Determine the causes of the Russian-Turkish war. Russo-Turkish War

The most famous foreign policy event under Emperor Alexander II was the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, which ended successfully for our country.
The so-called eastern question the struggle of the Slavic peoples of the Ottoman Empire to gain independence. Upon completion Crimean War The foreign policy climate on the Balkan Peninsula has worsened. Russia was concerned about the weak defense of its southern borders near the Black Sea, and the inability to protect its political interests in Turkey.

Causes of the war

On the eve of the Russian-Turkish campaign, most of the Balkan peoples began to express discontent, as they were under almost five hundred years of oppression over the Turkish Sultan. This oppression was expressed in economic and political discrimination, the imposition of foreign ideology and the widespread Islamization of Orthodox Christians. Russia, being an Orthodox state, strongly supported such a national rise of the Bulgarians, Serbs and Romanians. This became one of the main factors that predetermined the beginning of the Russian- Turkish war 1877-1878 Also, the basis for the clash between the two sides was the situation in Western Europe. Germany (Austria-Hungary), as a new strong state, began to claim dominance in the straits of the Black Sea, and tried in every possible way to weaken the power of England, France and Turkey. This coincided with Russia's interests, so Germany became its leading ally.

Occasion

The stumbling block between the Russian Empire and the Turkish state was the conflict between the South Slavic population and the Turkish authorities in 1875-1876. More precisely, these were anti-Turkish uprisings in Serbia, Bosnia, and, later, annexed Montenegro. The Islamic country suppressed these protests using the most brutal methods. The Russian Empire, acting as the patron of all Slavic ethnic groups, could not ignore these events, and in the spring of 1877 declared war on Turkey. It was with these actions that the conflict between the Russian and Ottoman empires began.

Events

In April 1877, the Russian army crossed the Danube River and went to the side of Bulgaria, which at the time of the action still belonged to the Ottoman Empire. By the beginning of July, the Shipka Pass was occupied practically without much resistance. The Turkish side’s response to this was the transfer of an army led by Suleiman Pasha to take these territories. This is where the bloodiest events unfold Russian-Turkish war. The fact is that the Shipka Pass was of enormous military importance; control over it provided free movement of the Russians to the north of Bulgaria. The enemy was significantly superior to the Russian army both in weapons and in human resources. On the Russian side, General N. Stoletov was appointed commander-in-chief. By the end of 1877, the Shipka Pass was taken by Russian soldiers.
But, despite the heavy defeats, the Turks were in no hurry to give up. They concentrated their main forces in the Plevna fortress. The siege of Plevna turned out to be a turning point in all armed battles of the Russian-Turkish war. Here luck was on the side of the Russian soldiers. Bulgarian troops also successfully fought on the side of the Russian Empire. The commanders-in-chief were: M.D. Skobelev, Prince Nikolai Nikolaevich and the Romanian King Carol I.
Also during this stage of the Russian-Turkish war the fortresses of Ardahan, Kare, Batum, Erzurum were taken; fortified area of ​​the Turks Sheinovo.
At the beginning of 1878, Russian soldiers approached the Turkish capital, Constantinople. The previously powerful and warlike Ottoman Empire was unable to resist the Russian army and in February of the same year requested peace negotiations.

Results

The final stage of the Russian-Turkish conflict was the adoption of the San Stefano Peace Treaty on February 19, 1878. Under its terms, the northern part of Bulgaria received independence (an autonomous principality), and the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania was confirmed. Russia received the southern part of Bessarabia with the fortresses of Ardahan, Kars and Batum. Türkiye also obliged to pay indemnities to the Russian Empire in the amount of 1.410 billion rubles.

Only Russia was satisfied with the result of this peace treaty; everyone else was categorically dissatisfied with it, in particular, Western European countries (England, Austria-Hungary, etc.). Therefore, in 1878, the Berlin Congress was organized, at which all the terms of the previous peace treaty were revised. Macedonian Republic and eastern region Romania was returned to the Turks; England, which did not take part in the war, received Cyprus; Germany received part of the lands that belonged to Montenegro under the Treaty of San Stefano; Montenegro was also completely deprived of its own navy; some of Russia's acquisitions were transferred to the Ottoman Empire.

The Berlin Congress (treaty) significantly changed the initial balance of power. But, despite some territorial concessions to Russia, the result for our country was victory.

Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878(Turkish name: 93 Harbi, 93 war) - a war between the Russian Empire and its allied Balkan states on the one hand, and the Ottoman Empire on the other. It was caused by the rise of national consciousness in the Balkans. The brutality with which the April Uprising in Bulgaria was suppressed aroused sympathy for the plight of Christians Ottoman Empire in Europe and especially in Russia. Attempts to improve the situation of Christians by peaceful means were thwarted by the stubborn reluctance of the Turks to make concessions to Europe, and in April 1877 Russia declared war on Turkey.

During the ensuing hostilities, the Russian army managed, using the passivity of the Turks, to successfully cross the Danube, capture the Shipka Pass and, after a five-month siege, force the best Turkish army of Osman Pasha to capitulate in Plevna. The subsequent raid through the Balkans, during which the Russian army defeated the last Turkish units blocking the road to Constantinople, led to the Ottoman Empire's withdrawal from the war. At the Berlin Congress held in the summer of 1878, the Berlin Treaty was signed, which recorded the return of Russia to the southern part of Bessarabia and the annexation of Kars, Ardahan and Batum. The statehood of Bulgaria (conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1396) was restored as the vassal Principality of Bulgaria; The territories of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania increased, and Turkish Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary.

Background to the conflict

[edit] Oppression of Christians in the Ottoman Empire

Article 9 of the Paris Peace Treaty, concluded following the Crimean War, obliged the Ottoman Empire to grant Christians equal rights with Muslims. The matter did not progress beyond the publication of the corresponding firman (decree) of the Sultan. In particular, the evidence of non-Muslims (“dhimmis”) against Muslims was not accepted in courts, which effectively deprived Christians of the right to judicial protection from religious persecution.

§ 1860 - in Lebanon, the Druze, with the connivance of the Ottoman authorities, massacred over 10 thousand Christians (mainly Maronites, but also Greek Catholics and Orthodox). The threat of French military intervention forced the Porte to restore order. Under pressure from the European powers, the Porte agreed to appoint a Christian governor in Lebanon, whose candidacy was nominated by the Ottoman Sultan after agreement with the European powers.

§ 1866-1869 - uprising in Crete under the slogan of unifying the island with Greece. The rebels took control of the entire island except for five cities in which the Muslims fortified themselves. By the beginning of 1869, the uprising was suppressed, but the Porte made concessions, introducing self-government on the island, which strengthened the rights of Christians. During the suppression of the uprising, events in the Moni Arkadiou monastery became widely known in Europe ( English), when over 700 women and children, hiding behind the walls of the monastery, chose to blow up the powder magazine rather than surrender to the besieging Turks.

The consequence of the uprising in Crete, especially as a result of the brutality with which the Turkish authorities suppressed it, was to attract attention in Europe (the Russian Empire in particular) to the issue of the oppressed position of Christians in the Ottoman Empire.

Russia emerged from the Crimean War with minimal territorial losses, but was forced to abandon the maintenance of a fleet in the Black Sea and demolish the fortifications of Sevastopol.

Reviewing the results of the Crimean War has become the main goal of Russian foreign policy. It was, however, not so simple - the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 provided for guarantees of the integrity of the Ottoman Empire from Great Britain and France. The openly hostile position taken by Austria during the war complicated the situation. Of the great powers, only Russia maintained friendly relations with Prussia.

It was on an alliance with Prussia and its chancellor Bismarck that Prince A. M. Gorchakov, appointed chancellor by Alexander II in April 1856, relied. Russia took a neutral position in the unification of Germany, which ultimately led to the creation after a series of wars German Empire. In March 1871, taking advantage of France's crushing defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, Russia, with the support of Bismarck, achieved international agreement to repeal the provisions of the Treaty of Paris that prohibited it from having a fleet in the Black Sea.

The remaining provisions of the Treaty of Paris, however, continued to apply. In particular, Article 8 gave the right to Great Britain and Austria, in the event of a conflict between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, to intervene on the side of the latter. This forced Russia to exercise extreme caution in its relations with the Ottomans and coordinate all its actions with other great powers. A one-on-one war with Turkey, therefore, was only possible if the other European powers received carte blanche for such actions, and Russian diplomacy was waiting for the right moment.

The beginning of hostilities. The Russian army in the Balkans, led by the Tsar's brother Nikolai Nikolaevich, numbered 185 thousand people. The Tsar was also at the army headquarters. The strength of the Turkish army in Northern Bulgaria was 160 thousand people.

On June 15, 1877, Russian troops crossed the Danube and launched an offensive. The Bulgarian population enthusiastically greeted the Russian army. Bulgarian voluntary squads joined it, showing high fighting spirit. Eyewitnesses said that they went into battle as if they were “on a merry holiday.”

Russian troops quickly moved south, hastening to capture the mountain passes through the Balkans and reach southern Bulgaria. It was especially important to occupy the Shipka Pass, from where the most convenient road to Adrianople led. After two days of fierce fighting, the pass was taken. The Turkish troops retreated in disarray. It seemed that a direct path to Constantinople was opening.

Counter-offensive of Turkish troops. Battles on Shipka and near Plevna. However, the course of events suddenly changed dramatically. On July 7, a large Turkish detachment under the command of Osman Pasha, having completed a forced march and ahead of the Russians, occupied the Plevna fortress in Northern Bulgaria. There was a threat of a flank attack. Two attempts by Russian troops to drive the enemy out of Plevna ended unsuccessfully. The Turkish troops, who could not withstand the onslaught of the Russians in open battles, were doing well in the fortresses. The movement of Russian troops through the Balkans was suspended.

Russia and liberation struggle Balkan peoples. In the spring of 1875, an uprising against the Turkish yoke began in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A year later, in April 1876, an uprising broke out in Bulgaria. Turkish punitive forces suppressed these uprisings with fire and sword. In Bulgaria alone they massacred more than 30 thousand people. Serbia and Montenegro began a war against Turkey in the summer of 1876. But the forces were unequal. The poorly armed Slavic armies suffered setbacks.

In Russia it was expanding social movement in defense of the Slavs. Thousands of Russian volunteers were sent to the Balkans. Donations were collected throughout the country, weapons and medicine were purchased, and hospitals were equipped. The outstanding Russian surgeon N.V. Sklifosovsky led the Russian sanitary detachments in Montenegro, and the famous general practitioner S.P. Botkin headed the Russian sanitary detachments in Serbia. Alexander II contributed 10 thousand rubles in favor of the rebels. There were calls for Russian military intervention from everywhere.

However, the government acted cautiously, recognizing Russia's unpreparedness for big war. Reforms in the army and its rearmament have not yet been completed. They did not have time to recreate the Black Sea Fleet.

Meanwhile, Serbia was defeated. The Serbian prince Milan turned to the king with a request for help. In October 1876, Russia presented Turkey with an ultimatum: immediately conclude a truce with Serbia. Russian intervention prevented the fall of Belgrade.

Through secret negotiations, Russia managed to ensure the neutrality of Austria-Hungary, although at a very high cost. According to the Budapest Convention, signed in January 1877, Russia

agreed to the occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austro-Hungarian troops. Russian diplomacy managed to take advantage of the indignation of the world community over the atrocities of the Turkish punitive forces. In March 1877 in London, representatives of the great powers agreed on a protocol in which Turkey was asked to carry out reforms in favor of the Christian population in the Balkans. Türkiye rejected the London Protocol. On April 12, the tsar signed a manifesto declaring war on Turkey. A month later, Romania entered the war on the side of Russia.

Having seized the initiative, Turkish troops drove the Russians out of Southern Bulgaria. In August, bloody battles for Shipka began. The five thousand strong Russian detachment, which included Bulgarian squads, was led by General N. G. Stoletov. The enemy had a fivefold superiority. The defenders of Shipka had to repel up to 14 attacks per day. The unbearable heat increased thirst, and the stream was under fire. At the end of the third day of fighting, when the situation became desperate, reinforcements arrived. The threat of encirclement has been eliminated. A few days later the fighting died down. The Shipka Pass remained in the hands of the Russians, but its southern slopes were held by the Turks.

Fresh reinforcements from Russia were arriving at Plevna. Its third assault began on August 30. Using thick fog, the detachment of General Mikhail Dmitrievich Skobelev (1843-1882) secretly approached the enemy and broke through the fortifications with a swift attack. But in other areas, attacks by Russian troops were repulsed. Having received no support, Skobelev’s detachment retreated back the next day. In three assaults on Plevna, the Russians lost 32 thousand, the Romanians - 3 thousand people. The hero of the Sevastopol defense, General E.I. Totleben, came from St. Petersburg. After examining the positions, he said that there was only one way out - a complete blockade of the fortress. Without heavy artillery, a new assault could only lead to new needless casualties.

The fall of Plevna and the turning point during the war. Winter has begun. The Turks held Plevna, the Russians held Shipka. “Everything is calm on Shipka,” the command reported. Meanwhile, the number of frostbite cases reached 400 per day. When a snowstorm broke out, the supply of ammunition and food stopped. From September to December 1877, the Russians and Bulgarians lost 9,500 people on Shipka, frostbitten, sick and frozen. Nowadays, on Shipka there is a monument-tomb depicting two warriors bowing heads - Russian and Bulgarian.

At the end of November, food supplies ran out in Plevna. Osman Pasha made a desperate attempt to break through, but was driven back to the fortress. On November 28, the Plevna garrison surrendered. 43 thousand people, led by the most talented Turkish military leader, were captured in Russian captivity. During the war, a turning point occurred. Serbia again began hostilities. In order not to lose the initiative, the Russian command decided to go through the Balkans without waiting for spring.

On December 13, the main forces of the Russian army, led by General Joseph Vladimirovich Gurko (1828-1901), began their journey to Sofia through the most difficult Churyak pass. The troops moved day and night along steep and slippery mountain roads. The rain that started turned to snow, a blizzard swirled, and then frosts hit. On December 23, 1877, the Russian army entered Sofia in icy overcoats.

Meanwhile, troops under the command of Skobelev were supposed to remove the group blocking the Shipka Pass from the fight. Skobelev crossed the Balkans west of Shipka along an icy sloping cornice above the abyss and reached the rear of the fortified Sheinovo camp. Skobelev, who was nicknamed the “white general” (he had a habit of appearing in dangerous places on a white horse, in a white tunic and a white cap), valued and cherished the soldier’s life. His soldiers went into battle not in dense columns, as was customary then, but in chains and quick runs. As a result of the battles near Shipka-Sheinovo on December 27-28, the 20,000-strong Turkish group capitulated.

A few years after the war, Skobelev died suddenly, in the prime of his strength and talent, at the age of 38. Many streets and squares in Bulgaria are named after him.

The Turks gave up Plovdiv without a fight. A three-day battle south of this city ended the military campaign. On January 8, 1878, Russian troops entered Adrianople. Pursuing the randomly retreating Turks, the Russian cavalry reached the shore of the Sea of ​​Marmara. A detachment under the command of Skobelev occupied the town of San Stefano, a few kilometers from Constantinople. It was not difficult to enter the Turkish capital, but, fearing international complications, the Russian command did not dare to do so.

Military operations in Transcaucasia. The commander of the Russian troops in the Transcaucasian theater of military operations was formally considered Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich, younger son Nicholas I. In fact, the command was exercised by General M. T. Loris-Melikov. In April - May 1877, the Russian army took the fortresses of Bayazet and Ardahan and blocked Qare. But then a series of failures followed, and the siege of Kars had to be lifted.

The decisive battle took place in the fall in the Aladzhin Heights area, not far from Kars. On October 3, Russian troops stormed the fortified Mount Avliyar, a key point of Turkish defense. In the Battle of Aladzhin, the Russian command used the telegraph for the first time to control troops. On the night of November 6, 1877, Kare was captured. After this, the Russian army reached Erzurum.

Treaty of San Stefano. On February 19, 1878, a peace treaty was signed in San Stefano. Under its terms, Bulgaria received the status of an autonomous principality, independent in its internal affairs. Serbia, Montenegro and Romania gained complete independence and significant territorial increments. Southern Bessarabia, seized by the Treaty of Paris, was returned to Russia, and the Kars region in the Caucasus was transferred.

The provisional Russian administration that ruled Bulgaria developed a draft constitution. Bulgaria was proclaimed a constitutional monarchy. Personal and property rights were guaranteed. The Russian project was the basis of the Bulgarian constitution, adopted Constituent Assembly in Tarnovo in April 1879

Berlin Congress. England and Austria-Hungary refused to recognize the terms of the Peace of San Stefano. At their insistence, in the summer of 1878, the Berlin Congress was held with the participation of six powers (England, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia and Turkey). Russia found itself isolated and was forced to make concessions. The Western powers categorically objected to the creation of a unified Bulgarian state. As a result, Southern Bulgaria remained under Turkish rule. Russian diplomats only managed to achieve that Sofia and Varna were included in the autonomous Bulgarian principality. The territory of Serbia and Montenegro was significantly reduced. The Congress confirmed the right of Austria-Hungary to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina. England bargained for the right to lead troops to Cyprus.

In a report to the Tsar, the head of the Russian delegation, Chancellor A. M. Gorchakov, wrote: “The Berlin Congress is the darkest page in my career.” The king noted: “And in mine too.”

The Berlin Congress, undoubtedly, did not brighten the diplomatic history of not only Russia, but also the Western powers. Driven by petty momentary calculations and envy of the brilliant victory of Russian weapons, the governments of these countries extended Turkish rule over several million Slavs.

And yet the fruits of the Russian victory were only partially destroyed. Having laid the foundations for the freedom of the fraternal Bulgarian people, Russia has written a glorious page in its history. Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 entered into the general context of the era of Liberation and became its worthy completion.

Related information.

The causes of the Russian-Turkish war have deeper roots than simple military confrontation. This event summed up the centuries-old conflict between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Caliphate. The development of the conflict was fueled by attempts by European states and America to consolidate their influence on Russia through the Ottoman Empire. However, the difference in interests and competently conducted foreign policy Nicholas II was able to put an end to this issue and redraw the map of Europe.

General political picture for the middle of the 19th century

The middle of the 19th century saw many significant historical events. The Russian-Turkish confrontation over the Crimean lands ended with the withdrawal of both countries from the conflict. In the war for the Crimean Peninsula, the Russian Empire suffered minor losses.
Against the backdrop of this theater of action, Europe was torn apart by internal conflicts. The unification of the Prussian lands into the German state divided the European states into two camps. Many were against such a reunion. Russia took the neutral side, although it contributed to the policies of Chancellor Bismarck.

France and Great Britain tried to consolidate their influence over the Ottoman Empire. They openly supported this state, turning a blind eye to the persecution of Christian peoples by the Islamic community. One of the reasons for the outbreak of military conflict was connected precisely with the religious aspect.

Formation of preconditions for a new conflict

Uniting the lands of the professed Orthodox religion was the driving force in the Russian-Turkish confrontation. In addition, the Russian state received many benefits during the redistribution of territories that could strengthen its position in Europe.

The prerequisites for the outbreak of hostilities were:
consolidation of influence in the Balkans;
annexation of lands;
support from Orthodox states;
strengthening relationships with allied states;
new prospects on the Turkish front;
weakening of the influence of the Ottoman state;
lifting the ban on the presence of a fleet in the Black Sea.

In addition, the reason for the military confrontation was to get rid of the restrictions imposed by Europe and weaken their influence.
Military confrontation between Russia and the Ottoman Empire
During the war on the side Russian state was:
support from Austria, Romania;
strategically trained officers;
high morale of the troops;
support of the local population;
a well-thought-out plan for the seizure of territories;
financial aid private entrepreneurs;
competent leadership.

The Turkish side had a favorable advantage in:
strategic position of fortresses, outposts;
financial support America, Great Britain, France;
protection from many European countries;
advanced military weapons;
fleet on the Black Sea.

The reasons for the successful military actions of the Russian side were the coherence of actions and a well-directed offensive. Nicholas II pursued a subtle policy in relation to the strife of Europe. He was able to enlist the support of Romania, thanks to which the troops marched through the allied territories.

The Ottoman Empire showed complete incompetence and inaction. The aggressive policy towards the local population became the reason for opposition from Orthodox residents.

The role of allies

Great Britain provided active support to the Turkish side. She supplied weapons and funds to the Ottoman Empire in the hope of weakening the position of the Russian side. However, the actions of the Turkish troops towards the civilian population turned the British public against such a policy of their government.

The Prussian state was the first to express a desire to provide active assistance during the war against the Turks. The reasons for this were the desire to occupy the territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In exchange for assistance in this enterprise, Russia received the right to return the lands of southwestern Bessarabia. Thus, all Orthodox lands were united under the rule of the Russian crown.

The influence of the American government on the situation was twofold. Because during the war’s breakthrough towards the Russian army, they quickly curtailed all interests in the Balkan Peninsula.

The results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 were very positive for Russia, which managed to regain not only part of the territories lost during the Crimean War, but also its position in international politics.

The results of the war for the Russian Empire and beyond

The Russo-Turkish War officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of San Stefano on February 19, 1878.

As a result of military operations, Russia not only received part of Bessarabia in the south, which it lost due to the Crimean War, but it also received the strategically important Batumi region (in which the Mikhailovsky Fortress was soon built) and the Carri region, the main population of which were Armenians and Georgians.

Rice. 1. Mikhailovskaya Fortress.

Bulgaria became an autonomous Slavic principality. Romania, Serbia and Montenegro became independent.

Seven years after the conclusion of the Treaty of San Stefano, in 1885, Romania united with Bulgaria, they became a single principality.

Rice. 2. Map of the distribution of territories under the Treaty of San Stefano.

One of the important foreign policy consequences of the Russian-Turkish war was that the Russian Empire and Great Britain emerged from a state of confrontation. This was greatly facilitated by the fact that she received the right to send troops to Cyprus.

TOP 5 articleswho are reading along with this

A comparative table of the results of the Russian-Turkish war will give a more clear idea of ​​what were the conditions of the Treaty of San Stefano, as well as the corresponding conditions of the Berlin Treaty (signed on July 1, 1878). The need for its adoption arose due to the fact that the European powers expressed their dissatisfaction with the original conditions.

Rice. 3. Map of the distribution of territories according to the Berlin Treaty.

The English historian A. Taylor noted that after 30 years of wars, it was the Berlin Treaty that established peace for 34 years. He called this document a kind of watershed between two historical periods. Evaluation of the report

Average rating: 4.6. Total ratings received: 111.

The war between the Russian and Ottoman empires lasted from April 12, 1877 to February 18, 1878. A number of Balkan states also acted on Russia’s side. The result of the war was the liberation of the Balkan peoples from Ottoman rule, the independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, as well as the acquisition of broad autonomy by Bulgaria. In addition, Russia annexed the Kara region and Southern Bessarabia, and Romania annexed Silistra. Also, part of the territory of the Ottoman Empire was occupied by Great Britain and Austria-Hungary.

Prerequisites
The 19th century was marked by an intensification of the struggle for independence among the peoples of the European part of the Ottoman Empire. After a series of uprisings in 1815, autonomy was achieved for Serbia. In 1829, under the Treaty of Adrianople, Turkey granted autonomy to Moldavia and Wallachia, and in 1830, after many years of war, it recognized the independence of Greece. In 1866-1869 there was an uprising in Crete, which was suppressed by the Porte. Nevertheless, the islanders managed to achieve a number of privileges. In 1875, the Bosnian uprising began, in 1876 - the April uprising in Bulgaria, which were suppressed Ottoman government. The cruelty of the Turks caused outrage in Europe. Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Turkey, and numerous Russian volunteers fought on the side of the Serbs. Russia, eager to reassert its influence in the Balkans, began mobilizing its army, but to start the war it was necessary to ensure that the Western powers would not enter the conflict on Turkey's side. The Constantinople Conference of the Great Powers was convened and tried to resolve the conflict diplomatically, but the Porte rejected their proposals. During secret negotiations, it was also possible to obtain guarantees of non-interference from Austria-Hungary in exchange for the Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On April 24, 1878, Russia officially declared war on Turkey.

Strengths of the parties

In the European theater of operations, Russia had 185 thousand soldiers; together with its Balkan allies, the size of the group reached 300 thousand people. Russia had approximately 100 thousand soldiers in the Caucasus. In turn, the Turks in the European theater had a force of 186 thousand, and in the Caucasus about 90 thousand soldiers. In addition, the Turkish fleet almost completely dominated the Black Sea, and the Porte also had the Danube flotilla.

Progress of the war

In May 1877 Russian troops entered the territory of Romania, on June 27 the main forces of the Russian army crossed the Danube and began to advance deeper into enemy territory. On July 7, General Gurko’s detachment occupied Tarnovo and moved around the Shipka Pass, trying to encircle the Turkish troops located there. As a result, on July 19, the Turks occupied Shipka without a fight. On July 15, the troops of General Kridener occupied Nikopol, but at the same time a large Turkish army under the command of Osman Pasha occupied the fortress of Plevna, which was located on the right flank of the Russian troops. To successfully continue the campaign, it was necessary to take the fortress, but two hasty assaults on July 20 and 31 were unsuccessful. In August, Turkish troops tried to dislodge Russian units from Shipka, but encountered fierce resistance and were forced to withdraw four days later.

On September 11, the third assault on Plevna was launched, despite local successes, which also ended unsuccessfully for the Russian troops. After this, it was decided to begin a tight siege of the fortress, for which General Totleben was called from St. Petersburg. At this time, Suleiman Pasha’s army tried several times to break through the Shipka Pass, but failed each time.

In December 1877, the garrison of Plevna attempted to break through the positions of the Russian troops, but the grenadier corps withstood the attack of the Turks, after which they retreated back to the city and capitulated.

After the capture of Plevna, Russian troops, despite the harsh winter, continued to move south. On December 25, General Gurko’s detachment crossed the Churyak pass and occupied Sofia on January 4, 1878. At the beginning of January the main forces Russian army crossed the Balkan ridge. On January 10, detachment M.D. Skobelev and N.I. Svyatopolk-Mirsky defeated the Turks at Sheinovo, capturing 22 thousand soldiers and officers. Suleiman Pasha's army retreated to Plovdiv, where on January 15-17 it was defeated by Gurko's detachment, losing more than 20 thousand people.

On January 20, Skobelev occupied Adrianople, and on January 30, Russian troops approached the suburbs of Istanbul.

At the Caucasian Theater, the Turks managed to occupy Black Sea coast after the uprising in Abkhazia, but already in August they were forced to retreat. On October 15, Russian troops defeated the army of Ahmed Mukhtar Pasha at the Battle of Aladzhi and besieged Kars, which surrendered on November 18.

Results
On March 3, 1878, the Peace of San Stefano was signed. According to it, Kars, Ardahan, Batum and Bayazet, as well as Southern Bessarabia, were ceded to Russia. Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina received broad autonomy, and Serbia, Montenegro and Romania received independence. In addition, Türkiye was obliged to pay an indemnity of 310 million rubles. The terms of peace were not satisfied by the great powers, and under their pressure Russia was forced to take part in the Berlin Congress, at which the results of the peace were revised. The territory of Bulgaria was reduced, Bayazet remained with Turkey, in addition, Great Britain received Cyprus, and Austria-Hungary received Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Nevertheless main result war - the Balkan peoples gained independence, was not revised.

In artistic culture

Painting:

Artist V.V. Vereshchagin dedicated his Balkan series of paintings to the war. In addition to him, a series of paintings dedicated to the war was created by N.D. Dmitriev-Orenburgsky.

Literature:

Garshin V.M. From the memoirs of Private Ivanov. 1885.

Akunin Boris. Turkish gambit. 1998.

Pikul V. Bayazet. 1960.

Vasiliev B. They were and were not. 1981.

Cinema:

Heroes of Shipka, 1960

Yulia Vrevskaya, 1978 (dir. Nikola Korabov)

Bayazet, 2003 (dir. Andrey Chernykh, Nikolay Istanbul)

Turkish Gambit, 2005 (Dir. Janik Faziev)

Institute of Noble Maidens, 2010-2013 (dir. Yuri Popovich, Sergei Danelyan)