Communication as a type of human activity. General characteristics of communication, its functions, structure and means

§ “Contact of masks” - formal communication, when there is no desire to understand the interlocutor, familiar masks are used (politeness, modesty, indifference, etc., a set of facial expressions, gestures that allow one to hide true emotions, attitude towards the interlocutor).

§ Primitive communication - when they evaluate another person as a necessary or interfering object. If a person is needed, they actively come into contact with him; if he interferes, they push him away. When they get what they want, they lose further interest in the interlocutor and do not hide it.

§ Formally, role-based communication is such communication when both the content and means of communication are regulated. Instead of knowing the partner's personality, they make do with knowledge of his social role.

§ Business communication takes into account personality traits partner, his character, age, but the interests of the business are more significant.

§ Spiritual, interpersonal communication is possible when each participant has an image of the interlocutor and knows him personal characteristics, can anticipate his reactions, takes into account the interests and beliefs of the partner.

§ Manipulative communication is aimed at extracting benefits from the interlocutor, using various techniques (flattery, deception, demonstration of kindness, etc.) depending on the personality characteristics of the interlocutor.

§ Secular communication - it is characterized by pointlessness (people say not what they think, but what is supposed to be said in such cases). This communication is closed, since people’s point of view on a particular issue does not matter and does not determine the nature of communications.

Technologies effective communication.

It is known that constructive conflict resolution requires, at a minimum, effective communication between the conflicting parties, and, at a maximum, negotiations to resolve the conflict. However, in practice, the transition to rational behavior by conflict participants is not always possible due to a lack of mutual understanding and the emergence of various communication barriers. To overcome these negative consequences needs to be mastered modern technologies effective communication.

1. The concept and main content of effective communication technologies.

· Effective communication technologies are methods, techniques and means of communication that fully ensure mutual understanding and mutual empathy between communication partners.

· Mutual understanding is a socio-psychological phenomenon, the essence of which is manifested in:

– coordination of individual understanding of the subject of communication;

– mutually acceptable bilateral assessment and acceptance of the partners’ goals, motives and attitudes.

Mutual understanding is at the same time process, result And condition.

To achieve mutual understanding, it is necessary to comply four conditions:

1. Understanding speech of the interacting person;

2. Awareness manifested qualities of the interacting personality;

3. Accounting influence on the personality of the situation of interaction with a partner;

4. Output agreement and its practical implementation according to established rules.

· Empathy (compassion) – awareness of the emotional state of another person and the ability to share his experience.

Empathy should be distinguished from pity. Empathy comes in the form of response one person's experience of another; Through emotional response, people perceive the inner state of others. Empathy regulates relationships between people and determines moral qualities person.

The most important obstacle to constructive work with conflict is reluctance of the parties to resolve it. The parties do not seek to resolve the conflict in two cases:

a) When they (or one of them) decide to break off the relationship;

b) When maintaining a conflict relationship creates some advantages for the parties (or one of them)

In addition, there are other obstacles to conflict resolution:

1. The use of “forceful” methods and the habit of being a judge;

2. Each party’s assessment of its position as more justified;

3. Condemning the other side without taking into account its real position.

Thus, it can be argued that the main obstacle to conflict resolution is ineffective behavioral strategies.

A special place in the content of technologies for effective communication in conflict is occupied by goals of the conflictants. Therefore, to ensure constructive communication in conflict, it is necessary to create two conditions:

a) Formation and maintenance atmosphere of mutual trust in the process of communication;

b) Formation at home goal setting for cooperation.

Let us consider the content of technologies for effective communication in conflict interactions using the example of compliance with certain rules and norms of communication:

1. Concentrate on the speaker, on his message;

2. Clarify the correct understanding of the general content of the transmitted information and its details;

3. Signal to the other party that you have understood the message intended for you;

4. Do not interrupt the speaker, do not criticize, do not give advice;

5. Make sure you are heard and understood. To do this, maintain consistency in transmitting and receiving information;

6. Maintain an atmosphere of mutual trust and mutual respect for the interlocutor;

7. Use non-verbal means of communication (facial expressions, gestures, pantomime) to improve understanding during communication.

An important place in conflict resolution is played by the transition from emotional to rational behavior.

The concept of nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication systems.

Non-verbal communication - this is a communication interaction between individuals without the use of words (transferring information or influencing each other through images, intonation, gestures, facial expressions, pantomime, changing the mise-en-scène of communication), that is, without speech and language means presented in direct or any sign form. The instrument of such “communication” is the human body, which has a wide range of means and methods of transmitting or exchanging information, which includes all forms of human self-expression. A common working name used among people is non-verbal or “body language”. Psychologists believe that the correct interpretation of nonverbal signals is the most important condition effective communication.Knowledge of body language and body movements allows you not only to better understand your interlocutor, but also (more importantly) to foresee what impression what you hear will make on him even before he speaks out on this matter. In other words, such wordless language can warn you whether you should change your behavior or do something different to achieve the desired result.

Main types of communication and their characteristics

Effective

a) understanding communication - a non-judgmental response to how the partner sees (what he says) to himself, but also taking into account his behavior and conversation.

b) reflective communication - “I think for my partner and want to understand whether I understand him correctly.”

Quite typical for a psychologist.

Ineffective

a) belittling communication - infringement of the partner’s rights

b) aggressive communication - that communication during which attacks on the partner take place.

c) defensive-aggressive communication - aggressive communication caused by another partner. Response form (consequence, special case of aggressive communication). Any aggression is a sign of weakness, it is a form through which a person defends himself.

An intermediate form of effective and ineffective communication is directive communication (direct, pointing) - direct influence on another without belittling his merits, qualities, etc.

The most common ones in practice:

Most effective:

1) understanding communication

2) directive communication

Depends on 3 factors:

1) from goals;

2) on the level of development of relationships;

3) depending on the specific situation.

Types of understanding response

I. Simple phrases(actions) indicating the presence of contact: “I am completely attentive,” “I am listening to you carefully,” but not “I am listening.”

Behavioral acts:

1) presence of eye contact

2) nodding head

3) tilting the body towards the interlocutor.

Reducing the distance between partners + lowering the voice.

4) lack of protective hand positions (hand near the face, near the mouth, near the forehead, near the cheek).

II. Paraphrased content of thoughts, states, feelings, experiences openly expressed by the partner: “Did I understand correctly: so, so and so?”, “That’s what you said, etc.”

III. Finding out the hidden feelings of the interlocutor, which he does not declare, but about which he knows and worries.

Probing is the actualization in the mind of what the partner is hiding, but what is very important (consultations and investigative interaction).

IV. Summing up a summary (summary) after a certain stage of interaction.

V. Forms of toasting, assuring, etc.

The serving partner shows interest in the interlocutor and can also obtain more detailed information.

Difficulties in organizing understanding of communication:

1) difficulty establishing contact with a partner

2) failure of the organizer to establish contact

Manager: “Let’s get straight to the point” - wrong.

A psychological barrier arises. Psychologists are also guilty of this.

3) The problem of going beyond the boundaries of what is permitted: strangers (weak acquaintances) go “far” during a conversation and thereby destroy contact (interaction), therefore, there is a retreat tactic.

4) “reading” silence - assessing the silence of the interlocutor.

Characteristics of understanding communication

Starting points:

1) A person knows himself better than his communication partner; Therefore, first of all, you need to understand a person, and not influence him (first understand, and then influence).

2) Understanding communication presupposes a climate of trust.

3) Basic settings (social psychology) of understanding communication):

a) setting for a non-evaluative response. It manifests itself: I. in the desire to understand another through the eyes of another (his own eyes); II. in the desire to escape from one’s own frame of reference; III. in the desire to get away from extreme modal (+, -) assessments.

b) an attitude towards accepting the personality of another as he is. It manifests itself in the desire to respect another, regardless of who he is.

c) installation on the consistency of one’s own behavior (and psychological readiness for this), emotions, words and actions. The discrepancy between what is said and done is perceived very painfully by the partner and does not characterize understanding communication.

4) Rules of understanding communication:

I. Understanding communication involves listening to the other more and talking less (if one of the partners acts as the organizer of communication).

II. Follow your interlocutor's statements.

To influence another, you need to take the position of a follower.

III. Refrain from judgment and ask fewer distracting questions.

IV. React to personally significant information for your partner.

V. Strive to respond to emotional condition partner, and not just the rational part.

The largest courses on the psychology of communication are taught to intelligence officers.

Silence can be assessed in different ways:

1) evidence that a person does not want to talk

2) silence is a sign of consent.

These types are difficult to distinguish: one is replaced by another.

5) Inability to read the non-verbal functions of the partner's form. Difficulty identifying them. Therefore, it is necessary to improve professionalism (training, etc.). Experience comes into play here: “What would this mean? in professional activities, but not only in the family!!!

In preparing this work, materials from the site http://www.studentu.ru were used

The interaction of a person with the world around him is carried out in a system of objective relations that develop between people in their public life. Communication is “a multifaceted process of developing contacts between people, generated by the needs joint activities" Communication includes the exchange of information between its participants, which can be characterized as the communicative side of communication. The second side of communication is the interaction of those communicating, the exchange in the process of speech not only in words, but also in actions and deeds. And finally, the third side of communication involves the perception of those communicating with each other.

There is practically no period in a person’s life when he is out of communication. Communication is classified according to content, goals, means, functions, types and forms. Communication is extremely multifaceted and can be of various types.

On the basis of direct communication in the later stages of the development of civilization, various shapes and types of communication. For example, mediated communication associated with the use special means and tools (stick, footprint on the ground, etc.), writing, television, radio, telephone and more modern means for organizing communication and information exchange.

Direct communication is a natural “face-to-face” contact, in which information is transmitted personally by one interlocutor to another according to the principle “you and I, and I and you.”

Indirect communication involves the participation in the communication process of an “intermediary” through whom information is transmitted.

There are interpersonal and mass communication. Interpersonal communication is associated with direct contacts of people in groups or pairs with a constant composition of participants. Mass communication is a lot of direct contacts strangers, as well as communication mediated by various types of media.

There are also interpersonal and role-based communication. In the first case, the participants in communication are specific individuals who have specific individual qualities that are revealed in the course of communication and organization. joint action. In the case of role-based communication, its participants act as carriers of certain roles (buyer \seller, teacher \ student, boss \ subordinate).

In role-based communication, a person is deprived of a certain spontaneity of his behavior, since certain of his steps and actions are dictated by the role he plays. In the process of such communication, a person no longer manifests himself as an individual, but as a social unit performing certain functions.

Communication can be confidential and conflictual. The first is different in that during its course, particularly significant information is transmitted. Confidence is an essential feature of all types of communication, without which it is impossible to carry out negotiations or resolve intimate issues. Conflict communication is characterized by mutual confrontation between people, expressions of displeasure and mistrust.

Communication can be personal and business. Personal communication is the exchange of informal information. A business conversationЇ the process of interaction between people performing joint responsibilities or involved in the same activity.

Finally, communication can be direct and indirect. Direct (immediate) communication is historically the first form of communication between people. On its basis, in later periods of the development of civilization, various types of indirect communication arise. Indirect communication is interaction through additional funds(letters, audio and video equipment).

In psychology, there are three main types of interpersonal communication: imperative, manipulative and dialogical.

• 1. Imperative communication is an authoritarian (directive) form of influence on a communication partner. Its main goal is to subordinate one of the partners to the other, to achieve control over his behavior, thoughts, as well as coercion to certain actions and decisions. IN in this case a communication partner is viewed as a soulless object of influence, as a mechanism that needs to be controlled; he acts as the passive, “passive” side. The peculiarity of imperative communication is that forcing a partner to do something is not hidden. Orders, instructions, demands, threats, regulations, etc. are used as means of influence.
• 2. Manipulative communication is similar to imperative communication. The main goal of manipulative communication is to influence the communication partner, but at the same time achieving one’s intentions is carried out secretly. Manipulation and imperative are united by the desire to achieve control in that with the manipulative type, the communication partner does not inform about his true goals, the goals are hidden or replaced by others. With the manipulative type of communication, the partner is not perceived as a holistic, unique personality; he is the bearer of certain properties and qualities “needed” by the manipulator. For example, no matter how kind a person is, his kindness can be used for one's own purposes. However, often a person who has chosen this type of relationship with others as his main one ultimately becomes a victim of his own manipulations. He also perceives himself as a fragment, is guided by false goals and switches to stereotypical forms of behavior. A manipulative attitude towards another leads to a violation of trusting ties built on friendship, love, and mutual affection.

Imperative and manipulative forms of interpersonal communication refer to monologue communication. A person, considering another as an object of his influence, essentially communicates with himself, with his tasks and goals. He does not see the true interlocutor, ignores him, that is, the person sees around him not people, but his “doubles.”3. Dialogical communication is an alternative to imperative and manipulative types of interpersonal communication. It is based on the equality of partners and allows you to move from a focus on yourself to a focus on your interlocutor, a real communication partner.

In addition, there are several types of communication, among which the following can be noted:

• 1. “Mask contact.” In the process of communication there is no desire to understand a person, his individual characteristics Therefore, this type of communication is usually called formal. During communication it is used standard set masks that have already become familiar (severity, politeness, indifference, etc.), as well as a corresponding set of facial expressions and gestures. During a conversation, “common” phrases are often used to hide emotions and attitudes towards the interlocutor.
• 2. Primitive communication. This type communication is characterized by “neediness,” that is, a person evaluates another as a necessary or unnecessary (interfering) object. If a person is needed, they actively come into contact with him, interfere with him and “push him away” with sharp remarks. After receiving what they want from a communication partner, they lose further interest in him and, moreover, do not hide it.
• 3. Formal-role communication. In such communication, instead of understanding the personality of the interlocutor, they make do with knowledge of his social role. In life, each of us plays many roles.

Communication, despite its apparent simplicity, is a very complex and multifaceted process, during which interpersonal contacts are established and developed. Communication is a physical manifestation of a person’s need for joint activity, and during it the exchange of information, perception and understanding of the partner occurs. The main thing in communication is the emotional sphere, the consciousness of people. We will look at the types and functions of communication.

Types of communication

When talking about communication, we distinguish goals, types, structure, and functions. It is the types that are one of the main characteristics that allow us to indicate the very essence of contact with another person or people. Among them are the following:

Formalcommunication – communication in which the usual masks are used (politeness, severity, etc.) in order to hide true emotions. At the same time, there is no desire to understand the interlocutor.

Primitive communication- communication in which people evaluate each other as an object that interferes or that can help. Having received what he wants, the person stops communicating.

Formal-role communication– communication based on the correlation of social roles.

Business conversation– communication, the types and functions of which take into account the personality characteristics and mood of the interlocutor, but are based on the interests of the matter.

Spiritual, interpersonal communication of friends- communication, the functions and types of which are deep understanding and support of each other.

Manipulative communication– communication, the purpose of which is to obtain benefits.

Social communication- pointless communication, in which they say what is accepted, and not what they think.

Functions, types, levels and means of communication characterize communication from different sides and allow us to better understand its mechanism and the rules of its use, without which it is difficult to effectively interact with other people.

Communication functions

Functions are important properties that share manifestations of communication. There are six functions in total:

Intrapersonal function (a person’s communication with himself).

Pragmatic function (need-motivational reasons).

Function of formation and development (the ability to influence partners).

Confirmation function (the ability to know and confirm oneself).

The function of organizing and maintaining interpersonal relationships (establishing and maintaining productive connections).

Combine-disconnect function (promotes the transfer of necessary information or differentiation).

Understanding the mechanisms of communication, a person begins to look differently at this most important social tool, which allows one to improve and achieve goals. goals.

17. concept of temperament and its physiological basis

TEMPERAMENT- a set of typological characteristics of a person, manifested in the dynamics of his psychological processes: in the speed and strength of his reaction, in the emotional tone of his life.

A scientific explanation of the nature of temperament was given by I. P. Pavlov in the teaching of basic properties nervous system. Studying the higher nervous activity of animals, I.P. Pavlov established that dogs differ in the nature of the formation and course of conditioned reflexes, and also differ in temperament. On this basis, he came to the conclusion that the basis of individual characteristics of conditioned reflex activity, namely, the properties of the nervous system.

The basis of individual differences in nervous activity is manifestation and correlation of the properties of two main nervous processes - excitation and inhibition.

Three properties of the processes of excitation and inhibition were established: 1) the strength of the processes, 2) the balance of the processes, 3) the mobility (changeability) of the processes of excitation and inhibition.

The power of nervous processes is expressed in the ability of nerve cells to tolerate long-term or short-term, very concentrated excitation and inhibition. This determines the performance (endurance) of the nerve cell.

Weakness of nervous processes characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated excitation and inhibition. When exposed to very strong stimuli, nerve cells simply go into a state of protective inhibition. Thus, in a weak nervous system, nerve cells are characterized by low efficiency, their energy is quickly depleted. But a weak nervous system has great sensitivity: even to weak stimuli it gives an appropriate reaction.

An important property of higher nervous activity is balance of nervous processes, i.e. proportional ratio of excitation and inhibition. In some people these processes are mutually balanced, while in others this balance is not observed: either the process of inhibition or the process of excitation predominates.

One of the main properties of the higher nervous system is mobility of nervous processes. The mobility of the nervous system is characterized by the speed of alternation of processes of excitation and inhibition, the speed of their occurrence and cessation (when living conditions require it), the speed of movement of nervous processes (irradiation and concentration), the speed of appearance of nervous processes in response to irritation, the speed of formation of new conditioned connections, the development and changes in the dynamic stereotype.

I.P. Pavlov found out that the temperament of each animal depends on a combination of properties. This a combination of properties of the nervous system, which determines the individual characteristics of conditioned reflex activity and temperament, he named type of nervous system. Combinations of these properties of nervous processes of excitation and inhibition were used as the basis for the definition of higher nervous activity. Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balancing processes, they distinguish four main types of higher nervous activity.

Based on the strength of nervous processes, I. P. Pavlov distinguished strong And weak nervous systems. He, in turn, divided representatives of the strong nervous system into strong balanced And strong unbalanced. Strong balanced ones can be fast (alive) and slowly s mi(calm). IP Pavlov considered the weakness of the nervous system to be such a defining, essential feature that covers all other differences, and therefore representatives of the weak type were no longer divided further on the basis of balance and mobility of nervous processes.

This is how a classification of types of nervous activity was created. Let's briefly describe each type.

Weak type. Representatives of this type of nervous system cannot withstand strong, prolonged and concentrated stimulation. The processes of excitation and inhibition are weak. When exposed to strong stimuli, the development of conditioned reflexes is delayed. Along with this, there is a high sensitivity (i.e., a low threshold) to the action of stimuli.

Strong unbalanced type. It is distinguished by a strong nervous system, it is characterized by an imbalance of the main nervous processes - the predominance of excitation processes over inhibition processes.

Strong balanced mobile type. The processes of inhibition and excitation are strong and balanced, but their speed, mobility, and rapid turnover of nervous processes lead to the relative speed of formation and relative instability of nerve connections.

Strong balanced inert type. Strong and balanced processes are characterized by low mobility. Representatives of this type are always outwardly calm, even, and difficult to excite.

Types of higher activity belong to natural hereditary data; this is an innate property of the nervous system.

Soviet psychologists B.M. Teplov and V.D Nebylitsyn continued the research of I.P. Pavlov. Were open new properties, For example dynamism of nervous processes - a property that determines the speed and ease of development of positive conditioned reflex connections (dynamic excitation) and the speed of development of negative connections (dynamic inhibition), lability of nervous processes - especially b This property determines the speed of nervous processes, the occurrence of an excitatory or inhibitory process. In addition to the four combinations of properties of nervous processes that were identified by I. P. Pavlov, they were also discovered by others. Thus, the set of properties of the nervous system and their combinations on which temperament depends has been significantly expanded as a result of recent research.

18. character, character structure

Character- the structure of persistent, relatively constant mental properties that determine the characteristics of relationships and behavior of an individual.

Character Structure is a stable and natural system of dependencies between its individual features: core and surface, stable and situational, primary and secondary.

In the structure of character, researchers identify the following groups of traits.

To the first group include traits that express the orientation of the personality. These are stable needs, interests, inclinations, goals and ideals, as well as a system of relationships to the surrounding reality. These features represent individually unique ways of realizing the personality’s relationship to reality.

To the second group include intellectual, volitional and emotional character traits.

In the very general view All character traits can be divided into basic, leaders who set the general direction for the development of the entire complex of its manifestations, and minor, determined by the main ones. For example, if the leading trait is indecision, then the person first of all fears “that something might not work out,” so even if he tries to help his neighbors, it will end in internal worries and self-justifications. If the leading feature is altruism, then a person does not hesitate to help his neighbor. Knowing the leading traits allows you to reflect the essence of character and show its main manifestations.

From the entire set of relationships of the individual to the surrounding reality, character-forming forms of relationships should be distinguished. The most important distinctive feature such relationships are decisive, primary and general vital meaning those objects to which a person belongs. These relationships simultaneously serve as the basis for the classification of the most important character traits. A person’s character is manifested in the following system of relationships:

attitude towards other people(here we can highlight such character traits as “sociability - isolation”, “truthfulness - deceitfulness”, “tactfulness - rudeness”);

attitude to the matter(here we can highlight such character traits as “responsibility - dishonesty”, “hard work - laziness”);

attitude towards oneself(here we can highlight such character traits as “modesty - narcissism”, “self-criticism - self-confidence”, “pride - humility”);

attitude towards property(here we can highlight such character traits as “generosity - greed”, “frugality - wastefulness”, “neatness - sloppiness”).

It is necessary to note a certain convention of this classification and the close relationship and interpenetration of these aspects of the relationship. Despite the fact that these relationships are the most important from the point of view of character formation, they do not simultaneously and not collectively become character traits. There is a certain sequence in the transition of these relationships into character properties, and in this sense it is impossible to put on the same level the attitude towards other people and the attitude towards property, since their very content fulfills different role in the real existence of man.

It is not only natural for human character as a structural formation to manifest itself in the previously discussed relationships. It also has properties that are inherent to it as a whole: stability - plasticity, activity, strength, degree of depth and integrity. The degree of stability or variability of character allows us to judge its definiteness and plasticity. Under the influence of life circumstances and upbringing, the demands of society, character changes and develops. The degree of character depth reflects the connection of its traits with the core relationships of the personality, i.e. it reflects the basic properties of a given personality and their determining role in relation to other properties, more superficial. Thus, a person exhibits certain behavioral traits depending on which properties predominate in the character structure.

In a formed character, the leading component is belief system. Conviction determines the long-term direction of a person’s behavior, his inflexibility in achieving his goals and confidence in the justice and importance of the work he is doing.

Character traits, having a certain motivating force, clearly manifest themselves when the need to achieve success is realized. Depending on them, some people are characterized by a choice of actions that ensure success (showing initiative, seeking risk, competitive activity), while others are more likely to simply avoid failure, avoiding risk and responsibility.

As we noted earlier, one personality differs from another in individual characteristics, traits in the character structure. You can also highlight traits that are common to a certain group of people. Even in the most original person you can find some trait that may be inherent in a certain group of people with similar behavior. In this case we are talking about typical character traits.

A person's character is always a product of society. This explains the similarities and differences in the characters of people belonging to different groups. Individual character reflects a variety of typical traits: professional, age, national, etc. It is not difficult to describe the typical character of a teacher, doctor, military man. At the same time, each typical character has its own individual traits (the literary image of a stingy person: Plyushkin, the Stingy Knight, Gobsek). Psychology has repeatedly tried to classify character, dividing it into types. The study of character types should lead to the construction of a certain classification, to some kind of natural connection in their formation and manifestation. Without such a classification, the description of individual character types may be random and not have significant theoretical and practical significance.

19. ability and their nature. Development of abilities

Capabilities- this is something that does not boil down to knowledge, skills and abilities, but explains (ensures) their rapid acquisition, consolidation and effective use in practice.

A significant contribution to the development of the general theory of abilities was made by our domestic scientist B.M. Teplov. It was he who proposed the third of the listed definitions of abilities, on which we will rely. Let us clarify it using references to the works of B.M. Teplova. The concept of “ability,” in his opinion, contains three ideas. “Firstly, abilities refer to individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another. Secondly, abilities do not refer to any individual characteristics at all, but only those that are related to the success of performing any activity or many activities. In “Thirdly, the concept of “ability” cannot be reduced to the knowledge, skills or abilities that have already been developed by a given person.”

Abilities, B. M. Teplov believed, cannot exist except in a constant process of development. An ability that does not develop, which a person stops using in practice, is lost over time. Only thanks to constant exercises associated with systematic training in such complex species human activities such as music, technical and artistic creativity, mathematics, sports, etc., we maintain and further develop the corresponding abilities.

The success of any activity does not depend on any one, but on a combination of different abilities, and this combination, which gives the same result, can be achieved in different ways. In the absence of the necessary inclinations to develop some abilities, their deficit can be compensated for by the stronger development of others. "One of the most important features The human psyche, wrote B. M. Teplov, is the possibility of extremely broad compensation of some properties by others, as a result of which the relative weakness of any one ability does not at all exclude the possibility of successfully performing even such activities that are most closely related to this ability. The missing ability can be compensated within very wide limits by others that are highly developed in a given person.”

Let's consider the question of classifying human abilities. There are quite a lot of them. First of all, it is necessary to distinguish between natural or natural abilities (basically biologically determined) and specific human abilities that have a socio-historical origin.

Many of the natural abilities are common to humans and animals, especially higher ones, for example, monkeys. Such elementary abilities are perception, memory, thinking, and the ability for elementary communications at the level of expression. These abilities are directly related to innate inclinations, but are not identical to them, but are formed on their basis in the presence of elementary life experience through learning mechanisms such as conditioned reflex connections, operant conditioning, imprinting and a number of others. Otherwise, in terms of their abilities, their set and mechanisms of formation, humans and animals are fundamentally different from each other. A person, in addition to biologically determined ones, has abilities that ensure his life and development in a social environment. These are general and special higher intellectual abilities based on the use of speech and logic, theoretical and practical, educational and creative, subject and interpersonal.

General abilities include those that determine a person’s success in a wide variety of activities. These, for example, include mental abilities, subtlety and accuracy of manual movements, developed memory, perfect speech and a number of others. Special abilities determine a person’s success in specific types of activities, the implementation of which requires inclinations of a special kind and their development. Such abilities include musical, mathematical, linguistic, technical, literary, artistic and creative, sports and a number of others. The presence of general abilities in a person does not exclude the development of special ones and vice versa. Often general and special abilities coexist, mutually complementing and enriching each other.

Theoretical and practical abilities differ in that the former predetermine a person’s inclination to abstract theoretical thinking, and the latter to concrete, practical actions. Such abilities, in contrast to general and special ones, on the contrary, are more often not combined with each other, occurring together only in gifted, multi-talented people.

Educational and Creative skills differ from each other in that the former determine the success of training and education, a person’s assimilation of knowledge, skills, abilities, and the formation of personal qualities, while the latter determine the creation of objects of material and spiritual culture, the production of new ideas, discoveries and inventions, in a word - individual creativity in various areas of human activity.

The abilities to communicate, interact with people, as well as subject-activity, or subject-cognitive, abilities are to the greatest extent socially conditioned. Examples of abilities of the first type include human speech as a means of communication (speech in its communicative function), the ability of interpersonal perception and evaluation of people, the ability of socio-psychological adaptation to various situations, the ability to come into contact with various people, win them over, influence them, etc.

Examples of subject-cognitive abilities are well known. They are traditionally studied in general and differential psychology and are called abilities to various types theoretical and practical activities. Until now, in psychology, primary attention has been paid specifically to subject-related abilities, although abilities of an interpersonal nature are no less important for the psychological development of a person, his socialization and the acquisition of the necessary forms of social behavior. Without mastery of speech as a means of communication, for example, without the ability to adapt to people, correctly perceive and evaluate them and their actions, interact with them and establish good relationships in various social situations, normal life and mental development of a person would be simply impossible. The absence of such abilities in a person would be an insurmountable obstacle precisely on the path of transforming him from a biological being into a social one.

In the development of communication abilities, one can probably distinguish its own stages of formation, its own specific inclinations. One of them is probably the innate ability of children to respond to their mother's face and voice. It determines the primary form of communication in the form of a revival complex. Subsequently, to the ability to communicate emotionally is added, developing on its basis, the ability to understand states, guess intentions and adapt one’s behavior to the mood of other people, assimilate and follow certain social norms in communicating with them.

From a psychological point of view, a social norm of behavior is nothing more than the ability to communicate with people, ideally embodied in the relevant knowledge and requirements, to behave in such a way as to be accepted and understood by them. By internalizing social norms, an individual acquires the ability to interact effectively with people. IN Everyday life In our usual language, it is no coincidence that we call a person who knows the rules of etiquette and knows how to follow them, capable of communicating with people.

With the same reason, abilities can be called the ability to convince others, achieve mutual understanding, and influence people. As for the ability to perceive people and give them correct assessments, it is social psychology has long been considered a special kind of ability. Moreover, for many years now the specialist literature has been actively discussing the issue of congenital or acquired this ability, as well as the possibility of its development in different people. Both interpersonal and subject-related abilities complement each other. Thanks to their combination, a person gets the opportunity to develop fully and harmoniously.

It is not individual abilities that directly determine the success of any activity, but only their successful combination, exactly what is necessary for this activity. There is practically no activity in which success is determined by only one ability. On the other hand, the relative weakness of any one ability does not exclude the possibility of successfully performing the activity with which it is associated, since the missing ability can be compensated by others included in the complex that ensures this activity. For example, poor vision is partially compensated by the special development of hearing and skin sensitivity, and the lack of absolute pitch hearing is compensated by the development of timbral hearing.

Abilities not only jointly determine the success of an activity, but also interact with each other, influencing each other. Depending on the presence and degree of development of other abilities included in the complex, each of them acquires a different character. This mutual influence is especially strong when it comes to interdependent abilities that jointly determine the success of an activity. The combination of various highly developed abilities is called giftedness, and this characteristic refers to a person who is capable of many different activities.

20. concept and classification of emotions

Emotions These are the mental processes in which a person experiences his relationship to certain phenomena of the surrounding reality; emotions also reflect various states of the human body, his attitude towards his own behavior and his activities

There are different classifications of emotions, but in general they can be divided into three groups: positive, negative sthenic and negative asthenic. Stenic is anger, indignation, rage; asthenic – melancholy, fear, horror. Stenic emotions arise and occur with an increase in energy activity, they mobilize the body's resources, stimulate the activity of the muscles, nervous and cardiovascular systems. Asthenic emotions, on the contrary, occur against the background of suppression of the body’s energy and intellectual potential, suppression of mental activity, muscle activity, and inhibition of any response of the body. Thenic and asthenic emotions affect the heart differently. For example, if with melancholy and fear the blood flow in the vessels of the heart worsens, then with anger and rage, on the contrary, it increases. G.I. Kositsky considers sthenic and asthenic emotions to be manifestations of a single process that arises in response to changing environmental conditions, which he calls a state of tension (ST). There are four stages of heart failure: I. The stage of mobilization of the body’s reserves (in response to some situation) – stimulation of the nervous, endocrine and cardiovascular systems, increased brain activity, increased muscle tone and strength, and the level of energy metabolism. This is often accompanied by an increase in mental performance and mood, the mechanisms of probabilistic thinking are activated, a state of inspiration, insight, and high creative activity arises. II. Stenic negative emotion(if our body “believes” that the situation is critical and will require a large expenditure of strength and energy) - maximum strengthening of all systems responsible for interaction with external environment. Muscle tone, strength, and endurance increase sharply. All energy processes are sharply mobilized. The activity of the heart increases, blood pressure, ventilation of the lungs, and the release of adrenaline increase. Immunological reactions intensify. But, unlike the first stage, the mobilization of resources does not occur selectively (economically, expediently), but violently, excessively, redundantly and not always adequate to the situation. III. Asthenic negative emotion (if the body “believes” that the situation is emergency and the resources at its disposal are obviously insufficient for an adequate response and therefore the mobilization of these resources is practically useless) – all types of performance sharply decrease, pronounced fatigue and inhibition of the cerebral cortex occur. Immunological reactions are inhibited, cell restoration processes are inhibited, memory loss is noted, and the ability to think, make decisions, and assess the situation is suppressed. Sometimes fear depresses only the mental sphere, stimulating motor activity, then a person distraught with fear with enormous energy commits unnecessary useless actions (panic). IV. Neurosis is the last stage of HF, when the balance of processes in the cerebral cortex is disturbed, the “vegetative storm” characteristic of the third stage turns into “chaos” (if in the “storm” only strictly defined organs and systems included in the into the “program” for restructuring the body, then in “chaos” there is not even the semblance of a system or program). A sharp loss of performance, behavioral reactions and actions are disrupted, the regulation of internal organs is disrupted, and diseases develop. What is attractive about this system is that it gives a clear idea of ​​the development of a state of tension (or, more simply, stress), identifies the factors leading to these states and, most importantly, provides an understanding of methods to combat these states.

The division of communication into types is possible on several grounds: the number of participants, duration, degree of indirectness, completeness, desirability, etc.

Depending on the number of participants, interpersonal, personal-group, and intergroup communication can be distinguished.

In the primary group, the primary team, each person communicates with everyone. During such pair communication, both personal and group goals are realized and

tasks. If communication is based on content that concerns only these individuals, then they themselves choose the means that better reflect the position of each of them. Such communication is called interpersonal.

Personal-group communication is a case in which one side, one participant is an individual, the other is a group, a collective. Personal-group communication is most clearly manifested between the leader and the group, team.

Intergroup communication involves contact between two communities. These are team competitions in sports. The goals and objectives of communication between groups and teams may coincide, but they may not coincide. The individual is the bearer of collective content, defends it, and is guided by it.

Direct and indirect communication. Direct - face-to-face communication, communication in which each participant perceives the other and makes contact using all the means at his disposal.

Indirect communication is communication into which intermediate links are inserted in the form of a third person, a mechanism, or a thing.

Completed and unfinished (interrupted) communication. An indicator of the completeness of communication is the exhaustion of the content of the topic and joint action. Completed can be considered such communication, which is identically assessed by its participants, the fact of completeness, exhaustion.

In the course of unfinished communication, the content of the topic or joint action is not brought to the end, to the result that each of the parties pursued.

Depending on the time of communication, short-term and long-term communication are distinguished.

Communication concept. Communication structure

Communication is a multifaceted process of developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities. Communication includes the exchange of information between its participants, which can be characterized as the communicative side of communication. The second side of communication is the interaction of those communicating - the exchange in the process of speech not only of words, but also of actions and deeds. And finally, the third side of communication involves the perception of those communicating with each other.

Given the complexity of communication, it is necessary to somehow designate its Structure so that analysis of each element is then possible. The structure of communication can be approached in different ways, as well as the definition of its functions. We propose to characterize the structure of communication by identifying three interrelated aspects in it: communicative, interactive and perceptual.

The communicative side of communication, or communication in the narrow sense of the word, consists of the exchange of information between communicating individuals.

The interactive side consists in organizing interaction between communicating individuals, i.e. in the exchange of not only knowledge, ideas, but also actions.

Perceptual side communication means the process of perception and knowledge of each other by communication partners and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis.

Means and functions of communication.

The functions of communication are the roles and tasks that communication performs in the process of human social existence:

1) information and communication f. - exchange of information between individuals. Components of communication: communicator (transmits information), recipient (receives the message). The effectiveness of information transfer is manifested in its understanding, its acceptance or non-acceptance, and assimilation. The transmission of any information is possible through various sign systems;

2) incentive f. – stimulating the activity of partners to organize joint actions;

3) integrative f. – function of uniting people;

4) f. socialization - communication contributes to the development of skills for human interaction in society according to the norms and rules accepted in it;

5) coordination f. – coordination of actions when implementing joint activities;

6) f. understanding – adequate perception and understanding of information;

7) regulatory-communicative (interactive) f. is aimed at regulating and correcting behavior during the direct organization of joint activities of people in the process of their interaction;

8) affective-communicative function consists of influencing emotional sphere a person, which can be purposeful or involuntary.

Means of communication are methods of encoding, transmitting, processing and decoding information transmitted in the process of communication. They are verbal and non-verbal.

Verbal means of communication are words with assigned meanings. Words can be spoken aloud (oral speech), written (written speech), replaced by gestures for the blind, or spoken silently.

Oral speech is a simpler and more economical form verbal means. It is divided into:

1) dialogical speech, in which two interlocutors take part;

2) monologue speech - a speech delivered by one person.

Written speech is used when oral communication is impossible or when accuracy and precision of each word is necessary.

Nonverbal means of communication are a sign system that complements and enhances verbal communication, and sometimes replaces it. About 55–65% of information is transmitted using nonverbal means of communication. TO non-verbal means communications include:

1) visual aids:

a) kinesthetic means are visually perceived movements of another person that perform an expressive-regulatory function in communication (expressive movements manifested in facial expressions, posture, gesture, gaze, gait)

b) direction of gaze and visual contact;

c) facial expression;

d) eye expression;

e) posture – position of the body in space (“leg to leg”, crossed arms, crossed legs, etc.);

f) distance (distance to the interlocutor, angle of rotation towards him, personal space);

g) skin reactions (redness, sweating);

h) auxiliary means of communication (physique features (gender, age)) and means of their transformation (clothing, cosmetics, glasses, jewelry, tattoo, mustache, beard, cigarette, etc.);

2) acoustic (sound):

a) related to speech (loudness, timbre, intonation, tone, pitch, rhythm, speech pauses and their localization in the text);

b) not related to speech (laughter, gnashing of teeth, crying, coughing, sighs, etc.);

3) tactile – associated with touch:

a) physical influence (leading a blind person by the hand, etc.);