Signs and elements of social institutions. Science as a social institution Two signs of a social institution in the example of education

I study biology and chemistry at Five Plus in Gulnur Gataulovna’s group. I am delighted, the teacher knows how to interest the subject and find an approach to the student. Adequately explains the essence of his requirements and gives homework that is realistic in scope (and not, as most teachers do in the Unified State Examination year, ten paragraphs at home, and one in the class). . We study strictly for the Unified State Exam and this is very valuable! Gulnur Gataullovna is sincerely interested in the subjects that she teaches and always gives the necessary, timely and relevant information. Highly recommend!

Camilla

I am preparing for mathematics (with Daniil Leonidovich) and Russian language (with Zarema Kurbanovna) at Five Plus. Very pleased! The quality of classes is at a high level; the school now receives only A's and B's in these subjects. I wrote the test exams as a 5, I’m sure I’ll pass the OGE with flying colors. Thank you!

Airat

I was preparing for the Unified State Examination in history and social studies with Vitaly Sergeevich. He is an extremely responsible teacher in relation to his work. Punctual, polite, pleasant to talk to. It is clear that the man lives for his work. He is well versed in teenage psychology and has a clear training method. Thank you "Five Plus" for your work!

Leysan

I passed the Unified State Exam in Russian with 92 points, mathematics with 83, social studies with 85, I think this is an excellent result, I entered the university on a budget! Thank you "Five Plus"! Your teachers are true professionals, with them high results are guaranteed, I am very glad that I turned to you!

Dmitriy

David Borisovich is a wonderful teacher! In his group I prepared for the Unified State Exam in mathematics at a specialized level, and passed with 85 points! although my knowledge at the beginning of the year was not very good. David Borisovich knows his subject, knows the requirements of the Unified State Exam, he himself is on the commission for checking examination papers. I am very glad that I was able to get into his group. Thanks to Five Plus for this opportunity!

Violet

"A+" is an excellent test preparation center. Professionals work here, a cozy atmosphere, friendly staff. I studied English and social studies with Valentina Viktorovna, passed both subjects with a good score, happy with the result, thank you!

Olesya

At the “Five with Plus” center I studied two subjects at once: mathematics with Artem Maratovich and literature with Elvira Ravilyevna. I really liked the classes, clear methodology, accessible form, comfortable environment. I am very pleased with the result: mathematics - 88 points, literature - 83! Thank you! I will recommend your educational center to everyone!

Artem

When I was choosing tutors, I was attracted to the Five Plus center by good teachers, a convenient class schedule, the availability of free trial exams, and my parents - affordable prices for high quality. In the end, our whole family was very pleased. I studied three subjects at once: mathematics, social studies, English. Now I am a student at KFU on a budget basis, and all thanks to good preparation, I passed the Unified State Exam with high scores. Thank you!

Dima

I very carefully selected a social studies tutor; I wanted to pass the exam with the maximum score. “A+” helped me in this matter, I studied in Vitaly Sergeevich’s group, the classes were super, everything was clear, everything was clear, at the same time fun and relaxed. Vitaly Sergeevich presented the material in such a way that it was memorable by itself. I am very pleased with the preparation!

Science as a social institution is a system of scientific organizations and institutions.

Social organizations are characterized by the following characteristics:

1. having a goal;

2. distribution of organization members by roles and statuses;

3. division of labor, specialization on a professional basis;

4. construction on a vertical hierarchical principle with the allocation of control and controlled subsystems;

5. the presence of specific means of regulation and control of the organization’s activities;

6. the presence of an integral social system.

The social essence of an organization is manifested in the realization of its goals through the achievement of personal ones. Without this connection, a union between the whole (organization) and the part (person) is impossible. People will be part of an organization only if they have the opportunity to receive a salary, communicate, have the opportunity for professional growth, etc.

The purpose of science as a social institution is the production of new knowledge, the application of new knowledge in production, in everyday life, in culture.

There is a hierarchical structure in science: academician, doctor, candidate of science, senior researcher, laboratory assistant have their own job responsibilities, roles that they must fulfill.

In addition, there are scientific standards for obtaining, processing and analyzing scientific information, verified by previous research practice.

Science includes a network of institutions: academies of sciences, research and design institutes, laboratories and bureaus, botanical gardens, experimental stations, scientific communities, libraries, bodies for coordinating and planning scientific research, publishing houses, etc. and means to achieve goals, in particular scientific equipment.

Science as a social institution has a system of sanctions: rewards, punishments (awarding academic titles, positions, recognition of copyright, etc.), as well as the presence of specific means of regulation and control. There are acts on the introduction of this or that scientific innovation, the Academy of Sciences plays a regulatory role in the form of regulations issued by it, etc.

Science as a social institution is connected with other social institutions of society: production, politics, art.

In addition to the explicit functions performed by science described above, there are implicit (hidden) functions: in particular, such a hidden function for a long time, for example, in the USSR-Russia, was the prestige of doing science, the belonging of scientists to the spiritual elite.

Science as a social institution is in constant change: old institutions and organizations are closing, new ones are emerging. The process of formation of new institutions is called institutionalization.

Science as a social institution arose simultaneously with the advent of science.

Already in the era of antiquity, the first scientific institutions appeared in the form of private schools, scientific communities under the patronage of famous thinkers or at churches. So everyone knows: the Pythagorean society, where the pursuit of science was given an honorable first place, Plato's scientific academy, where he taught for 40 years, Aristotle's Lyceum, the school of Hippocrates.

In the Hellenistic era, the prototype of the first medieval universities was the School of Scholars of Alexandria at the Library of Alexandria (museum), which contained about 500,000 books. The creation of a unique library, the influx of scientists and manuscripts from different countries caused a significant development of mathematics, mechanics, and astronomy.

In the Middle Ages, similar schools existed in monasteries. In the late Middle Ages, theological universities arose: the University of Paris (1160), Bologna, Oxford (1167), Cambridge (1209), Padua (1222), Naples (1224), Prague (1347), etc.

The main feature of these scientific organizations was that scientific disciplines were studied here as a whole, without specialization. The main attention was paid to humanitarian knowledge. Only at the end of the 17th century. Natural science and technical disciplines are beginning to be taught at universities.

The emergence of modern science, which occurred in modern times, was marked by the creation of academies. In 1603, the “Lynx Academy” was created in Rome - from the motto “the eyes of a scientist should be as keen as the eyes of a lynx.” In this academy, in the spirit of Galileo's teachings, lectures were given and individual experiments were carried out.

But an academy in the fuller sense of this concept was the Royal Society of London, organized in 1660, the Paris Academy of Sciences - 1666, the Berlin Academy of Sciences - 1700. As a result, by the end of the 17th century. Most European scientists were members of scientific academies and societies.

In 1724, the Academy of Sciences was founded in St. Petersburg. It was a state institution, well equipped for that time with scientific equipment: there was an astronomical observatory, a chemical laboratory, and a physics laboratory. The greatest scientists of that time worked here - M.V. Lomonosov, L. Euler and others. In 1775, on the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov, Moscow University was opened.

At the end of the 18th – beginning of the 19th centuries. the process of uniting researchers working in various fields of knowledge was further developed: physical, chemical, biological and other scientific communities emerged: “French Conservatory of Technical Arts and Crafts” (1795), “Meeting of German Naturalists” (1822), “British Association for the Advancement of progress" (1831), etc. They provided material support for beginning scientists to conduct any experiments.

In the 18th century The general growth of science and information, the spread of experimental methods and the complication of their technology, and the increasing labor intensity of scientific research led to the emergence of stable, permanent scientific teams. Laboratories, departments, and institutes appear as a reaction to the need for collective activity.

At the end of the 18th century. there is a need for the training of experienced experimental scientists: in particular, the Polytechnic School in Paris (1795), where Lagrange, Laplace, Carnot and others taught. At the same time, scientific teams emerged, uniting several scientists and their assistants in one scientific laboratory (the prototype scientific school). The creation of scientific schools was due to the insufficient preparedness for research activities of university students, who did not receive the practical skills necessary for experimental work within the walls of higher educational institutions.

In the middle of the 19th century. From the general structure of scientific institutions, research units (laboratories) are finally distinguished, developing more or less narrow areas of science: the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, etc. Here, in addition to managers, not only technicians and laboratory assistants work, but also researchers. In the second half of the 19th century. Similar laboratories are moving from academies to higher education institutions: they are appearing in universities in Germany, Russia, France and other countries. There is a parallel existence and competition between scientific teams-laboratories and individual scientists.

Science is acquiring the features of a mature organism, the profession of a scientist is firmly rooted in society, and the need for targeted training of scientific personnel arises. At the beginning of the twentieth century. a wide network of research laboratories and institutes not related to the educational process, independent of higher educational institutions, is emerging. Numerous scientific teams emerged that received the status of laboratories, departments, etc.; the organization was formally established by official documents. But informal scientific groups that do not have legal rights - scientific schools - survived and continued to exist.

(from Latin institutum - establishment, establishment), forming the basic element of society. Therefore we can say that society is a set of social institutions and connections between them. There is no theoretical certainty in the understanding of a social institution. First of all, the relationship between “social systems” and “social institutions” is unclear. In Marxist sociology they are not distinguished, and Parsons views social institutions as a regulatory mechanism of social systems. Further, the distinction between social institutions and social organizations, which are often equated, is unclear.

The concept of a social institution comes from jurisprudence. There it denotes a set of legal norms that regulate the legal activities of people in some area (family, economic, etc.). In sociology, social institutions are (1) stable complexes of social regulators (values, norms, beliefs, sanctions), they (2) control systems of statuses, roles, modes of behavior in various spheres of human activity (3) exist to satisfy social needs and ( 4) arise historically in the process of trial and error. Social institutions are family, property, trade, education, etc. Let's consider the listed signs.

Firstly, social institutions are expedient character, i.e. they are created to satisfy some public needs. For example, the institution of family serves to satisfy people’s needs for procreation and socialization, economic institutions serve to satisfy the needs for the production and distribution of material goods, educational institutions serve to satisfy the needs for knowledge, etc.

Secondly, social institutions include a system of social statuses(rights and obligations) and roles, resulting in a hierarchy. For example, in an institute of higher education, these are the statuses and roles of rectors, deans, heads of departments, teachers, laboratory assistants, etc. The statuses and roles of the institute correspond to stable, formalized, diverse regulators social connections: ideology, mentality, norms (administrative, legal, moral); forms of moral, economic, legal, etc. stimulation.

Thirdly, in a social institution, social statuses and roles of people are fulfilled by virtue of their transformation into values ​​and norms related to the needs and interests of people. “Only through the internationalization of institutionalized values ​​does true motivational integration of behavior take place in the social structure: very deep-lying layers of motivation begin to work to fulfill role expectations,” writes T. Parsons.

Fourthly, social institutions arise historically, as if by themselves. Nobody invents them the way they invent technical and social goods. This happens because the social need that they must satisfy does not arise and be recognized immediately, and also develops. “Many of man's greatest achievements are due not to conscious effort, much less to the deliberately coordinated efforts of many, but to a process in which the individual plays a role not entirely comprehensible to himself. They<...>are the result of a combination of knowledge that a single mind cannot comprehend,” wrote Hayek.

Social institutions are unique self-governing systems consisting of three interconnected parts. The original part of these systems forms a network of agreed-upon status-roles. For example, in a family these are the status-roles of husband, wife, and children. Their manager the system is formed, on the one hand, by the needs, values, norms, beliefs shared by the participants, and on the other hand, by public opinion, law, and the state. Transformative a system of social institutions includes the coordinated actions of people in which appear corresponding statuses and roles.

Social institutions are characterized by a set of institutional features that distinguish them forms of social connection from others. These include: 1) material and cultural characteristics (for example, an apartment for a family); 2 institutional symbols (seal, brand name, coat of arms, etc.); 3) institutional ideals, values, norms; 4) a charter or code of conduct that sets out ideals, values, and norms; 5) ideology that explains the social environment from the point of view of a given social institution. Social institutions are type(general) social connection between people and their specific(single) manifestation, and a system of specific institutions. For example, the institution of family represents a certain type of social connection, a specific family, and many individual families that are in social connections with each other.

The most important characteristic of social institutions is their functions in a social environment consisting of other social institutions. The main functions of social institutions are the following: 1) stable satisfaction of the needs of the people for whom the institutions arose; 2) maintaining the stability of subjective regulators (needs, values, norms, beliefs); 3) determination of pragmatic (instrumental) interests, the implementation of which leads to the production of goods necessary to satisfy the corresponding needs; 4) adaptation of available funds to the chosen interests; 5) integration of people into a cooperative relationship around identified interests; 6) transformation of the external environment into necessary benefits.

Social institutions: structure, functions and typology

An important structure-forming element of society is social institutions. The term “institute” itself (from Lat. institutum- establishment, establishment) was borrowed from jurisprudence, where it was used to characterize a certain set of legal norms. He was the first to introduce this concept into sociological science. He believed that every social institution develops as a stable structure of “social actions.”

In modern sociology there are different definitions of this concept. Thus, the Russian sociologist Yu. Levada defines a “social institution” as “something similar to an organ in a living organism: it is a unit of human activity that remains stable over a certain period of time and ensures the stability of the entire social system.” In Western sociology, a social institution is most often understood as a stable set of formal and informal rules, principles, norms, guidelines that regulate various spheres of human activity and organize them into a system of roles and statuses.

Despite all the differences in such definitions, the following can serve as a generalization: social institutions- these are historically established stable forms of organizing the joint activities of people, designed to ensure the reproduction of social relations. reliability and regularity of meeting the basic needs of society. Thanks to social institutions, stability and order are achieved in society, and predictability of people's behavior becomes possible.

There are many social institutions that appear in society as products of social life. The process of forming a social institution, which involves defining and consolidating social norms, rules, statuses and roles and bringing them into a system capable of satisfying socially significant needs, is called institutionalization.

This process includes several sequential steps:

• the emergence of a need, the satisfaction of which requires joint organized action;
• formation of common goals;
• the emergence of social norms and rules in the course of spontaneous social interaction, implemented by trial and error;
• the emergence of procedures related to norms and regulations;
• formalization of norms, rules, procedures, i.e. their acceptance and practical application;
• establishment of a system of sanctions to maintain norms and rules, differentiation of their application in individual cases;
• creation of a system of corresponding statuses and roles;
• organizational design of the emerging institutional structure.

Structure of a social institution

The result of institutionalization is the creation, in accordance with the norms and rules, of a clear status and role structure, socially approved by the majority of participants in this process. If speak about structure of social institutions, then they most often have a certain set of constituent elements, depending on the type of institution. Jan Szczepanski identified the following structural elements of a social institution:

• the purpose and scope of the institute;
• functions necessary to achieve the goal:
• normatively determined social roles and statuses presented in the structure of the institute:
• means and institutions for achieving goals and implementing functions, including appropriate sanctions.

Common and fundamental for all social institutions function is meeting social needs, for the sake of which it is created and exists. But to carry out this function, each institution performs other functions in relation to its participants, including: 1) consolidating and reproducing social relations; 2) regulatory; 3) integrative: 4) broadcasting; 5) communicative.

The activities of any social institution are considered functional if they benefit society and contribute to its stability and integration. If a social institution does not fulfill its basic functions, then they talk about it dysfunction. It can be expressed in a decline in social prestige, the authority of a social institution and, as a consequence, lead to its degeneration.

The functions and dysfunctions of social institutions can be obvious, if they are obvious and understood by everyone, and implicit (latent) in cases where they are hidden. For sociology, it is important to identify hidden functions, since they can lead not only to increased tension in society, but also to disorganization of the social system as a whole.

Depending on the goals and objectives, as well as the functions performed in society, the entire variety of social institutions is usually divided into basic And non-main (private). Among the first to satisfy the fundamental needs of society are:

• institutions of family and marriage - the need for the reproduction of the human race;
• political institutions - in safety and social order;
• economic institutions - in ensuring livelihoods;
• institutes of science, education, culture - in obtaining and transmitting knowledge, socialization;
• institutions of religion, social integration- in solving spiritual problems, searching for the meaning of life.

Signs of a social institution

Each social institution has both specific features. and common features with other institutions.

The following are distinguished: signs of social institutions:

• attitudes and patterns of behavior (for the institution of family - affection, respect, trust; for the institution of education - the desire for knowledge);
• cultural symbols (for the family - wedding rings, marriage ritual; for the state - anthem, coat of arms, flag; for business - brand name, patent mark; for religion - icons, crosses, Koran);
• utilitarian cultural features (for a family - a house, apartment, furniture; for education - classes, a library; for business - a store, factory, equipment);
• oral and written codes of conduct (for the state - the constitution, laws; for business - contracts, licenses);
• ideology (for family - romantic love, compatibility; for business - freedom of trade, business expansion; for religion - Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Islam, Buddhism).

It should be noted that the institution of family and marriage is located at the intersection of functional connections of all other social institutions (property, finance, education, culture, law, religion, etc.), while being a classic example of a simple social institution. Next we will focus on the characteristics of the main social institutions.

What changes in family and marital relations does the author highlight? Name any three of them.

The answer may include the following changes: 1) the diversity of family forms has increased; 2) people marry less willingly; 3) people get married at a later age; 4) the divorce rate has increased significantly; 5) the number of single-parent families has increased

From the social studies course you know that the family is considered as a small group and as a social institution. Name two characteristics of a family as a small group that the author identified. Based on social science knowledge, indicate any three functions of the family as a social institution.

The response must contain the following elements:

1) two characteristics are named: - this is a group of people related by direct family relationships; – adult family members assume responsibility for caring for children.

2) functions are indicated, for example: – educational; – economic; – reproductive; – economic; – emotional; – social status.

The author notes the increasing diversity of family forms. Identify the two family forms mentioned in the text. Based on social science knowledge, give examples of any two other forms of family. Indicate the distinctive feature of any of them.

The response must contain the following elements:

1) two forms of family: – extended; – nuclear;

2) examples, let’s say: – patriarchal; – partnership (democratic).

3) a distinctive feature, for example: – a feature of a partnership-type family is the equality of spouses; – a sign of a patriarchal family is the primacy of the father of the family.

DEFINITION

What meaning do lawyers put into the concept "civil marriage"? Using knowledge from a social science course, make two sentences: one sentence containing information about the conditions of marriage, and one sentence revealing the features of the property rights of the spouses.

Explanation.

The correct answer must contain the following elements

1) the meaning of the concept, for example: “Civil marriage is a form of relationship between a man and a woman, when they live together, run a joint household, their relationship is legalized legally, but not in the church.”;

2) one sentence with information about the conditions for marriage, based on knowledge of the course, for example: “One of the conditions for marriage is the mutual voluntary consent of a man and a woman to enter into a marriage relationship”;

3) one sentence, based on knowledge of the course, revealing the features of the property rights of spouses, for example: “The property that belonged to each spouse before marriage, as well as personal items, are their personal property and are not divided during a divorce.”

ILLUSTRATIONS

Name and illustrate with examples any three grounds for declaring a marriage invalid, provided for by the Family Code of the Russian Federation.

Explanation.

The correct answer can name and illustrate the following grounds for declaring a marriage invalid:

1) if the marriage is concluded between persons, at least one of whom is already in another registered marriage (Mikhail, while outside the Russian Federation, entered into marriage while in another marriage registered in the Russian Federation);

2) the marriage was concluded between close relatives (Alexey and Svetlana got married, being half-brother and sister);

3) the marriage was concluded between the adoptive parent and the adopted child (Vladimir married Nina, whom he adopted);

4) at least one of those entering into marriage was declared incompetent (Ksenia, declared incompetent by the court, married Nikolai);

5) the marriage was concluded without the purpose of creating a family (Pavel married Valentina in order to obtain registration in Moscow.

Name and illustrate with examples any three grounds for divorce in court.

Explanation.

The correct answer can name and illustrate the following grounds for divorce in court:

1) the presence of common minor children between the spouses (Ivan and Elena filed an application for divorce by mutual consent. Since the spouses have a common daughter, 6-year-old Vera, the marriage will be dissolved in court);

2) lack of consent of one of the spouses for divorce (Valentina filed an application for divorce from Mikhail. Since Mikhail objects to the divorce, the divorce case will be considered by the court, which will examine the possibility of reconciling the spouses and preserving the family);

3) evasion of one of the spouses from the dissolution of the marriage in the registry office (Irina filed an application for divorce with Vladimir to the registry office. The spouses do not have common children, and Vladimir does not object to the dissolution of the marriage, but does not appear at the registry office for divorce. In connection with Vladimir’s evasion of divorce in the registry office will cause the divorce case to be considered in court).

Name and illustrate with examples any three circumstances that prevent marriage, provided for by the Family Code of the Russian Federation.

Explanation.

The correct answer can name and illustrate the following circumstances that prevent marriage:

1) being in another registered marriage (Fyodor invited Svetlana to marry him, however, since Svetlana was married, the marriage between her and Fyodor could not be registered until the official dissolution of Svetlana’s previous marriage);

2) close relationship (Ivan and Sophia cannot marry, since they are brother and sister);

3) marriages between adoptive parents and adopted children are not allowed (Semyon cannot marry Ekaterina, whom he adopted, despite the lack of blood relationship between them);

4) incapacity of a person as a result of a mental disorder (Nikolai and Tamara cannot register their marriage, since Nikolai was declared incompetent by the court as a result of a mental disorder).