Anticipating acquaintance with any new word, concept, phenomenon, it is necessary to find out the meaning, etymology of this word formation. The term "pedagogy" was formed from the Greek words payes - "child" and gogos - "lead". Thus, the literal translation of paidagogike means "child-rearing". Gradually, the word "pedagogy" began to denote the art of "guiding a child through life", that is, to educate and educate, to direct his spiritual and physical development. Thus, in all publications of a reference, scientific and educational nature, pedagogy is considered as a science of education and training, but not only. We will have to derive a more detailed definition of pedagogy a little later, but for now it is interesting to trace the historical development and formation of pedagogy, how the meaning and attitude to upbringing and education has changed over the centuries, what goals are pursued and what means are used.

Pedagogy is a very interesting science. The history of its development, formation, with mistakes, delusions, dramatic destinies, insights and discoveries, is interesting, and the subject of pedagogy deserves special attention. The development of society, the need for education and upbringing led to the creation of special educational and educational institutions that were responsible for comprehending theoretical knowledge, learning experience and introducing it into the upbringing process. All this led to the fact that pedagogy as a science was formed and separated into a separate branch.

That is why at a certain moment in the development of civilization, when production and science were developed, it was in the late period of the slave system, education turned into a certain institution of education, educational institutions appeared, specialists whose main task was the upbringing and education of children. Such schools appeared in Ancient Egypt, in the countries of the Middle East, Ancient Greece. It must be added that already in the ancient world, some learned minds were aware of the importance of education and the transfer of positive experience to generations. Even in the Bible there are indications of pedagogical and educational activities. So, King Solomon in his statements emphasized the educational role of fathers, who had to take care of teaching their sons in this or that work. Gradually, becoming more complex and expanding, education began to develop more intensively and effectively. At first it happened in the realm of philosophy.

Already in the works of the ancient Greek philosophers - Heraclitus (530-470 BC), Democritus (460 - early IV century BC), Socrates (469-399 BC), Plato (427-347 BC), Aristotle (384-322 BC) and others - contained a lot of deep thoughts on education. So, the historical stages of the development of pedagogy.

Primitive communal system

At the dawn of civilization in the primitive communal system, the goal of education was to acquire life experience and labor skills.

Since animal husbandry and agriculture were developed, then, accordingly, children were taught to care for animals and grow plants. Girls helped women cook food, make clothes, dishes. Together with their fathers, the sons learned to hunt and fish, learned to fight. The lifestyle of a primitive man was closely connected with nature, so there were many rituals, traditions, pagan holidays, in which children were also dedicated. Children had to know the history of the family, customs, etc. Children were taught to participate in holidays, games, rituals, and they also studied oral folk art: fairy tales, songs, legends, etc. Education during this period was closely connected with everyday life, and man was not yet able to single out this subject as a separate branch of science.

Ancient Greece (Sparta and Athens)

Due to the fact that Sparta is a city where sports played a dominant role, the goal of the educational and pedagogical process was considered to be the upbringing and training of courageous and hardy warriors who could later become slave owners.

Warriors were trained in Sparta, so they were engaged in raising boys in specialized institutions. Boys at the age of 7 were taken from their families, the training consisted of military physical training: it was necessary to learn how to run fast, jump, wrestle, throw a discus and a spear, be unpretentious in food, not be afraid of the dark, easily endure difficulties, hunger, thirst and other inconveniences . The most important thing that the boys were taught was to obey their elders unquestioningly, to be able to clearly and concisely answer questions. From 18 to 20 years old, young men underwent special military training, and then enlisted in the army. The main focus of education in Sparta is contempt for slaves and physical labor and praise for sporting achievements.

Girls were brought up at home, but, like boys, they had to be physically developed, prepared to manage slaves. Education was limited to teaching writing and counting. Just like men, girls participated in sports and festivities. At a time when male warriors participated in hostilities and were away from home, female mistresses had to guard their homes and their city themselves, as well as keep slaves in strict subordination.

Athens

Unlike Sparta, the goal of education in Athens is the mental, moral, aesthetic and physical development of a person, since the one who is beautiful both physically and morally was considered ideal. Until the age of 7, all children were brought up in the family. Great attention was paid to the physical development of children. In order for children to develop mentally, they read fairy tales, literary works, played with them, listened to music. Children from an early age participated in celebrations, holidays, sports competitions, learned to play musical instruments. In a word, the development of children was distinguished by an emotional orientation, and upbringing was of an aesthetic nature. First, at the school of the grammarian, children were taught to read, write and count, then at the school of the citharist they studied literature and here they specially received aesthetic education - they learned to sing, recite, play musical instruments. The next stage of training is the palestra, where teenagers mastered pentathlon (running, wrestling, javelin and discus throwing, swimming), went in for sports, and also talked on moral and political topics with the most respected citizens.

For the wealthy slave owners of Athens, there were gymnasiums - schools where such sciences as philosophy, literature, and government were studied. From the age of 18, for two years, young men, just like in Sparta, underwent military physical training.

Thus, the process of gradual and versatile training, upbringing and education was possible and accessible only to children of the wealthy class. For the rest of the poor population - the people - education ended in the palestra, slaves did not have the right to study at all, and the education of girls was limited to the family circle.

Ancient Rome and the Roman Empire

In ancient Rome, there was a practice of family education, when all education was conducted within the walls of the house. But, just as in Athens, the nature of education depended on the material wealth and social status of the family.

Teachers at home engaged in literature with the children of rich and noble parents. The upbringing of boys and girls was carried out jointly until they reached the age of 4–5 years, then they were separated. Girls were raised by mothers, breadwinners, nannies. Their main occupation is needlework, music, dancing. This continued until marriage. There is a very characteristic secular upbringing.

Boys were brought up by fathers, educators. They were taught to use weapons and accustomed to male occupations.

Children of poor citizens could get an education in paid and private schools. There are grammar schools where the sons of wealthy parents studied. The main disciplines taught in such schools were: rhetoric, Greek, literature, history. Thus, thanks to the emergence of social structures, it was possible to conduct educational classes. So gradually education and upbringing in Rome leave the circle of the family and become a social phenomenon.

The purpose of education is the mental, moral, aesthetic and physical development of a person.

Schools of orators appear during the years of republican Rome, where young men whose parents belonged to the upper strata of society received education for high pay, and they were prepared for the highest government posts. Education was conducted in such sciences as: rhetoric, Greek, jurisprudence, mathematics, philosophy.

During the Roman Empire, all schools received the status of state schools and trained officials loyal to the imperial power. In Christian times, representatives of the clergy were appointed as teachers. Education increasingly acquired a religious character.

Middle Ages (XIV-XVIII centuries)

Education during the Middle Ages had a pronounced religious character, education largely lost its progressive orientation.

Therefore, the goal of education was the education of a humble, patient, submissive person.

The clergy had a very negative and aggressive attitude towards ancient culture, school, art, sciences. The main idea of ​​religious Catholicism at that time was education "in the fear of God." Since the child is born in sin and is related to "original sin", then sin should be overcome only by humility. The monks and priests who were entrusted with the upbringing of children taught in the spirit of the Christian religion, taught to read and write in Latin. Children memorized prayers, were subjected to heavy physical punishments and all the time remembered the severity of sin and God's punishment for disobedience.

More secular education was given to the children of feudal lords and knights. The seven knightly virtues are well known: ride, fence, swim, wield a sword, spear and shield, hunt, play chess, compose and sing poems for the lady of your heart. The daughters of the feudal lords were brought up in monasteries and studied needlework, reading, and writing.

With the development of crafts, the growth of cities, secular culture and education began to revive. In the cities, artisans opened guild schools for their children, and merchants opened guild schools, where education was conducted in their native language, taught children to write, count, read, and religion was pushed into the background and ceased to be the basis of education. Such urban elementary schools undermined the Church's monopoly on education.

Renaissance (XIV-XVI centuries)

During the Renaissance, many supporters of the humanistic movement in science sought to criticize the strict and limited cane discipline common in the Middle Ages. Humanists preached a careful and attentive attitude towards the child, offered to respect the child and see him as a person. Much attention was paid to the physical and mental education of children, in which, as humanist teachers believed, the development of creative activity, independence, emotional freedom, and amateur performance takes place. Ultimately, such upbringing contributed to the development and manifestation of secular knowledge.

During the Renaissance, a number of outstanding thinkers, humanist educators, stood out, who spoke under the slogan of the ancient saying: "I am a man, and nothing human is alien to me."

Works of early utopian socialists T. Mora (1478–1535) and T. Campanella (1568–1639) were a wonderful manifestation of the revival of the human spirit. Thomas More proposed the idea of ​​teaching children in their native language, and More also attached great importance to physical education. Tomaso Campanella believed that "the study of the sciences should be combined with regular visits to various workshops in order to give students technical knowledge and the opportunity to consciously choose their future profession."

17th century

Bright representatives of the pedagogical school of this time - the Czech teacher Ya. A. Comenius (1592–1670) and English teacher J. Locke (1632-1704). The distinctive features of the development of pedagogy in this period are that pedagogy became an independent science, although it remained connected with philosophy, since both of these sciences study the existence and development of man. The goal of education is physical and moral education, the formation of "discipline of the body" and "discipline of the spirit."

Jan Amos Comenius, the creator of the scientific pedagogical system, singled out pedagogy from philosophy and formalized it into a scientific system. He was the founder of the class-lesson system of education and developed the main issues of organizing educational work. His work had a great influence on pedagogical thought and school practice around the world.

John Locke proposed a system for educating a secular young man ("gentleman"), who at the same time knows how to profitably conduct his business.

Enlightenment (XVIII century)

The Age of Enlightenment is permeated with the ideas of unity with nature, the chanting of everything beautiful and enlightened.

At this time, the French educator became the founder of the theory of natural education. J.-J. Rousseau (1712–1778), defining pedagogy as "education, which should be carried out in accordance with the nature of man, without interfering with his natural development." Rousseau was convinced that when educating and raising children, it is important to take into account their age characteristics.

He considered it necessary to have a close connection between education and the life and nature of man and nature as such.

J. G. Pestalozzi (1746–1827)- a Swiss teacher who considered the goal of education to be the development of human abilities, his constant improvement, the formation of a moral character, that is, the self-development of natural forces inherent at the genetic level.

Continuing the idea of ​​education of the Enlightenment, F. A. Wilhelm (1790–1886)- a German democrat teacher - called for taking into account the age characteristics of the child in the learning process. Diesterweg(1790–1866) and its supporters preached and proclaimed the idea of ​​education on a universal scale, in a person the definition, formation and development of his natural characteristic qualities and abilities, relying on the natural laws of nature, was considered decisive. Diesterweg also opposed class and religious education.

The founders of revolutionary demographic views in Russian pedagogy were V. G. Belinsky (1811–1848), A. I. Herzen (1812–1870), N. G. Chernyshevsky (1828–1889) and V. A. Dobrolyubov (1836–1861). The development of domestic scientific pedagogy was greatly influenced by the works of L. N. Tolstoy (1828–1910), N. I. Pirogov (1810–1881).

K. D. Ushinsky (1824–1870)- a great Russian teacher, played a very important role in the history of the development of pedagogy in Russia. Ushinsky singles out the principle of nationality as one of the leading principles of pedagogy. He sang the originality of Russian pedagogical science, which absorbed the centuries-old practice of education. Thanks to this principle, the language of one's people comes to the fore in the formation of a person, which means that one must know it perfectly, as well as the history of one's homeland.

Another important principle of the pedagogical system KD Ushinsky considered the principle of education in work. In his opinion, the basis of human happiness is work, industriousness. At the same time, both physical and mental labor are equally important. Ushinsky paid special attention to the conscientiousness, systematicity and strength of training. He attached a great role to the correct organization of the lesson, the work of the teacher and students. For the first time in the history of pedagogy, he considered it necessary to include children in various forms of active pedagogical activity, that is, put children in an active position.

During this period, the goal of education is the development of the individual.

Outstanding Soviet teacher and writer A. S. Makarenko (1888–1936) developed a methodology for labor education, defined the basic principles for creating a children's team, and identified the tasks of pedagogical leadership of a children's team. He studied in detail the issues of the formation of conscious discipline and the upbringing of children in the family. An important criterion was humanism. Makarenko pointed out that it is very important that in relation to children there should be "a sense of proportion in love and severity, in affection and severity." Humanism is closely related to optimism, the ability to see the positive aspects in each student, to “project” the development of the best in a person. Since human development can only be considered in combination with society, Makarenko determined the main place in his pedagogical system to be the problem of education in a team and through a team. He substantiated the laws of life and activity of the collective, the stages and ways of its formation, defined the tasks of labor education, discipline and methodology. Thus, Makarenko was one of the first Soviet teachers who dealt with the problem of family education.

It is no coincidence that pedagogy puts forward a large number of prominent teachers. This was socially necessary, since the intensive development of production, science and culture required an increase in the professionalism, culture and literacy of citizens.

Since ancient times, there has been a transfer of experience from older generations to younger ones. The development of mankind has historically led to an understanding of the need to specifically engage in the education and upbringing of children.

Each generation of people has to solve three most important tasks:

1) study the experience of previous generations;

2) to enrich and increase this experience;

3) pass it on to the next generation.

Progress in society became possible because the next generation adopted the experience of their ancestors, enriched this experience, which was then inherited by descendants.

Changes, new times, the third millennium, events taking place in our country, in the life of Russian society, humanistic and democratic ideas, market relations, norms of life of the rule of law and civil society began to prevail. All this poses challenges for pedagogy and education in a new way. The proclaimed ideas were not always implemented. Practice shows that people should be able to live in the conditions of given freedoms. Life under democracy is possible only on the condition that democracy will exist in us, as well as morality, justice, law. For pedagogy, this task is a serious problem.

To what extent is it possible to speak of pedagogy as a science, when among the teachers themselves it is often regarded as an art or as something derived from philosophy, psychology, sociology? Well-known scientists and philosophers have spoken on this topic in different ways.

“Only an idea, and not technique or talent, can be communicated by one person to another, and therefore pedagogy can exist only in the form of a theoretical science” (P. P. Blonsky).

“Pedagogy is an applied science. Science is not about what is, but about what should be, investigating not what is, but how it is necessary to act. It is the science of the art of action." (S. I. Gessen).

“A complete and systematic presentation of the theory of education, that is, the rules and methods related to education, is called the science of education, or pedagogy; the use of the theory of education actually constitutes pedagogical art. (A. G. Obodovsky).

“Art is based on intuition, technology is based on science. Everything begins with art, ends with technology, so that everything starts all over again.” (V.P. Bespalko).

“The provisions of science,” says the English thinker John Stuart Mill– affirm only existence, consistency, similarity. The propositions of art do not state that something is, but indicate what should be.

“A thought derived from experience is transmitted, but not the experience itself. The experience itself always remains the personal property of only the one who experienced this experience; what is transmitted is only a logical conclusion from experience, that is, a known theory based on experience. Thus, pedagogy is not a simple technique of education, but it is also not a purely individual creativity; it is a system of logically grounded ideas about education. In other words, pedagogy is a theoretical science" (P. P. Blonsky).

In the article "On the benefits of pedagogical literature" K. D. Ushinsky wrote: "Neither medicine nor pedagogy can be called sciences in the strict sense of the word." However, he also owns the following words: "Pedagogy is not a science, but an art."

K. D. Ushinsky at the end of the 19th century, according to many, did not consider pedagogy as a science. In fact, he considered pedagogy quite thoroughly.

In the first works, K. D. Ushinsky considered the relationship between the science and the art of education as a practical educational activity. Such works include "Lectures on Cameral Education" (1846–1848), "On the Usefulness of Pedagogical Literature" (1857), "On Nationality in Public Education" (1857), as well as in other works where various means were used that can be implemented in educational activities.

Ushinsky expressed the idea that the subject of all sciences and each of them individually is not constant, but changes historically.

His disagreement with the German philosophers and psychologists arose because they presented everything in a systematic presentation, called practical activity science, as a result of which a clear boundary between them disappeared. Ushinsky pointed out that truth is the final essential stage, which can be approached through research on the subject of science. This is the main and defining criterion by which scientific basic concepts are singled out and science in general is determined. Ushinsky also said: “Near any science, art can be formed that will show how a person can benefit in life, using the provisions of science; but these rules for the use of science do not yet constitute science...”.

To prove his point, Ushinsky gave definitions according to which art, unlike science, can consist of an infinite set of infinitely changing rules determined by the arbitrary desires of man. While the conclusions of science are objective, in art the subjective principle prevails. While many criteria and principles change over time, “the truths of science do not change arbitrarily, but only develop; and this development consists in the fact that a person ascends from more visible causes to deeper causes, or, which is all the same, approaches more and more to the essence of the object.

K. D. Ushinsky, unlike his predecessors, expresses the opinion that pedagogy is not a science, but an art, it was completely wrong to consider pedagogy and medicine an art just because they study practical activities and strive to create something that does not exist. It is a mistake to believe that any theory or science applied to practice ceases to be a science and becomes an art.

N. K. Goncharov did not agree with this and believed that Ushinsky's initials did not show consistency in defining the subject of pedagogy as a science or art.

For a long time, the separation of pedagogy as a science and the art of education took place when Ushinsky determined the difference between pedagogy and other sciences. Hence, the meaning of opposing the art of education to such sciences was manifested in the definition of practical tasks and goals of pedagogy - the improvement of educational activities on a scientific basis.

Pedagogical science is very interested in the influence of other sciences, in the sense that the necessary scientific knowledge can be used to advance its own goals and obtain the necessary result of pedagogical action.

K. D. Ushinsky pointed out that if most of the sciences only discover facts and laws and do not develop practical activities, then pedagogy differs significantly in this regard.

Trying to understand the essence of the issue and finally determine what field of activity pedagogy belongs to, we can assume that a philosopher, a psychologist perform the same functions as a teacher, but each of them is primarily a specialist in his activity. One may ask: what is the position of pedagogy among the sciences and what is the special field of its study? Worth Considering an object and thing study to determine the field of study of science.

In accordance with the object of study, sciences are divided into natural and Humanities. Being an applied science, pedagogy in its theoretical justification contains and uses data from other sciences, both natural and humanitarian, among them are philosophy, psychology, physiology, sociology and other sciences about man and society.

The definition of the object, subject, functions and tasks of pedagogy will help to find out what pedagogy is - science, art, science and art. As a criterion, it is necessary to use generally accepted definitions of science, its subject and object, as well as its functions.

The science determines the scope of human activity, its task is to develop and systematize objective knowledge about reality.

Purpose of science- describe, explain and predict the processes and phenomena of reality, which are the subject of its study on the basis of the discovered laws.

Science subject- these are the most important features, properties of an object that are studied for a specific purpose in this science.

There are three concepts in the views of scientists on pedagogy.

The first concept is the view that pedagogy is an interdisciplinary field of human knowledge. If we consider pedagogical science from this point of view, then in this case the meaning and significance of pedagogy as an independent science is completely lost. This approach gives an idea of ​​pedagogy as a non-independent science, explaining it as a field of reflection of pedagogical phenomena. In this case, various objects of reality are considered in pedagogy, for example, space, socialization, development.

The second concept presents pedagogy as an applied discipline, the task of which is the indirect use of knowledge borrowed from other sciences (psychology, natural science, sociology, etc.) and adapted to solve some problems that arise in the areas of upbringing and education.

At first glance, the object of pedagogy is any person who is taught and educated. But in this case, both pedagogy and psychology study psychic reality (the human psyche), and pedagogy is only an applied part of psychology, its “practical application”.

Both the first and second concepts of the approach to pedagogy deny the right of pedagogy to its subject and, consequently, its own theoretical definition, replacing it with a set of provisions taken from other sciences. This has a very negative impact on teaching practice. Only pedagogy makes it possible to reflect in sufficient detail, capaciously, systematically the essence of the phenomena and processes occurring in the practical activity of teaching and educating a person. No science studies pedagogical reality so completely and in depth. Such an approach cannot make it possible to develop a solid foundation for the functioning and transformation of pedagogical practice.

Effective and productive for science and practice is the third concept, according to which pedagogy is a relatively independent discipline, with its own object and subject of study.

The subject of pedagogy is a special function of society - upbringing.

But not only pedagogy studies education. It is studied by other sciences, such as philosophy, sociology, psychology, economics, etc. So, for example, an economist, determining the level of opportunities of "human resources" produced by the education system, tries to calculate the costs of their preparation. The sociologist finds out whether the modern education system prepares people well, who adapt to the social environment, help scientific and technological progress, and various social transformations. The psychologist studies the psychological aspects of education as a pedagogical process. The political scientist wants to find out how effective the state education policy is, etc.

The contribution of many sciences to the study of education is very valuable, but these sciences do not affect the important, defining aspects of education related to the everyday processes of human development, the interaction of teachers and students in the process of this development and with the corresponding structure. And this is understandable, since the study of these elements determines that part of the object (education) that a special science, pedagogy, should study.

Subject of Pedagogy

The subject of pedagogy is education as an integral pedagogical process. In this case, pedagogy is a science that studies the essence, patterns, trends and prospects for the development of teacher education.

In this regard, pedagogy develops a theory and technology for organizing education, forms and methods that improve the activities of a teacher and various types of student activities, as well as strategies and methods of their interaction.

Object of Pedagogy

AS Makarenko in 1922 expressed the idea about the features of the object of pedagogical science. He wrote that “many consider the child to be the object of pedagogical research, but this is not true. The object of research of scientific pedagogy is a pedagogical fact (phenomenon). At the same time, the person is not excluded from the attention of the researcher. But, being one of the human sciences, pedagogical science involves the study of the effectiveness of professional practice of pedagogical processes and phenomena aimed at the formation and development of personality.

Therefore, as an object, pedagogy does not have an individual person, his psyche (this is the object of psychology), but a system of educational and pedagogical phenomena associated with his development. We can say that the object of pedagogy is the reality that determines the development of man in the process of society. These phenomena are called education. This is the subject of pedagogy.

Pedagogy considers the following issues:

1) the essence and pattern of personality development and their impact on education;

2) the purpose of education;

4) methods of education.

Functions of pedagogical science. The functions of pedagogical science are undoubtedly determined by its subject matter. This refers to the definition of theoretical and technological tasks set in the process of identifying the principles and patterns of pedagogical activity. These are theoretical and technological functions that pedagogy performs in a limited way.

The theoretical function is carried out at three levels: 1) descriptive- involves the study of the innovative experience of scientists and educators; at the descriptive, or, as it is also called, explanatory, level, he studies the foundations of innovative pedagogical experience.

2) diagnostic level- involves identifying the state of pedagogical processes, the effectiveness of the teacher and students, establishing cause-and-effect relationships;

3) predictive level- is an experimental study of the pedagogical process, as well as the construction on their basis of models of the transformation of reality. The prognostic level of the theoretical function reveals the essence of pedagogical processes, scientifically substantiates the proposed changes. At this level, certain theories of training and education are created, as well as models of pedagogical systems that are ahead of pedagogical practice.

The technological function is also carried out at three levels of implementation:

1) projective level- involves the formation of criteria and principles for constructing a textbook, drawing up methodological developments (curricula, programs, textbooks and teaching aids, pedagogical recommendations) that embody theoretical concepts and determine the "normative or regulatory" (V. V. Kraevsky) plan of pedagogical work ;

2) transducer level– studies and implements the experience of pedagogical science;

3) reflective level- involves determining the degree of influence of research results on the practice of educational activities and subsequent correction.

Exist theoretical and practical tasks of pedagogy, which should be distinguished. Pedagogy solves some important theoretical tasks:

1) determination of the regularity of the process of training, upbringing and education;

2) study and generalization of the experience of pedagogical activity of various schools;

3) development and implementation of new methods, forms, systems of training and management of educational structures;

4) study and implementation of research results in teaching practice;

5) setting goals and planning education for the near and distant future.

Theoretical tasks are fully implemented in practice in educational institutions.

K. D. Ushinsky, for example, argued that the sciences in general only discover facts and laws and do not develop their practical activities and applications. Whereas pedagogy differs in this respect. Therefore, Ushinsky saw the task of pedagogy in "the study of man in all manifestations of his nature with a special application to the art of education."

The practical tasks of pedagogy are to “open up the means for education in a person of such a nature that would resist the pressure of all the accidents of life, save a person from their harmful corrupting influence and give him the opportunity to extract only good results from everywhere” (Ushinsky K. D ., "On nationality in public education" (1857)).

Currently, there are many different scientific methods of pedagogy. The main ones are:

1) pedagogical observation;

2) research conversation;

3) study of school documentation and products of students' activities;

4) pedagogical experiment;

5) study and generalization of advanced pedagogical experience.

pedagogical supervision, as the main source of accumulation of knowledge, facts and information, is used in any research activity. This technique is especially important in pedagogical activity, when it is impossible to describe the process otherwise.

Pedagogical experiment- this is a scientific method of research that allows you to confirm or reject any theoretical calculations empirically. The purpose of the goals of the pedagogical experiment determines the following types of experiments:

1) ascertaining;

2) creative and transformative;

3) control;

4) natural.

Branches of pedagogical science

General Pedagogy- involves the study of criteria, methods and forms of education. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the general age characteristics and conditions for obtaining education in an educational institution. Sections of general pedagogy are the theory of education, the theory of learning and the theory of organization and management in the education system.

Preschool Pedagogy- deals with the study of the patterns of education of children of preschool age.

Pedagogy of a comprehensive school- is engaged in the study of the content, forms, methods of teaching and educating schoolchildren.

Special pedagogy (defectology)- a special science that studies the development and patterns of education and upbringing of children with physical or mental developmental disabilities.

Pedagogy of vocational and secondary specialized education– is engaged in the study and development of issues of training and education of students in vocational schools and secondary specialized institutions.

Correctional labor pedagogy– studies the problem of re-education of offenders of all ages.

Pedagogy of higher education- deals with the issues of education and upbringing of university students.

Pedagogy, as an independent scientific discipline, cannot develop without interacting with other sciences. So, for example, in the development of pedagogical theory, an important methodological role is played by philosophy, which determines the initial data in the study of pedagogical processes. Psychology influences the solution of specific issues of education and upbringing, affecting the development of work and rest regimes (especially developmental and pedagogical psychology, which studies the patterns of children's mental processes depending on age, in the conditions of training and education). Sociology, which studies society as a complex holistic mechanism, provides pedagogy with great practical material for the logical organization of the process of education and upbringing.

Thus, in this lecture, we got acquainted with the main historical stages of pedagogical science, the subject, object, functions, tasks and methods of pedagogy.

• arch. Evgeny Shestun
• I. Medvedeva, T. Shishova
• N.V. Maslov
• arch. Boris Nichiporov
• prof. V.V. Zenkovsky

Pedagogy- the science of the content, goals, models and methods of upbringing, training and education; the science of purposeful activity in the formation of the human personality.

The main meaning and task of Orthodox pedagogy, according to Fr. , consists in bringing the younger generation closer to, teaching true life in, helping in liberation from the power of sin, through the grace-filled replenishment with gifts, and helping to reveal and spiritualize the image of God in them.

In ancient Greek teacher called a slave who brings the son of his master to school to the teacher. The New Testament understanding, relying on this semantic symbol, understands a teacher who believes in the Lord as a servant of the Lord. The school of life is, and that mysterious is Christ himself.

As K.D. Ushinsky: "Pedagogy without Christ is an unthinkable thing - without foundations behind and without prospects ahead."

How is Christian pedagogy different from pedagogy in general?

Strictly speaking, pedagogy implies the possibility of various approaches and forms of educating a person as a person, depending on certain conditions and circumstances.

Meanwhile, Christian pedagogy is fundamentally different from any other pedagogical trends.

First of all, this difference is seen in the fact that the most important principles of Christian pedagogy are based not on ideas formulated by such and such a scientist, even recognized, famous, even brilliant, but the norms and requirements revealed to man by God Himself. In this respect, Christ () is recognized as our Teacher.

Of course, Christian pedagogy does not exclude the possibility of using the experience of secular pedagogy, all the best that is used in pedagogy in general. But here, too, in determining what is the best and what is not, the main criterion is, again,.

Secular pedagogy is based on those moral values ​​accepted in this or that society and subjectively revered as such. Christian pedagogy is based on valid moral principles designated by God.

Both Christian and secular pedagogy set the main task of personality formation. And, it would seem, in this one can see the similarity. Meanwhile, with a detailed study of the question of what exactly is meant by the formation of personality, the positions of the followers of secular and Christian pedagogy can diverge to extremes.

Suppose, within the framework of secular pedagogy, the formation of a personality can mean the formation (in a ward) of such personal qualities as self-confidence, self-confidence; love and respect for self. Everything would be fine, but often under these natural, it would seem, features are hidden: proud self-confidence, pride, vanity, selfishness.

Christian pedagogy under the formation of personality means, first of all, the disclosure of traits, acquisition and multiplication, likening to God. This is the essence of Christian education.

The task of secular pedagogy is to prepare a person for life in earthly society, to make him a worthy citizen of his country or the world.

The task of Christian pedagogy is to prepare a person not only for earthly life in society, but also for eternal blessed life in the Lord; help him to be able (through the Divine) to become a citizen of the Heavenly Fatherland, heir to the Kingdom of Saints.

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Pedagogy as a science. Methods of pedagogical research

The word "pedagogy" comes from the Greek words "paides" (children) and "ego" (lead) and literally means "children". Initially, the word "pedagogy" was used to describe educational work with children. And the people who were engaged in this activity were called teachers. In ancient Greece, for example, they were slaves or slaves.

Gradually, the word "pedagogy" began to be used in a broader sense to refer to the process of education, training, development of the spiritual and physical, that is, the science and art of leading a child through life.

The emergence and accumulation of new knowledge in this area led to the emergence and development of the science of education and training, called "pedagogy".

In a general sense, science is defined as a sphere of human activity, the result of which is new knowledge.

Pedagogy is the science of the laws of education and training.

The object of pedagogy are education and training children and adults.

The subject of pedagogy is an relationship system, arising in the course of education and training.

The conclusions of pedagogical science are characterized by great variability and uncertainty. In many cases, it only sets the norm (“the teacher must”, “the student must”, “parents must”, “the school must”), but does not ensure the achievement of this norm.

Therefore, the question of the relationship between science and pedagogical skills is relevant at all times. Only a creative teacher who is passionate about his work can create conditions for achieving a theoretical norm. The work of such a specialist looks art. Therefore, when choosing the profession of a teacher, it is important to have abilities for this type of activity, interest and inclinations, which will later be called a vocation.

“Pedagogy is not a science, but an art: the most extensive, complex, highest and most necessary of all the arts ... As a complex and extensive art, it relies on many vast and complex sciences; as an art, in addition to knowledge, it requires ability and inclination, and as an art, it strives for an ideal that is eternally attainable and never completely unattainable: the ideal of a perfect person. (Ushinsky K.D. Man as a subject of education. - M .; L., 1946).

How does the science of pedagogy fulfill certain features:

· Analytical (associated with the study, description and analysis of advanced and innovative pedagogical experience, identifying the effectiveness of the teacher and students, as well as the conditions that ensure this efficiency).

· constructive (associated with the introduction of the achievements of pedagogical science into teaching practice in order to improve and reconstruct it, improve the quality of education).

· projective (associated with the development of training programs, textbooks, manuals, curricula, methodological materials, recommendations).

· predictive (associated with the prediction of the results of experimental studies and the construction of models for the transformation of pedagogical activity on their basis).

Pedagogical science operates with a number of concepts and terms, which are also called pedagogical categories.

In a broader pedagogical sense upbringing – this is a specially organized, purposeful and controlled impact of the team and educators on the educatee in order to form the given qualities in him, carried out in educational institutions and covering the entire educational process. That is, education is a purposeful and organized process of personality formation.

Education - this is the result of training, that is, literally the formation of the image of a well-trained and educated person .. The main criteria of education are: systematic knowledge, systematic thinking, which are manifested in the ability of a person to independently restore the missing links in the knowledge system with the help of logical reasoning. An ancient aphorism says: "Education is what remains when everything learned is forgotten."

Education – it is a process aimed at the development of the individual through the assimilation of scientific knowledge and methods of activity.

Development is the process and result of quantitative and qualitative changes in a person.

Formation- this is the process of becoming a person as a social being under the influence of all factors without exception (psychological, social, ideological, environmental, economic, etc.) Formation implies the movement of a person to a certain completeness, to the achievement of a certain level of maturity, stability.

Throughout the entire period of its existence, pedagogy has developed on the basis of interaction with many other sciences, which directly or indirectly influenced its formation in the system of human sciences.

The connection of pedagogy with philosophy is the longest and most productive, because philosophical ideas were the impetus for the search for pedagogical theories. The system of philosophical views determines the direction of pedagogical activity, establishes a system of universal values, worldview. Philosophy is, in essence, the methodological basis for the development of pedagogy.

The connection of pedagogy with psychology obvious and traditional, since all educators at all times considered it necessary to understand the properties of human nature, the laws of mental activity and build education taking into account these laws.

The connection of pedagogy with biology, anatomy, physiology, medicine and sociology manifests itself in the study of the problem of the correlation of natural and social factors of human development, which is one of the main problems for pedagogy.

The history of pedagogy goes back to the distant past. Having passed a long way of development, having accumulated information, pedagogy has become into the system of scientific knowledge, which is represented system of pedagogical sciences, including:

· philosophy of education(develops principles and criteria to reveal the essence of the subject and methods of education)

· General pedagogy(studies the general patterns of education and training)

· The history of pedagogy(studies the development of education and training as a social phenomenon, "understanding the past, we look into the future")

· age pedagogy(studies the patterns of education and training of a growing person - a preschooler, schoolchild, student)

· higher education pedagogy(studies patterns and problems of higher education in modern conditions)

· military pedagogy(explores the features of UVP in specific conditions)

· social pedagogy(explores family relations, problems of re-education of offenders, problems of crime prevention, etc.)

· special pedagogy(training and education of the deaf and deaf-mute - deaf pedagogy, education and upbringing of the blind - typhlopedagogy, education and upbringing of the mentally retarded - oligophrenopediagogy)

· Private methods(a special group of pedagogical sciences that studies the patterns (methodology) of teaching and studying specific disciplines in all types of educational institutions)

Methods of scientific and pedagogical research- these are ways of obtaining information in order to establish patterns, relationships, dependencies and build scientific theories.

With the help of methods of scientific and pedagogical research, information is obtained about the object and subject of study. The characteristic features of pedagogical processes are flow ambiguity(the results of training, education, development depend on the simultaneous influence of many factors - if at least one of them changes, the result will be different) and originality(re-examination always takes place with different material and under different conditions, so a pure experiment in pedagogy is impossible). Hence the caution and correctness in the conclusions.

There are a lot of methods of scientific and pedagogical research. Among them, the most frequently used are those used in their time by Plato and Quintilian, Pestalozzi and Comenius. They are also called empirical or intuitive and refer to the group of traditional methods.

Empirical Research Methods aimed at the accumulation of pedagogical facts, their selection, analysis, synthesis, quantitative processing: this is observation, questioning, studying the products and process of the activities of students and teachers, studying school documentation, etc.

• General Pedagogy- studies and forms the principles, forms and methods of training and education, which are common to all age groups and educational institutions; explores the fundamental laws of education and upbringing.
• Penitentiary Pedagogy(pedagogy of correctional labor institutions) - deals with the education and re-education of offenders.
• Preventive Pedagogy– pedagogy of non-violence, studies the ways and methods of preventing social deviations among adolescents and young people.
• Age pedagogy - deals with the education and training of people of different age groups.
• Special Pedagogy - deals with the problems of education and upbringing of children with physical and mental disabilities ( typhlopedagogy– training and education of the visually impaired and the blind; deaf pedagogy– education and upbringing of children with hearing impairments; oligophrenopedagogy– work with the mentally retarded; speech therapy- Pedagogy of speech production).
• Ethnopedagogy(folk pedagogy) - deals with traditional folk methods and techniques of education and upbringing.
• Religious Pedagogy– considers the issues of education and training of the younger generation in religious traditions (Christianity, Islam, Judaism, etc.).

Duka N.A. Introduction to Pedagogy

In the course of the development of pedagogy, some of its sections emerged as relatively independent branches of knowledge.

school science- a system of knowledge about the organization of school affairs and its management. The theory of education of children with physical disabilities is called correctional pedagogy. History of Pedagogy allows you to rethink, to better understand the patterns of historical and pedagogical processes.

In the process of differentiation of the scientific discipline, various areas of pedagogy are distinguished - general, preschool, school, professional, social, age, comparative, correctional, military, sports. As well as the history of pedagogy, pedagogy of higher education, anthropology (training, education and development of a person throughout the life path).
The totality of branches of pedagogy forms a developing system of pedagogical sciences.
Pedagogy was born and developed as a social science. It is in the system of humanities and continues to develop in accordance with other humanities. First of all, with philosophy, ethics, aesthetics, psychology. Since a person is inseparable from nature and his development (physical and mental) is a socio-biological process, the state of pedagogy largely depends on the level of development of natural science knowledge (biology, physiology, genetics) . For example, the theory of physical education is based on human anatomy and physiology, correctional pedagogy - on pediatrics and psychiatry.

Modern pedagogy is characterized by the strengthening of ties with anthropology (the science of the origin and evolution of man), sociology and psychology. The relationship between pedagogy and other sciences is complex, relative and fluid. Psychology is not limited to the study of the human psyche. The psychology of social masses, groups, collectives, etc. is being studied. Pedagogy also recognizes that education should be based on the study of the objective laws of life and development of children in various socio-historical conditions.

Modern pedagogy is characterized by complex studies that combine sociological, psychological and actually pedagogical analysis of a particular phenomenon. If we look at the process of education in its broadest sense in more detail, we can single out smaller branches of pedagogical knowledge. who transmits and to whom experience is transmitted), pedagogical culturology studies human culture itself (what is transmitted in the process of education). Pedagogical sociology explores the problems of human society in the context of pedagogical tasks. Pedagogical axiology is the science of human values.

The multidimensionality of pedagogy testifies to a wide range of issues and tasks solved by pedagogy as a science. In this regard, it will also be important to determine the functions of pedagogy, the implementation of which unites all the considered branches into a single system.

Task 5.Carry out a comparative analysis of the functions of pedagogy, using the information material for this task. Present a comparative analysis of the functions of pedagogy in the form of a graphic image (scheme, cluster, etc.)

Target: After completing this task, you will learn to define and distinguish between the functions of pedagogy, understand the relationship and specifics of their reflection in the educational system of the school.

Recommendations for completing the task: considering the information material for this assignment, pay attention to the relationship and specifics of the functions of pedagogy as a science. Make a diagram or a cluster (graphical representation) in order to reflect the functions of pedagogy in their interrelation, briefly indicate the essence of each function in the diagram.

Reporting requirements for this assignment: design of a graphic representation of the functions of pedagogy.

Job evaluation criteria:

Reflection in a graphical representation of the relationship of functions,

Visual clarity and clarity of graphics

The culture of designing a scheme, a cluster,

Originality, creativity.

Forms and technologies of educational activity of students: Task 2 is performed by students individually, drawn up in the form of a graphic image, discussed in a group.

Chapter 5. Pedagogy in the system of human sciences

General idea of ​​pedagogy as a science

Pedagogy got its name from the Greek word "paidagogos" ("paid" - "child", "gogos" - "I lead"), which means "child-breeding" or "child-knowledge".
In ancient Greece, this function was carried out directly - teachers were originally called slaves who accompanied the children of their master to school. Later, teachers were already civilian employees who were engaged in instructing, educating and educating children. By the way, in Russia (XII century) the first teachers were called "masters". These were free people (deacon or secular) who taught children to read, write, and pray, either at home or at home, as it is said in one "Life": "... write books and teach students literate tricks."
It should be noted that each person by experience acquires certain knowledge in the field of upbringing, training and education, establishes some dependencies between various pedagogical phenomena. So, already primitive people had knowledge of raising children, which were passed from one generation to another in the form of customs, traditions, games, worldly rules. This knowledge is reflected in sayings and proverbs, myths and legends, fairy tales and anecdotes (for example: "Repetition is the mother of learning", "The apple does not fall far from the apple tree", "Live and learn", etc.), which made up the content folk pedagogy. Their role is extremely great both in the life of society, an individual family, and a particular person. They are. help him interact with other people, communicate with them, engage in self-improvement, and perform parental functions.
Folk pedagogy, having arisen as a response to an objective social need for education, due to the development of people's labor activity, of course, cannot replace books, school, teachers, and science. But it is older than pedagogical science, education as a social institution, and originally existed independently of them.
However, pedagogical science, in contrast to everyday knowledge in the field of education and training, generalizes disparate facts, establishes causal relationships between phenomena. She does not so much describe them as explains, answers the questions why and what changes occur in human development under the influence of training and education. This knowledge is necessary to anticipate and manage the process of personal development. At one time, the great Russian teacher K. D. Ushinsky warned against empiricism in pedagogy, he correlated pedagogical practice without theory with quackery in medicine.
However, everyday pedagogical experience, despite the oral form of its existence, did not disappear, but was passed down from century to century, withstood tests, changed orientations and values, but on the whole was preserved in the form of the pedagogical culture of the people, its pedagogical mentality, and today forms the basis of scientific pedagogical knowledge. . That is why K. D. Ushinsky, speaking out against empiricism in training and education, did not identify it with folk pedagogy, but, on the contrary, argued that, turning to the people, education will always find an answer and assistance in a living and strong feeling of a person that acts much stronger than conviction. If it does not want to be "powerless, it must be popular."
To define pedagogy as a science, it is important to establish the boundaries of its subject area or answer the question: what does it study? In turn, the answer to this question involves understanding its object and subject.

Object, subject and functions of pedagogy

In the views of scientists on pedagogy, both in the past and in the present, there are three concepts. Representatives of the first of them believe that pedagogy is an interdisciplinary field of human knowledge. However, this approach actually denies pedagogy as an independent theoretical science, i.e. as an area of ​​reflection of pedagogical phenomena. In pedagogy, in this case, a variety of complex objects of reality (space, culture, politics, etc.) are represented.
Other scientists assign pedagogy the role of an applied discipline, the function of which is the indirect use of knowledge borrowed from other sciences (psychology, natural science, sociology, etc.) and adapted to solve problems that arise in the field of education or upbringing.

With this approach, a holistic fundamental basis for the functioning and transformation of pedagogical practice cannot be developed. The content of such pedagogy is a set of fragmentary ideas about certain aspects of pedagogical phenomena.
Productive for science and practice, according to V. V. Kraevsky, is only the third concept, according to which pedagogy is a relatively independent discipline that has its own object and subject of study.

Object of Pedagogy

A. S. Makarenko, a scientist and practitioner who can hardly be accused of promoting "childless" pedagogy, in 1922 formulated the idea of ​​the specifics of the object of pedagogical science. He wrote that many consider the child to be the object of pedagogical research, but this is not true. The object of research of scientific pedagogy is "pedagogical fact (phenomenon)". In this case, the child, the person is not excluded from the attention of the researcher. On the contrary, being one of the sciences about a person, pedagogy studies purposeful activities for the development and formation of his personality.
Consequently, pedagogy has as its object not the individual, his psyche (this is the object of psychology), but a system of pedagogical phenomena associated with his development. Therefore, the objects of pedagogy are those phenomena of reality that determine the development of the human individual in the process of purposeful activity of society. These phenomena are called education. It is that part of the objective world that pedagogy studies.

Subject of Pedagogy

Education is studied not only by pedagogy. It is studied by philosophy, sociology, psychology, economics and other sciences. For example, an economist, studying the level of real possibilities of "labor resources" produced by the education system, tries to determine the costs of their preparation. The sociologist wants to know whether the education system is preparing people who are able to adapt to the social environment, to promote scientific and technological progress and social transformation. The philosopher, in turn, applying a broader approach, asks the question about the goals and general purpose of education - what are they today and what should they be in the modern world? The psychologist studies the psychological aspects of education as a pedagogical process. A political scientist seeks to determine the effectiveness of the state educational policy at a particular stage in the development of society, etc.

The contribution of numerous sciences to the study of education as a social phenomenon is undoubtedly valuable and necessary, but these sciences do not affect the essential aspects of education associated with the daily processes of human growth and development, the interaction of teachers and students in the process of this development and with the corresponding institutional structure. And this is quite legitimate, since the study of these aspects determines that part of the object (education) that should be studied by a special science - pedagogy.
Subject of Pedagogy- this is education as a real holistic pedagogical process, purposefully organized in special social institutions (family, educational and cultural institutions). Pedagogy in this case is a science that studies the essence, patterns, trends and prospects for the development of the pedagogical process (education) as a factor and means of human development throughout his life. On this basis, pedagogy develops the theory and technology of its organization, forms and methods for improving the activities of the teacher (pedagogical activity) and various types of student activities, as well as strategies and methods for their interaction.
Functions of pedagogical science. The functions of pedagogy as a science are determined by its subject. These are theoretical and technological functions that it implements in an organic unity.
The theoretical function of pedagogy is realized at three levels:
descriptive or explanatory- study of advanced and innovative pedagogical experience;
diagnostic- identifying the state of pedagogical phenomena, the success or effectiveness of the activities of the teacher and students, establishing the conditions and reasons that ensure them;
predictive- experimental studies of pedagogical reality and the construction on their basis of models for the transformation of this reality.
The prognostic level of the theoretical function is associated with the disclosure of the essence of pedagogical phenomena, the finding of deep phenomena in the pedagogical process, the scientific substantiation of the proposed changes. At this level, theories of training and education, models of pedagogical systems are created that are ahead of educational practice.
The technological function of pedagogy also offers three levels of implementation:
projective associated with the development of appropriate methodological materials (curricula, programs, textbooks and manuals, pedagogical recommendations), embodying theoretical concepts and determining the "normative or regulatory" (V. V. Kraevsky) plan of pedagogical activity, its content and nature;
Model - a sample (standard, standard).
transformative, aimed at introducing the achievements of pedagogical science into educational practice in order to improve and reconstruct it;
reflective and corrective, involving an assessment of the impact of scientific research results on the practice of training and education and subsequent correction in the interaction of scientific theory and practice.

Education as a social phenomenon

Any society exists only on the condition that its members follow the values ​​and norms of behavior accepted in it, due to specific natural and socio-historical conditions. A person becomes a person in the process socialization through which he acquires the ability to perform social functions. Some scholars understand socialization as a lifelong process, linking it with a change of place of residence and team, and with marital status, and with the advent of old age. Such socialization is nothing but social adaptation. However, socialization does not end there. It involves the development, and self-determination, and self-realization of the individual. Moreover, such tasks are solved both spontaneously and purposefully, by the whole society, by institutions specially created for this purpose, and by the person himself. This purposefully organized process of managing socialization is called education, which is the most complex socio-historical phenomenon with many sides and aspects, the study of which, as already noted, is being studied by a number of sciences.
The concept of "education" (similar to the German "bildung") comes from the word "image". Education is understood as a single process of physical and spiritual formation of a personality, a process of socialization, consciously oriented towards some ideal images, historically conditioned social standards more or less clearly fixed in the public consciousness (for example, a Spartan warrior, a virtuous Christian, an energetic entrepreneur, a harmoniously developed personality). ). In this understanding, education acts as an integral part of the life of all societies and all individuals without exception. Therefore, it is primarily a social phenomenon.
Education has become a special sphere of social life since the time when the process of transferring knowledge and social experience stood out from other types of social life and became the business of persons specially involved in training and education. However, education as a social way to ensure the inheritance of culture, socialization and development of the individual arose along with the emergence of society and developed along with the development of labor activity, thinking, and language.
Scientists involved in the study of the socialization of children at the stage of primitive society believe that education in that era was woven into the system of social production activities. responsibilities.
Each adult member of society became a teacher in the course of daily life, and in some developed communities, for example, among the Jaguas (Colombia, Peru), younger children were brought up mainly by older children. In any case, education was inseparable from the life of society, included in it as an obligatory component. Children, together with adults, got food, guarded the hearth, made tools and studied at the same time. Women gave girls lessons in housekeeping and childcare, men taught boys to hunt and use weapons. Together with adults, children, taming animals, growing plants and watching the movement of clouds and celestial bodies, comprehended the secrets of nature, rejoiced in successful hunting, military victories, danced and sang, experienced misfortunes, hunger, defeats and death of their fellow tribesmen. Education, therefore, was carried out in a complex and continuous way in the process of life itself.
The expansion of the boundaries of communication, the development of language and a common culture have led to an increase in information and experience to be passed on to young people. However, the opportunities for its development were limited. This contradiction was resolved by creating public structures or social institutions specializing in the accumulation and dissemination of knowledge.
For example, in order to keep in memory all the richness of folklore, the priests of the Tohunga (Maori tribes of New Zealand) practiced endless repetition of myths, genealogies, and legends for hours every day. In each tribe, special schools were created - "ware vananga" (houses of knowledge), in which the most knowledgeable people passed on the knowledge and experience of the tribe to the young, introduced them to rituals and traditions, and initiated them into the art of black magic and witchcraft. The young men spent many months at school memorizing the spiritual heritage word for word. In the wanang wara, young people were also taught various crafts, the practice of agriculture, they were introduced to the lunar calendar, they were taught to determine the favorable dates for the start and completion of agricultural work by the stars. A full course of study at such a school took several years. Schools of this type existed not only among the Maori, but also among other tribes. The spread of such schools significantly accelerated the progress of mankind, made society more mobile and adapted to environmental changes.
The emergence of private property, the separation of the family as an economic community of people led to the separation of teaching and educational functions and the transition from public to family education, when not the community, but parents began to act as a teacher. The main goal of education was the upbringing of a good owner, heir, able to preserve and increase the property accumulated by parents as the basis of family well-being.
However, the thinkers of antiquity already realized that the material well-being of individual citizens and families depends on the power of the state. The latter can be achieved not by family, but by public forms of education. Thus, the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, for example, considered it obligatory for the children of the ruling class to receive education in special state institutions. His views reflected the educational system that developed in ancient Sparta. State control over education began from the first days of a child's life. From the age of seven, boys were sent to boarding schools, in which a harsh way of life was established. The main goal of education was to educate strong, hardy, disciplined and skillful warriors capable of selflessly defending the interests of slave owners. A similar system of education existed in ancient Athens.
It should be noted that the strength of Sparta and Athens was largely due to the education systems that had developed in them, which ensured a high level of culture of the population. The existence of state, temple and other forms of education along with the family was characteristic of many slave-owning societies.
The driving force behind the development of education during this period was its internal contradictions. The invention of writing and mathematical symbols not only revolutionized the ways of accumulating, storing and transmitting information, but also radically changed the content of education and teaching methods. Assimilation of educational material required daily special classes for a number of years. To organize the exercise, people were needed who were prepared for this. Thus, there was a separation from a single process of reproduction of social life of spiritual reproduction - education, carried out with the help of training and education in institutions adapted for these purposes. This also meant a transition from non-institutional to institutional socialization.
Large schools already existed in the 3rd century. BC, for example, in Mesopotamia and Egypt. In them, each teacher taught his own subject: one - writing, another - mathematics, the third - religion and mythology, the fourth - dances and music, the fifth - gymnastics, etc.
The Middle Ages in Western and Central Europe are characterized by the establishment of Christian religious ideology. Therefore, schools, as a rule, were opened and maintained by the church, teaching was conducted by monks and priests. Their main goal was to spread religion, to strengthen the influence of the church in society. In the largest schools, along with teaching reading, writing, counting, singing, Latin, they studied geometry, astronomy, music, and rhetoric. Such schools prepared not only ministers of the church, but also educated people for secular activities.
The complication of public life and the state mechanism required more and more educated people. Their preparation began to be carried out by city schools, which were independent of the church. In the XII - XIII centuries. Universities appeared in Europe, quite autonomous in relation to the feudal lords, the church and city magistrates. They trained doctors, pharmacists, lawyers, notaries, secretaries and government officials.
The increased social needs for educated people led to the rejection of individual education and the transition to a class-lesson system in schools and a lecture-seminar system in universities. The use of these systems ensured the organizational clarity and orderliness of the educational process, made it possible to transmit information simultaneously to tens and hundreds of people. This has increased the efficiency of education tenfold, it has become much more accessible to the majority of the population.
The development of education in the pre-capitalist era was due to the needs of trade, navigation, industry, but until relatively recently it did not have a significant impact on production and the economy. Many progressive thinkers saw in education only a humanistic, educational value. The situation began to change as the large machine industry demanded a change in the old way of production, stereotypes of thinking and value systems. The development of mathematics, natural science, medicine, geography, astronomy and navigation, engineering, the need for the widespread use of scientific knowledge came into conflict with the traditional, predominantly humanitarian, content of education, which was centered on the study of ancient languages. The resolution of this contradiction is connected with the emergence of real colleges and technical schools, higher technical educational institutions.
The objective demands of production and the struggle of the working people for the democratization of education already in the 19th century. led to the fact that in the most developed countries laws on compulsory primary education were adopted.
Before the Second World War, for the successful mastery of working specialties, secondary education was already required. This was manifested in an increase in the terms of compulsory schooling, the expansion of school programs at the expense of natural sciences, and the abolition of fees for primary and secondary school education in a number of countries. Incomplete, and then complete secondary education becomes the main condition for the reproduction of the labor force.
Second half of the 20th century characterized by an unprecedented coverage of children, youth and adults by various forms of education. This is the period of the so-called educational explosion. This became possible because automata, replacing mechanical machines, changed the position of man in the production process. Life raised the question of a new type of worker, harmoniously combining in his production activity the functions of mental and physical, managerial and performing labor, constantly improving technology and organizational and economic relations. Education has become a necessary condition for the reproduction of the labor force. A person who does not have an educational background is actually deprived of the opportunity to get a modern profession today.
Thus, the allocation of education to a specific branch of spiritual production, therefore, corresponded to historical conditions and had a progressive significance.
Education as a social phenomenon is, first of all, an objective social value. The moral, intellectual, scientific, technical, spiritual, cultural and economic potential of any society directly depends on the level of development of the educational sphere. However, education, having a social nature and historical character, in turn, is determined by the historical type of society that implements this social function. It reflects the tasks of social development, the level of economy and culture in society, the nature of its political and ideological attitudes, since both teachers and pupils are subjects of social relations.
So, how is education. a social phenomenon is a relatively independent system, the function of which is to educate and educate members of society, focused on mastering certain knowledge (primarily scientific), ideological and moral values, skills, habits, norms of behavior, the content of which is ultimately determined by socio-economic and the political system of a given society and the level of its material and technical development.

Education as a pedagogical process.
The conceptual apparatus of pedagogy

The formation of any field of scientific knowledge is associated with the development of concepts that, on the one hand, indicate a certain class of essentially unified phenomena, and on the other hand, construct the subject of this science. In the conceptual apparatus of a particular science, one, the central concept, can be distinguished, which designates the entire area of ​​study and distinguishes it from the subject areas of other sciences. The remaining concepts of the apparatus of a particular science, in turn, reflect the differentiation of the original, core concept.
For pedagogy, the role of such a core concept is played by the "pedagogical process". On the one hand, it denotes the whole complex of phenomena that are studied by pedagogy, and on the other hand, it expresses the essence of these phenomena. An analysis of the concept of "pedagogical process" therefore reveals the essential features of the phenomena of education as a pedagogical process, in contrast to other related phenomena.
In its first approximation to the definition, the pedagogical process is a movement from the goals of education to its results by ensuring the unity of education and upbringing. The essential characteristic of the pedagogical process is therefore integrity as the internal unity of its components, their relative autonomy.
The pedagogical process as an integrity can be considered from the standpoint of a systematic approach, which allows us to see in it, first of all, the pedagogical system (Yu.K. Babansky). In pedagogical literature and educational practice, the concept of "system" is often used without regard to its real, true content. Often this concept is personified (for example, the Makarenko system, the Sukhomlinsky system, etc.), sometimes it correlates with a particular level of education (the system of preschool, school, vocational, higher education, etc.) or even with educational activities specific educational institution. However, the concept of "pedagogical system" goes beyond the narrowly understood personalization (B. G. Gershunsky). The fact is that for all the originality, uniqueness and multiplicity of pedagogical systems, they obey the general law of the organizational structure and functioning of the system as a process.
In this regard, the pedagogical system should be understood as a set of interrelated structural components, united by a single educational goal of personality development and functioning in a holistic pedagogical process. The structural components of the pedagogical system are basically adequate to the components of the pedagogical process, which is also considered as a system.
From this point of view, the pedagogical process is a specially organized interaction of teachers and pupils (pedagogical interaction) regarding the content of education using the means of training and education (pedagogical means) in order to solve the problems of education aimed both at meeting the needs of society and the individual himself in its development and self-development.
Any process is a successive change from one state to another. In the pedagogical process, it is the result of pedagogical interaction. That is why pedagogical interaction is an essential characteristic of the pedagogical process. It, unlike any other interaction, is a deliberate contact (long-term or temporary) between the teacher and pupils, which results in mutual changes in their behavior, activities and relationships.
Pedagogical interaction includes in unity the pedagogical influence, its active perception and assimilation by the pupil and the latter's own activity, manifested in the response of direct or indirect influences on the teacher and on himself (self-education). The concept of "pedagogical interaction" is therefore broader than "pedagogical influence", "pedagogical influence" and even "pedagogical attitude", which is a consequence of the interaction between teachers and students (Yu.K. Babansky).
Such an understanding of pedagogical interaction makes it possible to single out two most important components in the structure of both the pedagogical process and the pedagogical system - teachers and pupils, who are the most active elements. The activity of the participants in pedagogical interaction allows us to speak of them as subjects of the pedagogical process, influencing its course and results.
This approach contradicts the traditional understanding of the pedagogical process as a specially organized, purposeful, consistent, planned and comprehensive impact on the student in order to form a personality with the desired qualities. The traditional approach identifies the pedagogical process with the activity of a teacher, pedagogical activity is a special type of social (professional) activity aimed at realizing the goals of education: the transfer from older generations to younger generations of culture and experience accumulated by humanity, creating conditions for their personal development and preparing them to fulfill certain social roles. in society. This approach consolidates the subject-object relationship in the pedagogical process.
It seems that the traditional approach is the result of an uncritical, and therefore mechanistic transfer to pedagogy of the main postulate of management theory: if there is a subject of management, then there must be an object. As a result, in pedagogy, the subject is a teacher, and the object, of course, is a child, a schoolchild, or even an adult studying under someone's guidance. The notion of the pedagogical process as a subject-object relation was fixed as a result of the establishment of authoritarianism as a social phenomenon in the education system. But if the student is an object, then not the pedagogical process, but only pedagogical influences, i.e. external activities aimed at him. Recognizing the pupil as the subject of the pedagogical process, humanistic pedagogy thereby affirms the priority of subject-subject relations in its structure.
The pedagogical process is carried out in specially organized conditions, which are associated primarily with the content and technology of pedagogical interaction. Thus, two more components of the pedagogical process and system are distinguished: the content of education and the means of education (material and technical and pedagogical - forms, methods, techniques).
The interconnections of such components of the system as teachers and pupils, the content of education and its means give rise to a real pedagogical process as a dynamic system. They are necessary and sufficient for the emergence of any pedagogical system.
The determinant of the emergence of pedagogical systems is the goal of education as a set of society's requirements in the field of spiritual reproduction, as a social order.
Determinant - premise,
In the content of education, it is interpreted pedagogically in connection with, for example, the age of pupils, the level of their personal development, the development of the team, etc.
Thus, the goal, being an expression of the order of society and interpreted in pedagogical terms, acts as a system-forming factor, and not an element of the pedagogical system, i.e. external force towards it. The pedagogical system is created with a goal orientation. The methods (mechanisms) of the functioning of the pedagogical system in the pedagogical process are training and education. The internal changes that occur both in the pedagogical system itself and in its subjects - teachers and pupils - depend on their pedagogical instrumentation.
Education is a specially organized activity of teachers and pupils for the realization of the goals of education in the context of the pedagogical process. Education is a specific way of education aimed at developing the personality by organizing the assimilation of scientific knowledge and methods of activity by students. Being an integral part of education, training differs from it in the degree of regulation of the pedagogical process by normative prescriptions of both content and organizational and technical plans. For example, in the learning process, the state standard (level) of the content of education should be implemented. Education is also limited by time frames (academic year, lesson, etc.), requires certain technical and visual teaching aids, electronic and verbal-sign media (textbooks, computers, etc.).
Education and training as ways of implementing the pedagogical process thus characterize the technologies of education (or pedagogical technologies), in which expedient and optimal steps, stages, stages of achieving the proposed goals of education are fixed. Pedagogical technology is a consistent, interdependent system of teacher actions associated with the use of a particular set of methods of education and training and carried out (pedagogical process in order to solve various pedagogical problems: structuring and concretizing the goals of the pedagogical process; transforming the content of education and educational material; analyzing interdisciplinary and intra-subject communications, the choice of methods, means and organizational forms of the pedagogical process, etc.
It is the pedagogical task that is the unit of the pedagogical process, for the solution of which pedagogical interaction is organized at each specific stage. Pedagogical activity within the framework of any pedagogical system can therefore be represented as an interconnected sequence of solving an innumerable set of tasks of different levels of complexity, in which students are inevitably included in interaction with teachers. The pedagogical task is a materialized situation of upbringing and education (pedagogical situation), characterized by the interaction of teachers and pupils with a specific goal. Thus, the "moments" of the pedagogical process can be traced from the joint solution of one problem to another.
Upbringing and training determine the qualitative characteristics of education - the results of the pedagogical process, reflecting the degree of realization of the goals of education. In turn, the results of education as a pedagogical process are associated with strategies for the development of education that are oriented towards the future.

The connection of pedagogy with other sciences and its structure

The place of pedagogy in the system of human sciences can be revealed in the process of considering its links with other sciences. During the entire period of its existence, it was closely associated with many sciences, which had an ambiguous influence on its formation and development. Some of these relationships arose long ago, even at the stages of the identification and formation of pedagogy as a science, others are later formations. Among the first were the connections of pedagogy with philosophy and psychology, which today are a necessary condition for the development of pedagogical theory and practice.
The connection of pedagogy with philosophy is the longest and most productive, since philosophical ideas produced the creation of pedagogical concepts and theories, set the perspective of pedagogical search and served as its methodological basis.
Interpretations of the connections between philosophy and pedagogy were of a rather rigid oppositional nature. On the one hand, pedagogy was considered a "testing ground" for the application and testing of philosophical ideas. In this case, it was seen as a practical philosophy. On the other hand, there have been repeated attempts to abandon philosophy in pedagogy.
Today, the methodological function of philosophy in relation to pedagogy is generally recognized, which is quite legitimate and is determined by the very essence of philosophical knowledge, ideological in nature and corresponding to the tasks being solved, understanding the place of man in the world. From the system of philosophical views (existential, pragmatic, neo-positivist, materialistic, etc.), which pedagogy researchers adhere to, depends on the direction of pedagogical search, the definition of the essential, target and technological characteristics of the educational process.
In addition, the methodological function of philosophy in relation to any science, including pedagogy, is manifested in the fact that it develops a system of general principles and methods of scientific knowledge. The process of obtaining pedagogical knowledge is subject to the general laws of scientific knowledge studied by philosophy.
Philosophy is also a theoretical platform for understanding pedagogical experience and creating pedagogical concepts.
The connection of pedagogy with psychology is the most traditional. The requirements to understand the properties of human nature, its natural needs and capabilities, to take into account the mechanisms, laws of mental activity and personality development, to build education (training and upbringing), in accordance with these laws, properties, needs, opportunities, were put forward by all outstanding teachers.
However, when analyzing the connections between pedagogy and psychology, it is important to distinguish between psychologism as a methodological position and psychology as a science that has been and remains the most important source of scientific justification for the educational process (V. V. Kraevsky). Psychologism is manifested in the fact that psychology is declared the only scientific basis that guides pedagogical practice. However, as V. V. Davydov notes, although psychology should be taken into account, it is “not a dictator,” since the life of teachers and children is conditioned by socio-pedagogical conditions that also determine the psychological patterns of personality development. These patterns are of a concrete historical nature, and therefore, with a change in socio-pedagogical conditions, the patterns of personality development also change. The connections of pedagogy with other sciences are not limited to philosophy and psychology, the common point of which is the study of man as a person. Pedagogy is closely connected with the sciences that study it as an individual. These are such sciences as biology (human anatomy and physiology), anthropology and medicine.
The problem of the correlation between natural and social factors of human development is one of the central ones for pedagogy. It is also the most important for biology, which studies the individual development of a person.
Pedagogy, considering a person as a natural and social being, could not but use the potential that was accumulated in anthropology as a science that integrates knowledge about the human phenomenon into a single theoretical construct that considers the nature of a conventional person in its multidimensionality and diversity.
Anthropology is a science that comprehensively studies the biological nature of man.
The connection of pedagogy with medicine has led to the emergence of correctional pedagogy as a special branch of pedagogical knowledge, the subject of which is the education of children with acquired or congenital developmental disabilities. It develops, in conjunction with medicine, a system of means by which a therapeutic effect is achieved and socialization processes are facilitated, compensating for existing defects.
The development of pedagogy is also associated with the sciences that study a person in society, in the system of his social ties and relationships. Therefore, it was not by chance that fairly stable interactions began to be established between pedagogy, sociology, economics, political science and other social sciences.
The relationship between pedagogy and the economic sciences is complex and ambiguous. Economic policy has always been a necessary condition for the development of an educated society. Economic stimulation of scientific research in this field of knowledge remains an important factor in the development of pedagogy. The connection of these sciences served to isolate such a branch of knowledge as the economics of education, the subject of which is the specificity of the operation of economic laws in the field of education.
The connections of pedagogy with sociology are also traditional, since both the first and the second are concerned with the planning of education, identifying the main trends in the development of certain groups or strata of the population, the patterns of socialization and education of the individual in various social institutions.
The connection of pedagogy with political science is due to the fact that educational policy has always been a reflection of the ideology of the ruling parties and classes. Pedagogy seeks to identify the conditions and mechanisms for the formation of a person as a subject of political consciousness, the possibility of assimilation of political ideas and attitudes.
An analysis of the links between pedagogy and other sciences makes it possible to single out the following forms (R. G. Gurova):
the use by pedagogy of the main ideas, theoretical provisions, generalizing the conclusions of other sciences;
creative borrowing of research methods used in these sciences;
application in pedagogy of specific results of research obtained in psychology, physiology of higher nervous activity, sociology and other sciences;
the participation of pedagogy in complex studies of man.
The development of relations between pedagogy and other sciences leads to the identification of new branches of pedagogy - borderline scientific disciplines. Today, pedagogy is a complex system of pedagogical sciences. Its structure includes:
general pedagogy, exploring the basic patterns of education;
age pedagogy- preschool, school pedagogy, pedagogy of adults, studying the age aspects of education and upbringing;
correctional pedagogy- deaf pedagogy (training and education of the deaf and hard of hearing), tiflopedagogy (training and education of the blind and visually impaired), oligophrenopedagogy (training and education of the mentally retarded and children with mental retardation), speech therapy (training and education of children with speech disorders);
private methods- subject didactics that explore the specifics of the application of general patterns of learning to the teaching of individual subjects;
history of pedagogy and education studying the development of pedagogical ideas and educational practices in different historical eras;

branch pedagogy(military, sports, higher education, industrial, etc.).

The process of differentiation in pedagogical science continues. In recent years, such branches of education as the philosophy of education, comparative pedagogy, social pedagogy, etc., have declared themselves.