filled with cluster exploding elements, as well as
• The firing range under favorable landscape conditions reaches 100 kilometers.
• The maximum area subject to destruction after one salvo is 14.5 hectares.
• The number of charges and guides is 40 pieces.
• The sight is carried out using several hydraulic drives.
• One salvo is carried out in 20 seconds.
• The deadly machine is ready to work within 6 minutes.
• Firing is carried out using a remote control unit (RC) and a fully automated fire control system located in the cockpit.
• Crew - 2 people.

Fierce "Hurricane"

As happened with most MLRS, the history of the Uragan began in the USSR, or more precisely, in 1957. The “fathers” of the Uragan MLRS were Alexander Nikitovich Ganichev and Yuri Nikolaevich Kalachnikov. Moreover, the first designed the system itself, and the second developed the combat vehicle.

"Hurricane": application

The Uragan MLRS is designed to destroy targets such as:

• artillery batteries;
• any enemy equipment, including armored;
• living force;
• all kinds of construction projects;
• anti-aircraft missile systems;
• tactical missiles.

MLRS "Hurricane": description

The Uragan was used for the first time in the Afghan War. They say that the Mujahideen were afraid of this MLRS until they fainted and even gave it a formidable nickname - “Shaitan-pipe”.

In addition, the Hurricane multiple launch rocket system, the characteristics of which inspire respect among soldiers, has seen combat in South Africa. This is what prompted the military of the African continent to develop developments in the field of MLRS.

At the moment, this MLRS is in service with countries such as Russia, Ukraine, Afghanistan, Czech Republic, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Belarus, Poland, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Yemen, Kyrgyzstan, Guinea, Syria, Tajikistan, Eritrea, Slovakia.

The Uragan multiple launch rocket system has the following characteristics:

• The weight of the MLRS when fully equipped and in combat readiness is 20 tons.
• The Hurricane is 9.63 meters long, 2.8 meters wide, and 3.225 meters high.
• The caliber of the shells is 220 millimeters (22 cm). It is possible to use projectiles with a monolithic high-explosive warhead, with high-explosive fragmentation elements, with anti-tank and anti-personnel mines.
• The firing range is 8-35 kilometers.
• The maximum affected area after one salvo is 29 hectares.
• The number of charges and guides is 16 pieces, the guides themselves are capable of rotating 240 degrees.
• One salvo is carried out in 30 seconds.
• A full reload of the Uragan MLRS takes about 15 minutes.
• The combat vehicle goes into combat position in just 3 minutes.
• Reloading the MLRS is possible only when interacting with the TZ vehicle.
• Shooting is carried out either using a portable control panel, or directly from the cockpit.
• The crew is 6 people.

Like the Smerch multiple launch rocket system, the Uragan operates in any military conditions, as well as in the case when the enemy uses nuclear, bacteriological or other weapons. In addition, the complex is capable of functioning at any time of the day, regardless of the season and temperature fluctuations. "Hurricane" is capable of regularly participating in combat operations both in cold weather (-40°C) and in sweltering heat (+50°C). The Uragan MLRS can be delivered to its destination by water, air or rail.

Deadly "Smerch"

The Smerch multiple launch rocket system, whose characteristics surpass all existing MLRS in the world, was created in 1986 and put into service with the USSR military forces in 1989. To this day, this mighty death machine has no analogues in any country in the world.

"Smerch": application

This MLRS is rarely used, mainly for total annihilation:

• artillery batteries of all types;
• absolutely any military equipment;
• manpower;
• communication centers and command posts;
• construction projects, including military and industrial;
• anti-aircraft complexes.

MLRS "Smerch": description

The Smerch MLRS is available in the armed forces of Russia, Ukraine, the United Arab Emirates, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Turkmenistan, Georgia, Algeria, Venezuela, Peru, China, Georgia, and Kuwait.

The Smerch multiple launch rocket system has the following characteristics:

• The weight of the MLRS when fully equipped and in firing position is 43.7 tons.
• The length of the "Smerch" is 12.1 meters, width - 3.05 meters, height - 3.59 meters.
• The caliber of the shells is impressive - 300 millimeters.
• For firing, cluster rockets are used with a built-in control system unit and an additional engine that corrects the direction of the charge on the way to the target. The purpose of shells can be different: from fragmentation to thermobaric.
• The firing range of the Smerch MLRS is from 20 to 120 kilometers.
• The maximum affected area after one salvo is 67.2 hectares.
• The number of charges and guides is 12 pieces.
• One salvo is carried out in 38 seconds.
• Complete re-equipment of the Smerch MLRS with shells takes about 20 minutes.
• "Smerch" is ready for combat feats in a maximum of 3 minutes.
• Reloading of the MLRS is carried out only when interacting with a TZ-vehicle equipped with a crane and a charging device.
• The crew consists of 3 people.

The Smerch MLRS is an ideal weapon of mass destruction, capable of operating in almost any temperature conditions, day and night. In addition, shells fired by the Smerch MLRS fall strictly vertically, thereby easily destroying the roofs of houses and armored vehicles. It is almost impossible to hide from the Smerch; the MLRS burns out and destroys everything within its radius of action. Of course, this is not the power of a nuclear bomb, but still, the one who owns the Smerch owns the world.

The idea of ​​"world peace" is a dream. And as long as MLRS exist, unattainable...

Flight range and duration are among the main flight characteristics of an aircraft and depend on many factors: speed, altitude, aircraft resistance, fuel reserve, specific gravity of fuel, engine mode, outside temperature, wind speed and direction, etc. Great importance for range and flight duration has the quality of aircraft maintenance, including adjustment of engine command and fuel units.

Practical range- this is the distance flown by an aircraft when performing a specific flight mission with a predetermined amount of fuel and the remaining aeronautical reserve (ANS) fuel at landing.

Practical duration– this is the flight time from takeoff to landing when performing a specific flight mission with a predetermined amount of fuel and ANZ landing balance.

A transport aircraft consumes the bulk of its fuel in horizontal flight.

Flight range is determined by the formula

Where G t GP – fuel consumed in horizontal flight, kg; C km – kilometer fuel consumption, kg/km.

G t GP = G t full = ( G t rul. hack + G t nab + G t lower +...);

Where C h– hourly fuel consumption, kg/h; V– true flight speed, km/h.

The flight duration is determined by the formula

Where G t – fuel reserve, kg.

Let's consider the influence of various operational factors on the flight range and duration.

Aircraft weight. In flight, due to fuel burnout, the weight of the aircraft can be reduced by 30–40%, therefore, the required operating mode of the engines to maintain a given speed and hourly and kilometer fuel consumption are reduced.

A heavy aircraft flies at a higher angle of attack, so its drag is greater than that of a light aircraft, which flies at the same speed at a lower angle of attack. Thus, we can conclude that a heavy aircraft requires high engine operating conditions, and as is known, with an increase in engine operating conditions, hourly and kilometer fuel consumption increases. During the flight at V= const Due to the decrease in aircraft weight, the kilometer fuel consumption is continuously decreasing.

Flight speed. As speed increases, fuel consumption increases. With a minimum kilometer fuel consumption, the maximum flight range is:

Speed ​​corresponding WITH km min, called cruising.

The nomogram below (Fig. 3.7) shows fuel consumption per hour per engine.

Rice. 3.7. Fuel consumption depending on the power setting in percent

Fuel estimates displayed in the FUEL CALC field on the G1000 Multi Function Display (MFD) do not take into account the aircraft's fuel gauges.

The displayed values ​​are calculated from the pilot's last current fuel quantity input and actual fuel consumption data. For this reason, flight duration and range data should be used for reference purposes only; their use for flight planning is prohibited.

The flight speed at which hourly fuel consumption is minimal is called the longest duration speed:

Wind speed and direction. The wind does not affect the hourly fuel consumption and flight duration. Hourly fuel consumption is determined by the operating mode of the engines, the flight weight of the aircraft and the aerodynamic quality of the aircraft:

C h = P C ud, or,

Where R– required traction, WITH sp – specific fuel consumption, m– aircraft weight, TO– aerodynamic quality of the aircraft.

The flight range depends on the strength and direction of the wind, as it changes the ground speed relative to the ground:

Where U– wind component (tailwind – with a “+” sign, headwind – with a “–” sign).

With a headwind, the kilometer fuel consumption increases and the range decreases.

Flight altitude. At the same flight weight, with increasing flight altitude, hourly and kilometer fuel consumption decreases due to a decrease in specific fuel consumption.

Outdoor temperature. With an increase in air temperature, the power of power plants with constant engine operation decreases, and the flight speed decreases. Therefore, to restore the given speed at the same altitude under conditions of elevated temperature, it is necessary to increase the operating mode of the engines. This leads to an increase in specific and hourly fuel consumption in proportion to temperature. On average, when the temperature deviates from the standard by 5°, the hourly fuel consumption changes by 1%. Kilometer fuel consumption practically does not depend on temperature: that is, the flight range remains practically constant as the outside air temperature increases.

Maintenance.With proper technical and flight operation of the engines, the range and duration of the aircraft's flight increases. For example, correct adjustment of engines, as well as installation of engine control levers in accordance with the economical flight mode, leads to an increase in flight range and duration.

Using miniature geolocators attached to the legs of 11 Arctic terns, it was possible to trace the routes of the annual migrations of these birds, which spend the northern summer in the Arctic and the southern summer in the Antarctic. The study confirmed the title of champions in terms of migration distance for terns. They fly up to 80,000 km a year - twice as much as expected. During their 30-year life, terns cover a distance equal to three flights to the moon and back.

Seasonal bird migrations are traditionally studied using ringing and observations along the migration route. These methods make it possible to determine migration routes only in the most general terms. The real revolution in this area began with the advent of compact electronic geolocators - devices that allow you to track the movements of individual birds. Until very recently, this research was limited to large species (weighing more than 400 g), and only in recent years has it become possible to make very tiny geolocators that do not burden even small birds, such as the Arctic tern, weighing about 125 g.

Researchers' interest in this bird is due to the fact that it has long been considered the greatest traveler among all living creatures. The Arctic tern is the only bird species that nests in the high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, mainly in the Arctic, and spends the winter in the Antarctic. According to rough estimates obtained using traditional methods, it turned out that terns fly about 40,000 km per year.

To find out the real routes and flight distances of Arctic terns, a group of ornithologists from Denmark, Poland, Great Britain and Iceland used subminiature one and a half gram geolocators. Together with the plastic ring that was placed on the bird's leg and to which the device was attached, the device weighed only 2 grams - less than 2% of the weight of an adult tern.

The birds were caught during the nesting period, in June–July 2007, at two points: on Sand Island off the northeast coast of Greenland (74°43'N, 20°27'W) and on Flatey Island in Breidafjord in western Iceland (65°22'N 22°27'W). In total, 70 birds were equipped with geolocators: 50 Greenland and 20 Icelandic. The following summer, at the same points, the authors tried to catch ringed birds. In Greenland they counted 21 birds with geolocators, but managed to catch only 10. In Iceland they saw 4 ringed birds, of which they managed to catch one. This does not mean that the remaining birds died along the way. Terns return in early summer to approximately the same area from which they flew in the fall, but not necessarily to the same point. A couple of hundred kilometers is no distance at all for terns, unlike birders who travel around northeast Greenland on dog sleds provided to them by the Greenland Sledge Patrol (see The Sirius Sledge Patrol).

Geolocators recorded light changes in real time throughout the year. From these data, it is possible to determine the time of sunrise and sunset and the length of the day, which in most cases allows one to calculate the geographic position of the bird with an accuracy of 170–200 km. Difficulties arise only when birds are at very high latitudes (polar day), as well as during the equinoxes, when the length of the day is the same at all latitudes and only longitude can be determined from light data.

It turned out that terns fly south slowly in the fall, with two long stops, and the route of the Icelandic bird did not stand out from the rest. The birds left their breeding grounds in mid-August and soon reached their first stopover area in the North Atlantic east of Newfoundland. Here the terns spent from 10 to 30 days. In this area, northern, highly productive waters mix with southern, warmer and less productive waters. The Icelandic Tern moved further south on 1 September, with Greenland Tern following on 5–22 September. Off the west coast of Africa, the routes diverged: seven birds continued their journey along Africa, and four crossed the Atlantic and headed south along the coast of Brazil. Both groups of birds stopped briefly at 38–40 degrees south latitude. Of the seven birds that chose the African route, three flew far to the east, into the Indian Ocean. All birds arrived at their wintering site - the edge of the Antarctic ice - between November 5th and 30th. The entire journey to the south took from 69 to 103 days, the average migration speed was 330 km per day.

The birds spent most of the Antarctic summer in the Weddell Sea region, where Antarctic krill are very abundant. The tern from Iceland set off on its return journey to the north on April 3, and the bowheads on April 12–19. Now they were flying faster, without long stops and far from the coast, almost over the middle of the Atlantic. The duration of the flight to the nesting sites was 36–46 days, the average speed was 520 km per day.

The study found that previous estimates of the total distance flown by terns in a year were underestimated by half. In fact, these amazing birds travel from 59,500 to 81,600 km per year (average 71,000), excluding movements during the nesting period. Since terns live more than 30 years (the official record is 34 years), they can fly about two and a half million kilometers in their lifetime. This corresponds to three flights to the Moon and back, or 60 orbits around the equator.

designed for removal from the cutting area (lower warehouses) of wood raw materials and round timber to places of processing, temporary storage and shipment

According to the period of validity, logging roads are divided into permanent (year-round operation), seasonal and temporary (timber roads). TO permanent include cargo collection roads. They serve several logging companies; Each enterprise exports wood to transshipment points located along the highway. Next, the wood is transported to the junction point of the cargo collection road, to highways logging road (the main section of the logging road serving timber resource base enterprise for the entire period of its existence or during a significant part of it), a branch (branches adjacent to the main line of a logging road, serving part of the timber resource base for several years; the validity period of the branches depends on the size forest areas and the order of their development; the distance between individual branches is 2-3 km in areas with intensive logging, and 4-6 km in areas with surplus forests). There are several categories of permanent logging roads based on the type of surface (depending on the annual traffic load). Roads of higher categories have improved permanent coverings, roads of lower categories have transitional and lower type coverings - crushed stone, gravel, improved dirt. Cargo assembly roads are usually paved with asphalt and reinforced concrete. The main materials for covering main roads are gravel and crushed stone. To increase the load-bearing properties of soils, in some cases various organic and mineral binding materials are used.

Timber roads seasonal designed for use in summer or winter. Winter automobile logging roads are designed for the development of logging sites on weak and swampy soils, where the operation of vehicles in the summer is difficult or economically unprofitable. Winter logging roads are operated during one or more winter seasons. The base of such roads is prepared in the summer by roughly leveling the area, and with the onset of the first frosts, the wetlands are strengthened with a flooring of thin trunks and branches and compacted with the passages of light tractors. The covering for winter logging roads is a rolled layer of snow or a layer of ice 30-40 cm thick. The routes of such roads are usually laid along watersheds, floodplains rivers and other areas, avoiding steep ascents and descents. Temporary logging roads - logging mustache - are intended for the development of individual cutting areas and are adjacent to a branch or highway. The validity period of such roads is no more than a year.

The transport network of a logging enterprise usually consists of one highway, several branches and a large number of logging tracks. In mountainous conditions, roads are mainly used for timber transportation. The routes of mountain logging roads are laid depending on the ground conditions along the valleys above the floodplain terraces, slopes, gentle watersheds in such a way as to reduce the slope of the transport route as much as possible. The covering of mountain logging roads on highways and branches is gravel and crushed stone, on logging roads - dirt and soil-crushed stone. Based on the annual traffic intensity, mountain logging roads are divided into several categories, differing in operational parameters. The logging road, in addition to transporting various timber, can also be used for forestry purposes, including when carrying out thinning, procurement of timber chemical raw materials, etc. According to the rules release of standing timber (timber), Forest users are obliged to preserve and restore to proper condition roads, bridges and other structures disturbed during timber harvesting and transportation of other goods. At the end of the term wood removal the main logging roads, the list of which is determined by the relevant agreement, must be transferred to the forestry enterprise in a condition suitable for their further economic use.

Seasonal logging roads are mainly winter logging roads. Such roads are built in hard-to-reach places – swamps, grasslands. This type of road has especially proven itself in the case of rotational logging. Seasonal roads are covered with snow and ice. The cost of roads is almost 10 times less than the cost of summer roads, and the cost of removing 1 m3 of forest per kilometer is 2-2.5 times lower. Based on the type of surface, a distinction is made between snow and ice roads. Snow roads are divided into snow-compacted and snow-ice roads. Snow-compacted roads are built when there is low traffic intensity and the operation of light road trains. They are simple in design and do not require large construction costs. The surface of these roads is a compacted layer of snow on a graded earthen base. If the snow on such a road is compacted and watered during the winter, then such a road becomes snowy and icy. At the end of winter, the thickness of the snow layer reaches 0.5 m, which extends its service life by 8-10 days compared to a snow-compacted road. A better surface for winter roads is icy. Ice roads are built on an earthen base, which ensures its greater hardness and evenness, heat resistance, speed and trip load of logging road trains. The use of ice coverings makes it possible to extend the winter removal season by 12-15 days and increase it to 100 days or more. To increase the strength of the coating and reduce its melting in the spring, wood chips, sawdust, and shavings are frozen into the coating in open areas and slopes. The strength of the coating with wood additives increases by 1.5-2 times, depending on the type and amount of additives. The movement of tracked vehicles on roads with ice is not allowed.

The spring return of bats in our country to their native lands occurs in late April - early May. The animals return together, sometimes their arrival lasts only a few days. But autumn migrations are greatly extended in time. The animals are in no hurry to leave familiar places. It’s as if they are reluctant to leave their homeland. However, the same thing is observed in other flying migrants - birds.

By the way, it is interesting to note one feature of the direction of the migratory routes of our bats. Very often their paths coincide with the paths of migratory birds. And not only the directions coincide. The timing of migrations is often the same. Bats have been seen more than once on flights in the company of swallows and swifts. Such joint migrations probably arise due to the great similarity in the nutritional needs of these animals. Seasonal fluctuations in the number of flying insects have led to the formation and strengthening of very similar types of behavior in bats and their daytime counterparts - insectivorous birds.

It has been established that sedentary species of bats are subject to greater variability than migratory species. That is, within their range they form a much greater variety of forms and subspecies. The reason for this is geographical fragmentation and isolation of individual populations of “sedentary” species. On the contrary, animals that make regular migrations have the opportunity to meet more often their relatives from other places. Many of them choose a mate during migration or in wintering aggregations. Therefore, married couples can form between animals from different summer habitats. Thus, there is a kind of mixing of the hereditary characteristics of the species, due to which its genetic homogeneity is maintained. There is no doubt that for the species as a whole such shuffling of hereditary information plays an important role. The species as an integral system turns out to be more stable and stable. At the same time, sedentary bats, not having such an advantage, have something else - they are capable of accumulating in their local habitats and transmitting to their offspring those vital signs the appearance of which is required by their environment. As a result of this accumulation, new forms of animals are formed, more adapted to the given living conditions. In such cases we talk about microevolution. And this is the first step towards macroevolution, towards speciation. So it is very difficult to say definitely which species - sedentary or migratory - are in a more advantageous position. Nature did not offend both of them, giving them the right to resolve issues of their own evolution in their own way.

Sometimes sudden changes in weather and climatic conditions, and with them a decrease in food supplies, force bats to make unplanned flights. Thus, in Australia in 1926-1927, an impressive migration of fruit bats was recorded. It was associated with severe drought in several areas of the continent. Once in those years, the body of a dead fruit bat was found even in New Zealand. Before this there was a strong storm, and it is believed; The traveling animal, unable to cope with the wind, was carried hundreds of kilometers from its native place.

In general, flights in order to better satisfy nutritional needs are carried out by bats very often, almost every day. These are the so-called daily migrations. In terms of their length, they, of course, cannot be compared with seasonal flights, but they are of great importance in the life of bats. After all, searching for food is a primary, daily necessity for any animal.

The giants of the bat world - flying foxes and many other fruit bats regularly roam around their domains, looking for places with a good harvest of fruits. Palm fruit bats, for example, fly to feed 20-30 kilometers from their daytime roosts.

The range of night flights of bats depends on the size of the concentrations that they form during their daytime shelters. As a rule, species that prefer to live in small groups or alone are not inclined to fly long distances. Bats living in huge colonies cannot provide themselves with food well in the immediate vicinity of the shelter. Therefore, they have to go on long night journeys. An example of such migrations is the feeding flights of the longwing.

Diurnal migrations are especially pronounced in bats living in the foothills adjacent to steppe or desert areas. The years of the late Kozhana from the foothills to the steppe were observed by S.I. Ognev. “This year,” writes the scientist, “is like a constant “thrust”. In the valley, bats find their numerous prey, twilight flying insects, and after hunting for them they return again to their rocky gorges and caves.”

Speaking about flights, one cannot fail to mention the “home instinct” of bats. Recently, another word has become fashionable - “homing”. What is meant by these terms? First of all, the attachment of animals to certain habitats, to their native shelters. And this, in turn, is inextricably linked with the ability of bats to navigate in space.

All available information about the homing of bats was obtained using the same ringing method. While banding the animals at their wintering sites, scientists noticed that many individuals return to these places in subsequent winters. M. Eisentraut conducted such an experiment. He caught two dozen wintering noctules in one of the caves, marked them and transported them 40 kilometers to another cave. The new apartment was not chosen at random. Relatives of the experimental subjects, also large bats, spent the winter in it. A year later, the scientist visited this cave and did not find any of his friends there. But in the first, native shelter for them, several ringed animals spent the winter.

The attachment of bats to summer shelters, according to A.P. Kuzyakin, is much less than to winter ones. This is explained by the “shortage” of places suitable for wintering. However, even in the summer, in most cases, animals do not want to part with their favorite lived-in apartments.

N. Castere describes his experiments with great bats as follows: “We caught 20-30 bats in a cave, ringed them, carried them long distances and released them, observing whether these animals would be able to find the cave in which they lived.

For relatively short distances... (18 to 36 kilometers), we were not particularly surprised that the bats found their home easily. Inspired by success, we began to increase the distance." Gradually increasing this distance, the researchers reached the 300-kilometer mark. All experiments were successful. Nocturnal bats navigated no worse than carrier pigeons. Interestingly, pregnant females turned out to be more inclined to return than other individuals. All they “sought to be relieved of their burden,” writes Caster, “only in their cave... and nowhere else.” 36. Once the researchers had the opportunity to release the bats at a distance of 700 kilometers from familiar places. Having made an approximate flight in a circle, the animals resolutely headed to that place. side where their home cave was located, but, apparently, they were not able to reach it. In any case, they were never seen during the captures in this cave.

In the last experiment, the surprising thing is that the bats immediately accurately determined the desired direction. But, probably, the ability to do this varies among different species. For example, common spearfish were released at distances of 20, 30 and 60 kilometers from their refuge. In the first case, the animals flew straight to the house, in the second, they experienced noticeable difficulty in choosing the direction, but were oriented more or less correctly. From the farthest distance, the spearmen could not orient themselves correctly at all; the direction of their flight was purely random.

Attachment to their shelters and the ability to navigate also depend on the individual qualities of the animals. In the experiments, one bat returned home multiple times and from different distances. And her friends disappeared from the field of view of the researchers at the very first stage of the experiment, that is, after the first release.

It was found that the ability to return to their shelter is also inherent in blind animals. Vision-deprived Indian bats were released at different distances from the cave. In addition, control groups of sighted animals were released along with them. Sighted animals began returning from a distance of 8 kilometers on the first night. A blind bat released from this distance was caught in the cave the next day. From longer distances (40 and 60 kilometers), the blinded animals returned only after a few days. Experience has shown that bats without vision have significant difficulty in orientation and therefore return much more slowly than their sighted counterparts. However, he also showed that vision in this matter plays not the least role, as previously thought. Despite the poor development of the visual organs, some species of bats probably have the ability to use them for orientation in their flights.

As for other species, there is still a lot that is unclear and unexplored. The migratory years of young Bukhara horseshoe bats were observed by A.P. Kuzyakin: “These young ones, having barely learned to use their wings, fly at night, silently and at a great distance from one another. To talk here about visual or mechanical orientation, of course, is unconvincing.”

By the way, about homing of young animals. Soviet scientists, studying the “home instinct” in young animals, came to the conclusion that the manifestation of this instinct begins at the age of one or two months. Young bats were tested separately from adults to exclude the possibility of learning from experience, as well as the possibility of flying together. From a distance of 10 kilometers, young people returned no worse than adults. But a gradual increase in distance led to the fact that the number of returning young animals decreased. However, this is not surprising. After all, we know that experience comes with age.