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1
Sensory ecology textbook. allowance
The ecological features of the development and structural and functional organization of the most important sensory systems of organisms (visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory and tactile), as well as the mechanism of participation of these systems in solving a number of environmental problems: biological isolation of the species, ensuring sexual, parental and other forms of behavior, regulation of aggression and social communication. The book presents the original data of the authors and the work of domestic and foreign physiologists, ethologists and biochemists on the study of the role of chemoreception in the perception of pheromones. Particular attention is paid to the sensory assessment of the ecological well-being of the artificially formed human environment and the problems of sensory communication and ecological methods of controlling the behavior of organisms. For students and graduate students of environmental, biological and medical faculties of higher educational institutions, teachers and researchers specializing in the field of analyzer physiology and physiological ecology. There are considered ecological peculiarity of development and structural and functional organization of the most important sensory systems of organisms (visual, hearing, olfaction and taste) and mechanism of these systems participation in the decision a series of ecological tasks (the biological isolation of species, providing of the sexual, parental and other forms of behavior, the regulation of aggression and social communication). In the book the original data obtained by the authors and the general survey of Russian and foreign physiological, ethological and biochemical works concerning the role of chemoreception in chemocommunication are presented. The special attention is devoted to sensory estimation of ecological prosperity of artificially made environment and sensory communication problems and ecological methods of managing the organisms behavior. The manual is intended for students, post-graduate students of ecological, biological and medical departments, and scientists, specializing in physiological ecology.
Chemical ecology of perception 69 mi.<...>Chemical ecology of perception 73 tori.<...>Chemical ecology of perception 87 approach.<...>Chemical ecology of perception 115 mente.<...>Sensory Ecology 396 Chemical Communication and Behavioral Ecology.
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Concepts of modern natural science. Chemical systems method. instructions
The guidelines are intended for students of humanitarian and economic specialties of full-time, part-time and correspondence departments. It includes the development of the topic "Chemical Systems" in the subject "Concepts of Modern Science".
ecology ..................................................... ...........................................<...>ecology The problem of the environment includes issues not only of a purely scientific nature, but also of economic<...>called chemical ecology.<...>Chemical ecology includes issues related to chemical processes occurring in the human system<...>problems in chemistry 5 Chemical ecology 6 Test questions 7 Test tasks 8 List of used
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Industrial ecology method. instructions for completing course work for students of specialty 280201 Environmental protection and rational use of natural resources (correspondence course)
Based on the requirements of the State Educational Standard, the goals, objectives, structure, and content of course work in the discipline “Industrial Ecology” for specialty 280201 Environmental protection and rational use of natural resources are described. Requirements for the design of an explanatory note are presented, as well as a list of topics for coursework.
Physico-chemical foundations of the process (with analysis of the ecological state). 5.<...>Physico-chemical basis of the process. 6.<...>Fundamentals of industrial ecology in chemical technology. – Ufa, UNI, 1990, 131 p. 2.<...>General chemical ecology and fundamentals of industrial ecology. – M.: Chemistry, 1999, 470 p. 4. Kalygin V.G.<...>Ecology. – M., 1999. – 422 p. 18. Voronkov N.A. Fundamentals of general ecology. – M., 1994. 19.
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The article is devoted to the polysemy of the term “ecology”. The work examines various interpretations of the term, provides classifications of the structure of environmental science, and makes an attempt to comprehend and generalize the variety of meanings of the term “ecology”. The material for the analysis was monolingual dictionaries of etymological, linguistic and environmental orientation.
<...>; ecology of water bodies; marine ecology; ecology of the Far North; chemical ecology, etc.; - by approach<...>It includes the following sections: general ecology, human ecology, animal ecology, plant ecology<...>Polysemy of the term “ecology” 127 container ecology (human ecology, social ecology, ecolinguistics<...>and general ecology, and to sociobiological ones - human ecology, social ecology, applied ecology
5
The article outlines the history of the formation of the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University from its organization in October 1929 to the present.
. No. 5 The Faculty of Chemistry was established, according to the order of Moscow State University, on October 1, 1929 on the basis of the chemical department<...> <...> <...> <...>
6
Akhmetov Nail Sibgatovich biobibliography
The biobibliographic index is dedicated to Nail Sibgatovich Akhmetov, a famous Russian scientist who went from student to professor at the Kazan State Technological University, Doctor of Chemical Sciences, Honored Scientist of the Republic of Tatarstan (1974) and the Russian Federation (1980), academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan (1993), head Department of Inorganic Chemistry. The publication includes: a biographical sketch, main dates of life and work, a chronological index of printed works for 1951-2003, an index of co-authors.
Periodic table of chemical elements D.I.<...>“Chemical education and chemical literature.” M.: Nauka, 1981. P.27-28. 203.<...>Periodic properties of chemical elements.<...>Chemical kinetics. Speed and mechanism of chemical reactions: Methodological instructions/N.S.<...>Chemical ecology: Methodological instructions/N.S.Akhmetov; Kazan State University of Technology; Comp. N.S. Akhmetov.
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Fundamentals of ecological culture, a self-help guide. student work
RIO FSBEI HPE "SGPI"
The manual for independent work of students “Fundamentals of Ecological Culture” was created in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard and is aimed at developing competencies in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard for Higher Professional Education. The purpose of this publication is to help teachers and students organize independent work when studying issues of general ecology. Each topic of the first section (except for the last) has a single structure, which makes it easier for both teachers and students to navigate the text: questions for independent study, concepts and terms, material for reference, tasks for students’ independent work, questions for self-control. The second section will help in organizing monitoring of the results of mastering the course. At the discretion of the teacher, assignments may be used in part or in full. This manual is the first part, including topics of general ecology. The second part, which we plan to publish, will present topics on human ecology and areas of ecology related to human activities.
Factorial ecology Chemical ecology Evolutionary ecology Ecological culture Ecological<...>; – mathematical ecology; – chemical ecology; – economic ecology; – legal ecology.<...>Factors Physiological rhythms Phytogenic factors Photoperiodism Chemical composition of the aquatic environment Chemical<...>Otherwise, abiotic factors are divided into physical, chemical and edaphic.<...>What is the chemical composition of living matter?
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Concepts of modern natural science textbook for economics students
M.: International Academy of Assessment and Consulting
The purpose of studying the course “Concepts of modern natural science” is to form in the future specialist: a holistic understanding of the processes and phenomena occurring in living and inanimate nature; understanding of the capabilities of modern scientific methods of knowledge of nature and the skills of mastering them at a level that allows one to correctly formulate tasks of natural science content that arise in one’s professional activities and everyday life. The textbook contains more than a thousand control tasks in test form, which allows you to achieve the goal set by the author - in the most effective way to teach the student to work independently, thoughtfully. The proposed textbook is intended for economics students and complies with the State educational standards for training specialists in intersectoral specialties: marketing (061 500, ENF.02), accounting, analysis and audit (060 500, ENF.05), finance and credit (060 400, ENF.05), as well as world economy (060 600, ENF.03), economics and sociology of labor (060 200, ENF.02) and information systems (071 900, ENF. F.02)
Chemical ecology (21) – a complex of disciplines that studies the totality of chemical bonds in living nature<...>and chemical interactions associated with life, including geochemical ecology.<...>Landscape ecology as a branch of geoecology. 42. Chemical ecology as a section of geoecology. 43.<...>ATMOSPHERE ECOLOGY – A SECTION OF ECOLOGY STUDYING: A. physical and chemical characteristics of the atmosphere<...>CHEMICAL ECOLOGY IS A SECTION OF ECOLOGY THAT STUDIES THE SET OF: A. chemical bonds B. chemical
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No. 2 [Applied toxicology, 2012]
The scientific and practical peer-reviewed journal “Applied Toxicology” was founded in 2009. Subject of the journal: scientific and practical aspects of the impact on humans and the ecosystem of poisonous, toxic and harmful substances and methods of their prevention and treatment.
Gives courses of lectures “Ecology”, “Social ecology”, “Modern concepts of natural science”, “Fundamentals<...>buffer The role of chemical factors and processes; buffer role Buffer substance Role of chemical factors<...>Chemical ecology of Semipalatinsk: Semipalatinsk State. un - t im. Shakarima, 2002. – 852 p. 28.<...>Ecology.<...>The role of organisms in the regulation of the migration of chemical elements and the movement of matter in ecosystems // Ecology
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No. 5 [Bulletin of Moscow University. Series 2. Chemistry, 2014]
The journal publishes articles by both university staff and authors from other organizations in Russia and around the world. The publications cover all branches of chemistry.
T. 55. No. 5 The Faculty of Chemistry was established, according to the order at Moscow State University, on October 1, 1929 on the basis of the chemical<...>Initially, the Faculty of Chemistry included eight departments, including five chemistry departments, which included<...>Keywords: Faculty of Chemistry, Moscow University, Department of Chemistry, scientific schools, chemical<...>In 1947, the Department of Chemical Technology was created (in 1983–1988 it was called the Department of Radiochemistry and Chemical Engineering<...>New specializations have been opened: chemistry of nanoparticles and nanomaterials (UC Nanochemistry, 1997), chemical ecology
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Sustainable development and environmental safety studies. allowance
Publishing house SSAU
Sustainable development and environmental safety. Programs used: Adobe Acrobat. Works of SSAU employees (electronic version)
An ecologist must be proficient in methods of physical and chemical analysis and quantitative studies of substance transfer<...>Ecology of settlements, communal ecology - sections of applied ecology devoted to the characteristics and influences<...>Medical ecology includes recreational ecology, i.e. ecology of recreation and health improvement of people, closing<...>Judging by the names alone, it is difficult to distinguish between chemical ecology and environmental chemistry.<...>But chemical ecology studies chemical (mostly anthropogenic effects on organisms).
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The influence of combined chemical and electromagnetic pollution on the biological properties of soils monograph
Rostov n/d.: Southern Federal University Publishing House
The patterns of the impact of combined pollution on the biological properties of soils in the south of Russia, such as the abundance of various ecological groups of soil bacteria and micromycetes, soil microbial biomass, enzymatic activity, and soil phytotoxicity, have been established. Changes in soil properties were studied depending on the nature of pollutants (lead, oil), their concentration in the soil, and the level and frequency of electromagnetic influence. The contribution of each factor to the change in the biological properties of the soil was determined.
19891990; Chemical Encyclopedia, 1992).<...>Chemical ecology M.: MSU, 1994.-237 p. 26. Bolshakov V.A., Krasnova N.M., Borisochkina T.N. and etc.<...>Ecology of oil and gas. Systems approach.<...>Fundamentals of Electromagnetic Ecology. M.: Radio and communication, 2000. 240 p.<...>Ecology, nature conservation, environmental safety.
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Physiology and biochemistry of plants. Test tasks.
This textbook was prepared at the Department of Forestry, Botany and Plant Physiology of the Orenburg State Agrarian University and includes test tasks covering all sections of the discipline “Plant Physiology and Biochemistry”: cell physiology and biochemistry, water metabolism, photosynthesis, respiration, mineral nutrition, metabolism and transport of substances in the plant, growth and development, adaptation and stability, physiology and biochemistry of the formation of crop quality. Intended for use by full-time and part-time students in the areas of training 110400.62 “Agronomy” and 110900.62 “Technology of production and processing of agricultural products” in preparation for the current control of knowledge and intermediate certification in the course of physiology and biochemistry of plants, in order to increase the level of assimilation and consolidation of knowledge.
The theoretical basis of rational agriculture is: a) plant ecology b) geobotany c) soil science<...>The main chemical components of the cell wall in plants are... a) lipoproteins b) carbohydrates<...>Reversible changes in the tertiary structure of a protein molecule under the influence of various physical and chemical<...>high ability for a variety of chemical, physicochemical and biological reactions is called<...>Chemical ecology of higher plants / G. I. Zhungietu, I. I.
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Physiology of plant resistance to unfavorable factors. Test tasks for ongoing monitoring of progress and intermediate certification.
FSBEI HPE Orenburg State Agrarian University
This collection of test tasks was compiled at the Department of Forestry, Botany and Plant Physiology of the Orenburg State Agrarian University and includes test tasks covering such a section of plant physiology as adaptation and resistance of plants to unfavorable environmental factors. Intended for use by master's students in the field of study "Agronomy", as well as students (bachelor's level) of full-time and part-time forms of study in the fields of study "Agronomy", "Technology of production and processing of agricultural products" and "Forestry" in preparation for ongoing monitoring of academic performance and intermediate certification in the course of plant physiology in order to increase the level of assimilation and consolidation of knowledge.
When chemical or physical changes occur in the external environment, a plant cell experiences... a) a shift<...>The ability to carry out chemical reactions at a faster rate is explained by the presence in cells... a)<...>If, during the exchange of information between plant cells, the signal is of a chemical nature, then the molecule<...>When flooded, the harm to the plant lies in... the soil. a) disruption of aeration b) change in chemical<...>Chemical ecology of higher plants / G. I. Zhungietu, I. I.
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No. 1 [Bulletin of Pomor University. Series "Natural and Exact Sciences", 2007]
Archive of the journal "Bulletin of the Pomor University. Series: "Natural and Exact Sciences". Since 2011, it has been published under the title "Bulletin of the Northern (Arctic) Federal University. Series "Natural Sciences".
Fomin // Ecology. 2005. No. 2. P. 83–90. 13.<...>Features of its ecology are similar to Eristalis tenax (L.).<...>On the ecology of the onion hoverfly Eumerus strigatus Fall.<...>The chemical composition of atmospheric precipitation reflects the chemical composition of the atmosphere, including both natural<...>Chemical ecology / Moscow State University. M, 1994. 4. Monitoring of air pollution in cities / ed. ON THE.
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Physical and colloidal chemistry. Basic terms and definitions of textbooks. allowance
M.: Prospekt
Chemical Dictionary is an educational and reference publication prepared specifically for students of agricultural universities, as well as specialists who require an information base in the field of physical, colloidal chemistry. This publication corresponds to the program in physical and colloid chemistry for students of agricultural universities. The book may be of interest to a wide range of readers interested in chemistry. All terms and concepts are arranged in alphabetical order, which makes searching and using the book convenient. An alphabetical index is provided at the end of the publication; the appendix provides basic reference data and tables.
Thus, in the HF molecule Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 186 Chemical ecology<...>Chemical Ecology.<...>There are human ecology, plant and animal ecology, industrial ecology, agricultural<...>ecology, chemical ecology, radioecology, etc.<...>kinetics, 185 Chemical bonding, 185 Chemical ecology, 186 Chemical phenomena, 186 Chemical reactions
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No. 2 [Bulletin of the South Ural State University. Series "Metallurgy", 2014]
Articles are published reflecting the problems of the development of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy. The physical and chemical processes of metallurgy and the practice of their implementation are considered.
Chemical analysis was carried out on a Spectrolab S instrument.<...>It was found that the elastic contribution to the dissolution of nitrogen is greater than the chemical one. 2.<...>existing problems: – underestimation of the importance of internal environmental audit and lack of environmental awareness<...>Chemical ecology and engineering safety of metallurgical production / A.N. Varenkov, V.I.<...>An alternative to chemical desalting methods are thermal methods.
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Physiology and biochemistry of plants
FSBEI HPE Orenburg State Agrarian University
This dictionary of terms and concepts was compiled at the Department of Botany and Plant Physiology of the Orenburg State Agrarian University and includes basic terms and concepts covering all sections of the discipline “Plant Physiology and Biochemistry”: cell physiology and biochemistry, water metabolism, photosynthesis, respiration, mineral nutrition , growth and development, metabolism and transport of substances, plant stability.
In their chemical structure they are close to para-aminobenzoic acid.<...>Constitutional water is chemically bound water.<...>Chemical potential is the ratio of free energy to 1 mole of a substance.<...>The chemical nature of phytoncides is very diverse.<...>Chemical ecology of higher plants / G.I.
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ECOLOGICAL IMPERATIVE AND HEAVY METALS CONTENT IN THE SYSTEM “ATMOSPHERE AIR-WATER-SOIL-CROPPING PRODUCTS-ANIMAL PRODUCTS”
The monograph presents the results of our own research conducted on three farms in the Ryazan region with different ecological conditions of the environment. A high content of priority heavy metals was established in surface waters, soil, feed products, as well as in the internal organs of Holstein cows in Avangard LLC, whose territory is located near the regional center of Ryazan. Less pollution was found on the territory of the collective farm named after. Lenin, Kasimovsky district, although the amount of HMs was found in increased quantities in surface waters and soil. The smallest amount of HMs was detected on the territory of Agrofirma Pitelinskaya LLC, Pitelinsky district, Ryazan region, where excess concentrations of HMs in the media were not detected, but their quantity corresponded to the value of 1 MPC. The content of heavy metals in products did not exceed standard values in all farms. The total pollution (Z) of all environments on the territory of Avangard LLC in the Ryazan district of the Ryazan region was Z = 39.20, on the collective farm named after. Lenin, Kasimovsky district Z=34.14, agricultural firm "Pitelinskaya" Pitelinsky district Z=26.19. Intended for students of higher educational institutions, graduate students, farm managers and interested parties.
Ecology and animal health / I.M. Donnik, P.N.<...>Zaslavsky // Ecology of production. 2006. No. 6. P. 58 – 64. 40. Zakharova, O.A.<...>Fesenko // Ecology. – 1998. No. 6. – P. 441-446. 48. Kalnitsky B.D.<...>Chemical ecology [Text] / M.S. Panin. – Semipalatinsk, 2002. – 852 p. 84. Patin, S.A.<...>Menger // Ecology. – 1990. – No. 2. – P. 236–254. 103. Takh, I.P.
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Pedagogy of creativity: applied course of scientific creativity. allowance
ANOO "Interregional Center for Innovative Technologies in Education"
The textbook “Pedagogy of Creativity: An Applied Course in Scientific Creativity” is written based on the materials of the educational course “Theory and Methods of Development of Creative Thinking and Creative Abilities of Students,” conducted by the authors for a wide range of the teaching community. The authors propose a system of technologies for scientific creativity, including the theory of solving inventive problems by G.S. Altshuller, system of continuous creative education NFTM-TRIZ M.M. Zinovkina, open-type task system V.V. Utyomova.
Marile invented a method for chemically cleaning fabric.<...>Tarasov "Ecology and dialectics".<...>In this system, “Ecology” occupies a priority place as a new methodological approach.<...>The answer is based on the use of chemical reactions, for example with hydrochloric acid.<...>Fire-fighting additives 23 Chemical ecology Minimization (elimination) of production waste, waste
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Thin layer chromatography of amino acids in micellar mobile phases on silica gel
VORONEZH STATE UNIVERSITY
Using thin layer chromatography on Sorbfil plates with a polar stationary phase, the influence of the nature and concentration of surfactant micelles, ionic strength of the solution and pH of the medium on the chromatographic behavior of 17 amino acids was studied. The main regularities of the chromatographic behavior of various groups of amino acids in micellar mobile phases have been established. Examples of the use of MPF for the separation of amino acids in commercial preparations are given // Sorption and chromatographic processes. - 2011. - T. 11, Issue. 1. - pp. 869-876.
anionic SDS occur at the same pH value, close to 4.5, which is probably due to a change in the chemical<...>Physico-chemical foundations of sorption and membrane methods for the isolation and separation of amino acids.<...>Shtykov Sergey Nikolaevich – Doctor of Chemical Sciences, Professor of the Department of Analytical Chemistry and Chemical Ecology of the Institute<...>Chernyshevsky., Saratov Vorozheikin Sergey Borisovich – graduate student of the department of analytical chemistry and chemical<...>Ecology Institute of Chemistry, Saratov State University named after N.G.
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Heavy metals in agricultural landscapes of the Samara region: monograph
RIC SSAA
The monograph presents materials on the accumulation and distribution of heavy metals in the main types and subtypes of soils and agricultural crops in regional agricultural landscapes, depending on natural climatic, agroecological features and technogenic conditions. Various agrotechnical methods have been proposed to reduce the bioaccumulation of the most toxic metals in crop products and an environmental, economic and agro-energy assessment of soil remediation technology.
Chemical ecology: textbook / G. A. Bogdanovsky. – M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1994. – 237 p. 44.<...>Land resources and environmental problems / S. L. Davydova, L.<...>Ecology and protection of the biosphere during chemical pollution / D. S. Orlov, L. K. Sadovnikova, I. N.<...>Soil ecology / V. I. Savich, N. V. Parakhin, V. G.<...>Semenova // Ecology. – 1997. – No. 5. – P. 377-381. 450.
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No. 3 [Bulletin of the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia. Series: Theory of language. Semiotics. Semantics, 2015]
Journal “Theory of Language. Semiotics. Semantics" deepens and develops issues of general and specific theory of language; theory of speech activity and speech; semiotic characteristics of sign systems, language units of different levels and text; semiotics and poetics of literary texts; functional semantics of lexical and grammatical units; offers a comprehensive and comparative study of the typology of categories and units of language.
Philological Sciences, Professor - Dean of the Faculty of Physics, Mathematics and Natural Sciences of the RUDN University, Doctor of Chemistry<...>Mathematical Sciences - Dean of the Faculty of Russian Language and General Educational Disciplines of RUDN, Candidate of Chemistry<...>used in medicine; pharmaceutical terminology - names of dosage forms, medicines, chemical<...>ecology; industrial (engineering) ecology; general ecology; - by environment and components: land ecology<...>; ecology of water bodies; marine ecology; ecology of the Far North; chemical ecology, etc.; - by approach
Preview: Bulletin of the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia. Series Theory of Language. Semiotics. Semantics No. 3 2015.pdf (2.6 MB)24
The article analyzes the structural and functional composition of humic acids in soils of the Euro-Arctic region using molecular absorption (UV/visible) spectroscopy and assesses their ecoprotective role in relation to heavy metals, which is especially important for pollution-sensitive Arctic soils formed under the influence of permafrost (cryogenic) soils. processes. As the object of study, different types of soils of the Euro-Arctic region were chosen: gleyic light loamy pelozem on a medium loamy moraine (Kanin Peninsula, Cape Kanin Nos); humus-peat oligotrophic soil (Kolguev island, Bugrino village); typical non-carbonate, medium loamy gleyzem (Vaigach Island); Gray humus illuvial ferruginous sandy lithozem (Franz Josef Land archipelago, Hayes Island). To study the structural and functional composition, a mixture of humic acids was extracted from the soils with an alkaline solution of sodium pyrophosphate. Humic, fulvic and hymatomelanic acids were isolated from a mixture of humic acids with appropriate solvents with additional extraction of fulvic acids by adsorption chromatography using activated carbon as a sorbent. UV/visible spectra were recorded on a Shimadzu UV mini-1240 spectrophotometer using 0.005% alkaline solutions (0.1 N NaOH) of humic acids. Qualitative analysis of UV/visible spectra allowed us to make the assumption that humic and hymatomelanic acids of humus-peat oligotrophic soil have a more developed peripheral aliphatic component, thus, these acids will bind heavy metals to a greater extent and exhibit their ecoprotective role, while humic acids of other types The soils of the Euro-Arctic region have a more developed aromatic component. A quantitative assessment of the nature of humic acids was carried out using such parameters as: aromaticity, calculated using the Pieravuori formula, extinction coefficient E0.005%1cm, 465, adsorption ratio D400/D600, characterizing the degree of humification, and adsorption ratio D465/D650, characterizing the degree of condensation of the aromatic nuclei and the presence of conjugated fragments. Quantitative analysis of UV/visible spectra confirmed that humic and hymatomelanic acids of humus-peat oligotrophic soil will have the maximum barrier mechanism against heavy metals due to the high content of phenolic and carboxyl groups in the molecules of these acids, the highest degree of oxidation and a more developed chain conjugated bonds in them compared to other acids. But it has been established that in all types of soils studied, the process of humus formation proceeds predominantly according to the degradation type, that is, in the direction of the formation of fulvic acids.
Popova Natalya Sergeevna Prilutskaya *, Lyudmila Fedorovna Popova Department of Chemistry and Chemical Ecology, Higher<...>T 61 (2) Series “CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY” 2018 IZVESTIYA VYSSHIKH UCHEBNYKH ZAVEDENIY V 61 (2) KHIMIYA<...>structural and functional composition of humic acids in soils of various regions using modern physicochemical<...>UV mini-1240 spectrophotometer from Shimadzu in the laboratory of biogeochemical research of the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering<...>Ecology of the Higher School of Natural Sciences and Technologies of Northern Federal University.
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M.: RGUFKSMiT
These methodological recommendations contain assignments and educational material on the main topics of the Ecology curriculum for conducting independent studies. Topics for essays, topics for preparing presentations and reports, and test assignments for self-testing of knowledge are provided.
", "chemical ecology", "mathematical ecology", "space ecology", and "human ecology".<...>For any chemical process, the total energy in a closed system always remains constant.<...>Light as one of the forms of energy can be converted into work, heat or potential energy of chemicals<...>Thus, the unification of systems from the physicochemical part of the hierarchy with living systems of the biological part of the hierarchy<...>The importance of chemical environmental factors in the life of organisms. 41.
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No. 2 [Bulletin of Tomsk State University. Biology, 2012]
The scientific journal was separated into an independent periodical publication from the general scientific journal “Bulletin of Tomsk State University” in 2007. Published quarterly. Included in the List of Higher Attestation Commissions
Ecology. 2008. Vol. 8, No. 2. pp. 79–83. 14. Święcicka I.<...>Bachura Institute of Plant and Animal Ecology, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Ukraine)<...>Bochkareva Institute of Systematics and Ecology of Animals SB RAS (St.<...>Chemical ecology: textbook. for universities. Semipalatinsk: Semipalatinsk State. Univ., 2002. 851 p. 8.<...>» Institute of Plant and Animal Ecology, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Ukraine)
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M.: PROMEDIA
The conference was held in Nalchik on the basis of the Kabardino-Balkarian State University named after. Kh. M. Berbekova in September 2008
CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2008 volume 51 issue. 12 118 G.E. Zaikov, L.L.<...>Berbekova, Berlin Alexander Alexandrovich Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Director of the Institute of Chemical Physics named after.<...>Nesmeyanova RAS, Kireev Vyacheslav Vasilievich Doctor of Chemical Sciences, Professor, Head of the Department of Chemical Technology<...>Mendeleev, Mashukov Nurali Inalovich – Doctor of Chemical Sciences, Professor, Head. Department of Chemical Ecology of Kabardino-Balkarian State University<...>electronics Theoretical modeling of the structure and properties of nanocomposite materials Physico-chemical
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No. 3 [Siberian teacher, 2014]
Scientific and methodological journal. Problems of education are discussed, the latest pedagogical technologies and methods are described. In the Siberian Teacher you will get acquainted with the experience of innovative teachers and their colleagues abroad.
That is, the “school pose” contradicts the natural ecology of man.<...>design; ethics is the use of the “golden rule of morality” in relationships; biology and ecology<...>advanced training and retraining of education workers, head of the department of natural sciences and ecology<...>Chemical ecology of man: a methodological manual. Novosibirsk: NGPU Publishing House, 1997. 2. Chernukhin O.
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The results of this study make it possible to select salt compositions for the development of materials with regulated properties. The melts can be used for electrodeposition of tungsten coatings and molybdenum-tungsten cesium bronzes, which exhibit a wide range of physical and chemical properties.
CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2009 volume 52 issue. 4 111 (MM) are shown in Fig. 2.<...>Department of Physical Chemistry and Chemical Ecology UDC 546 (471.67) B.Yu. Gamataeva, M.B. Fataliev, A.M.<...>tungsten coatings and molybdenum-tungsten cesium bronzes, exhibiting a wide range of valuable physico-chemical<...>soCopyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency mailto: [email protected]) CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>Cs2MoO4 P2 F+WO3 S2+WO3 F+ S2 F+S1 Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL
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M.: PROMEDIA
The results of the conference, held on September 15-18, 2009 in Nalchik, the purpose of which was to identify young people seeking self-realization through innovative activities.
CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2010 volume 53 issue. 1 133 NEWS OF HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS T 53 (1) CHEMISTRY<...>Berbekova; Berlin Alexander Alexandrovich - Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Director of the Institute of Chemical Physics named after.<...>Ecology of Kabardino-Balkarian State University named after.<...>His successes in chemical kinetics were especially significant.<...>He headed the department of kinetics of chemical and biological processes at the Institute of Chemical Physics of the USSR Academy of Sciences
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M.: PROMEDIA
The electrophoretic behavior of eleven α-amino acids in various buffer media on cellulose matrices was studied. Conditions for the separation of mixtures of alanine-phenylalanine and alanine-tryptophan were found.
CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2007 volume 50 issue. 9 21 UDC 543.54:547 R.K. Chernova, I.V.<...>Copyright JSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2007 volume 50<...>Analytical Research in Medicine, Biology and Ecology. M.: Science. 2003. 85 p. 4.<...>Chemical test methods of analysis. M.: URSS. 2002. 129 p. 5. Ivanov V.M., Kuznetsova O.V.<...>
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The work is devoted to copper-based thallium-containing compounds as the most promising in the family of high-temperature superconductors (HTSCs) used in semiconductor technology.
40 CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2010 volume 53 issue. 9 12. Koltgof I.M., Stenger V.A.<...>Department of Chemical Ecology UDC. 541.135 S.S. Popova, O.N.<...>Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 42 CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2010 volume<...>0 0 15 30 45 60 1 2 3 4 4 3 2 1 Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>knowledge of the factors influencing the formation of cathode deposits and ultimately determining the physicochemical
33
M.: PROMEDIA
The types of interaction during the formation of a clathrate compound of the biopolymer pectin with iodine, which has physiological activity, are considered.
CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2009 volume 52 issue. 5 53 UDC 547.458+636.085+664.292 G.R.<...>iodine pectin complexes, the interaction forces that arise are predominantly of a physical nature, and the chemical<...>Copyright JSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2009 volume 52<...>Chemical modification and study of the biological activity of AMARANTHUS CRUENTUS pectins.<...>Department of Physical Chemistry and Chemical Ecology UDC 677.014.2 V.G. Stokozenko (PhD), Yu.V.
34
The kinetic patterns of polyvinyl alcohol oxidation were studied using the spectrophotometric method of ozone consumption in the liquid phase (H2O). It is shown that in the reaction under study at 6÷32 °C, ozone is consumed according to a second-order law. The rate constants and activation parameters of the reaction were determined.
22 CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2015 volume 58 issue. 4 UDC 542.943.5 G.G. Kutlugildina, D.K.<...> <...>& LLC "Agency Kniga-Service"Copyright OJSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 24 CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service AgencyCopyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>
35
The kinetics of the interaction of hydrogen peroxide with a number of uracils in water and 1,4-dioxane has been studied. The bimolecular rate constants and activation parameters of this reaction were determined.
40 CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2012 volume 55 issue. 3 UDC 541.14:547.551.2 G.R. Akhatova, I.V.<...>BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service AgencyCopyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>& LLC "Agency Kniga-Service"Copyright OJSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 42 CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service AgencyCopyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>Department of Physical Chemistry and Chemical Ecology UDC 541.183+541.123.2 O.A.
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M.: PROMEDIA
A technique for solving the inverse kinetic problem for the polymerization of dienes on vanadium-containing catalytic systems is presented.
CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2007 volume 50 issue. 1 48 UDC 541.64.057,66.095.264.3 E.N. Abdulova, E.R.<...>1j j a j Al n 1j j a j m j p (2) Copyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>type of active centers (corresponding to Copyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>Chemical series. 2004. No. 1. P. 1 – 10. 13. Sigaeva N.N. and others. Journal. adj. chemistry. 2001. T. 74.<...>Department of Physical Chemistry and Chemical Ecology UDC 547.789.724 A.A. Chesnyuk, S.N.
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M.: PROMEDIA
The combined influence of the nature of the second ligand and surfactant micelles on the efficiency of energy transfer in the Eu(3+) chelate with DC was studied, and a fluorimetric method for determining DC in blood plasma was developed.
CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2009 volume 52 issue. 1 39 UDC 547.963.32+543.426 T.D. Smirnova, S.N.<...>AND 1,10-PHENANTHROLINE IN MICELLAR SOLUTIONS OF TRITON X-100 (Saratov State University, Chemical<...>Book-Service" mailto: [email protected]; mailto: [email protected] mailto: [email protected] CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>330 340 350 360 370 380 390 A 1 2 Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>Department of Analytical Chemistry and Chemical Ecology Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency
38
Biotic relationships in plant communities
ecology.<...>The successes of chemical ecology are largely due to the emergence of new physical and chemical research methods,<...>The fundamentals of chemical ecology were outlined by Florkin (1966), who developed the terminology and formulated the main<...>Explain the concept of “chemical eco-regulators”. 4. Reveal the basic concepts of chemical ecology.<...>Founder of chemical ecology. 5.
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It is shown that the proposed method makes it possible to evaluate the influence of transition reactions of active centers on the kinetics of the process.
CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2009 volume 52 issue. 4 108 UDC 541.64.057, 66.095.264.3 E.N.<...> [email protected] mailto: [email protected] mailto: [email protected] mailto: [email protected] CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>−+µ++−= ⋅−= +⋅−= ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ = = = = Copyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>6·10-5 8·10-5 1·10-4 a, mol/l Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>Department of Physical Chemistry and Chemical Ecology UDC 546 (471.67) B.Yu. Gamataeva, M.B. Fataliev, A.M.
40
Using IR spectroscopy and volumetric methods, the joint adsorption of carbon dioxide and hydrogen on semiconductor catalysts CdTe and Cd0.2Hg0.8Te was studied. It has been shown that the hydrogenation of carbon dioxide proceeds through the stage of formation of a surface formate complex, the decomposition products of which are CO, CO2, H2 and H2O. The predominantly impact mechanism of joint adsorption of gases has been established. The most active component in a mixture of carbon dioxide and hydrogen is carbon dioxide. Schemes have been proposed for the catalytic hydrogenation of carbon dioxide on CdTe and Cd0.2Hg0.8Te.
CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2012 volume 55 issue. 3 43 4. Levin A.I. // Sov. medicine. 1969. No. 11.<...>Department of Physical Chemistry and Chemical Ecology UDC 541.183+541.123.2 O.A.<...>Temperature regions of greatest chemical adsorption of components and their greatest interaction have been identified<...>Chemical composition of the surface. Catalysis. Irkutsk: IGU. 1988. 168 pp.; Kirovskaya I.A.<...>Physico-chemical properties of the surface of the semiconductor system CdHgTe // Abstract of thesis. Ph.D. chem. Sci.
41
To calculate the decrease in freezing point Δt of aqueous solutions of sodium and potassium chlorides, it was proposed for the first time to take into account the ion-dipole interaction. For this purpose, the coefficient Ks was introduced into the well-known formula, which takes into account the hydration of ions in the first coordination sphere and depends on the mole fraction of the unbound solvent. Calculations using the formula Δt = i·Kkp·Cm·Ks made it possible to obtain values for the decrease in the freezing point of solutions that are as close as possible (in particular, for CaCl2 solutions) to their experimental values.
CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2014 volume 57 issue. 1 51 whose compositions corresponded to individual points<...>Department of Chemical Ecology UDC 544.353.21+544.353-128 V.V. Kirillov, A.Yu.<...>& Kniga-Service Agency LLCCopyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & Kniga-Service Agency LLC 52 CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>& Kniga-Service Agency LLCCopyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & Kniga-Service Agency LLC 54 CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>Chemical balance. Properties of solutions. Ed. S.A. Simanova.
42
The complex formation of apple pectin and low-molecular-weight products of its oxidation with uracils in an aqueous medium was studied using ultraviolet spectroscopy. The composition of the resulting complex compounds was determined and their stability constants were calculated. The influence of the nature of substituents in the 6-methyluracil molecule on the stability of the resulting complexes was studied.
46 CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2013 volume 56 issue. 3 Yashkin S.N., Svetlov A.A. Izv. Vyssh. Uchebn.<...>BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service AgencyCopyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...> <...>& Kniga-Service Agency LLCCopyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & Kniga-Service Agency LLC 50 CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>Department of Physical Chemistry and Chemical Ecology Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency
43
Experimental data on the content of dissolved oxygen, phosphorus and silicon at standard horizons of the White and Barents Seas were obtained. Profiles of the vertical distribution of these nutrients were constructed and analyzed on standard and secular sections of the oceanographic network of the White and Barents Seas. The main factors influencing the structure of the waters of the studied seas, similarities and differences in the hydrochemical structure of their waters have been identified. It has been established that the surface waters of the Barents Sea are well mixed to a depth of 50-100 m; they are rich in oxygen, but depleted in nutrients, which impedes the development of primary production. At the same time, a significant influence of the Atlantic water mass was noted in the Barents Sea. The waters of the White Sea, on the contrary, are quite rich in biogenic elements, especially silicon. This is a favorable environment for the development of life, but the waters of the White Sea are more vulnerable, because... their structure is strongly influenced by continental runoff, which can cause pollution of the marine system
//WATER: CHEMISTRY and ECOLOGY No. 9, September 2014 p. 16–20 Introduction Vulnerability to anthropogenic influence<...>Popova, Candidate of Chemical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Ecology, Institute of Natural Sciences<...>//WATER: CHEMISTRY and ECOLOGY No. 9, September 2014 p. 16–20 rounds of each other, minimum concentrations are noted<...>//WATER: CHEMISTRY and ECOLOGY No. 9, September 2014 p. 16–20 bioproductivity. / Rep. ed. F.S.<...>Guide to the chemical analysis of sea waters. St. Petersburg: Gidrometeoizdat, 1993. 128 p. 6.
44
Guidelines for completing tests in the discipline “Ecology of Bashkortostan”
The guidelines provide design rules and methodological recommendations for completing the test work in the discipline “Ecology of Bashkortostan”. Intended for part-time students of specialty 280201.65 Environmental protection and rational use of natural resources.
Industrial ecology. Forest ecology. Marine Ecology. Ecology of freshwater ecosystems.<...>Ecology of the steppes. Ecology of the tundra. Ecology of swamps. Ecology of meadows. Ecology of the highlands.<...>AND METHODS FOR ASSESSING THE STATE OF ECOSYSTEMS Chemical ecology. Physical Ecology.
Using the SARD-21 (Structure Activity Relationship & Design) computer system, structural features characteristic of highly, moderately, and lowly effective inhibitors of the catalytic activity of 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) of human blood cells were identified, and the degree of their influence on the effectiveness of the inhibitory action was assessed . Two models M1 and M2 were constructed, differing in the interval level of prediction and recognition of the inhibitory activity of various classes of compounds in relation to 5-LOG with a reliable prediction level of 83% and 88% for models M1 and M2, respectively.
CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2012 volume 55 issue. 9 39 driving forces.<...>Secondly, the procedure for numerically solving systems of differential equations of chemical kinetics with computational<...>Ecology, Department of Technology of Devices and Materials of Electronic Engineering UDC: 544.165+615.22 V.R.<...>Series UDC 547.425.5 D.V. Sudarikov1, V.A. Kuropatov2, S.A. Rubtsova1, V.K.<...>Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency mailto: [email protected] CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>WINEPR SimFonia program for adCopyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>Chemical series. 1998. 10. 2110 2. Kuchin A.V., Rubtsova S.A., Loginova I.V. Izv. ak. Sci.
47
Ecology textbook
M.: ITK "Dashkov and K"
The textbook consists of four sections. The first section examines living systems at all levels of their organization. The main attention is paid to the supraorganismal levels of organization of living systems in all the unity and inseparability of numerous connections, the patterns of their manifestation (general ecology). The second section is devoted to the ecology of the biosphere (global ecology), the third - to human ecology. The fourth section analyzes the environmental problems of our time, the causes of their occurrence and ways to reduce their impact on the natural environment and prevent an environmental crisis (applied ecology).
Ecology of the biosphere (global ecology) ................. 90 2.1.<...>Chemical ecology examines the influence of chemicals on living organisms and inanimate nature,<...>The main sections of modern ecology are: � general ecology; � global ecology; � ecology<...>prokaryotes; � ecology of mushrooms; � plant ecology; � animal ecology.<...>According to their physicochemical nature, pollutants are divided into physical, chemical, physicochemical
Preview: Ecology.pdf (0.2 Mb) Aronbaev et al. // WATER: CHEMISTRY ANDCHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2014 volume 57 issue. 1 47 UDC 541.123.3 R.S. Mirzoev, R.M.<...>& Kniga-Service Agency LLCCopyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & Kniga-Service Agency LLC 48 CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>To solve this problem, various models are used in the practice of physical and chemical research, in which<...>Chemical analysis of the liquid phase for the content of carbonate ions was carried out using the acid-base titration method<...>Department of Chemical Ecology UDC 544.353.21+544.353-128 V.V. Kirillov, A.Yu.
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M.: PROMEDIA
Using the computational and experimental method using the Pitzer model, a quantitative construction of the solubility diagram of the presented system was carried out. The results of calculating the solubility of salts in the system are confirmed by experimental studies of invariant and monovariant equilibria.
36 CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY 2010 volume 53 issue. 9 personal electrochemical processes.<...>All of the listed ternary water systems are of a simple eutonic type without the formation of new chemical<...>necessaryCopyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency mailto: [email protected] CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL<...>P. 156-159 Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 40 CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY<...>Department of Chemical Ecology UDC. 541.135 S.S. Popova, O.N.
n1.doc
Ecological Dictionary/Compiled by: S.Delyatitsky, I. Zayonts, L. Chertkov, V. Edaryan. M.: Concord Ltd - Ecoprom, 1993. 208 p.Bogdanovsky G.A. Chemical ecology. M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1994. 237 p.
Bondareva TM. Ecology of chemical production. M.: Publishing house MIHM, 1986.92 p.
Afanasiev /ABOUT. A,Fomin S.A. Environmental monitoring and control methods. Ch.I.M.: Publishing house MNEPU, 1998. 208 p.
Kalygin V.G., Popov Yu.L. Powder technologies: environmental safety and resource conservation. M.: Publishing house MGAKhM, 1996. 212 p.
Buks I.I., Fomin S.A. Environmental expertise and environmental impact assessment (EIA). M.: Publishing house MNEPU, 1999.128 p.
Lecture2. SOURCES OF TECHNOGENIC POLLUTION OF THE BIOSPHERE
(IN THE SYSTEM TECHNOSPHERE - ATMOSPHERE - LITHOSPHERE - HYDROSPHERE)
Characteristics of contaminants
Modern production volumes and its intensification, despite the improvement of technology and equipment for cleaning emissions (waste),
Resulted in an increase in the total mass harmful substances(EXPLOSIVES) introduced into the atmosphere. The power supply to production has increased and, accordingly, the amount of fuel burned and flue gases generated: it is believed that electricity generation and the volume of industrial production double every 7-10 years.
Every year, 200 million tons of carbon monoxide, 150 million tons of sulfur dioxide, 50 million tons of nitrogen oxides (mainly NO 2), more than 50 million tons of various hydrocarbons and 20 billion tons of CO 2 are emitted into the atmosphere. Over the past decades, the consumption of mineral and organic raw materials has increased sharply: in 1913, 5 tons of mineral raw materials were consumed annually per inhabitant of the Earth, in 1940 - 7.4, in 1960 - 14.3, and in 2000. consumption can reach 40-50 tons. Accordingly, the volumes of waste of industrial and municipal origin are increasing (table 2.1 - according to N. Torocheshnikov and others).
| Table 2. 1 Structure and volume of industrial waste in the world, million tons | Production (operation) |
|||||
| Waste category | Years | "classical" energy | industrial sector | agricultural sector | municipal sector | Total |
| Main gaseous substances of the atmosphere | 1970 2000 | 17326 43980 | 47 226 | 1460 3780 | 873 2773 | 19706 50459 |
| Emission of particulate matter into the atmosphere | 1970 2000 | 133 284 | 91 382 | 14 42 | 3 13
| 241 721 |
| Solid waste | 1970 2000 | - | 4000 12000 | - | 1000 3000 | 5000 15000 |
| Hydrocarbons | 1970 2000 | 42 140 | 14 57 | 9 27
| 4 20
| 69 244 |
| Organic waste | 1970 2000 | - | : | 4500 13000 | 30 50 | 4530 13050 |
| Fecal waste | 1970 2000 | _ | - | 9400 24000 | 180 320 | 9580 24320 |
| Total | 1970 2000 | 17501 44404 | 4152 12665 | 15383 40849 | 2090 6176 | 39126 104094 |
Analysis of data on the state of the Russian environment shows that the total amount of emissions into the atmosphere from industrial sources in 1991 amounted to about 32 million tons of harmful substances. Of these, about 9.2 million tons fall on sulfur dioxide, about 3 million tons on nitrogen oxides, about 7.6 million tons on carbon monoxide, about 3.5 million tons on hydrocarbons,
About 1.7 million tons are for volatile organic compounds, about 6.4 million tons are for solids. The emissions contain specific explosives with fairly high toxicity: carbon disulfide, fluoride compounds, benzo(a)-pyrene, hydrogen sulfide, etc. Their amount does not exceed 2% of the total mass of emissions.
The total amount of suspended particles entering the atmosphere as a result of various human activities (according to experts from the Economic Commission for Europe) becomes commensurate with the amount of pollution of natural origin. It should be noted that observations of the state of atmospheric air in the country for the period 1988 -1996. indicate a decrease in average concentrations of suspended solids, soluble sulfates, ammonia, soot, and hydrogen sulfide due to a decline in production and the closure of a number of enterprises. An analysis of the composition of industrial emissions and motor vehicles in 100 cities of the USSR carried out in 1990 showed that 85% of the total emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere are sulfur dioxide, carbon oxides and aerosol dust. Half of the remaining 15% of specific harmful substances are hydrocarbons, the other half are ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, phenol, chlorine, carbon disulfide, fluoride compounds, and sulfuric acid.
Pollution of the biosphere is the result of emissions of pollutants or certain types of energy (for example, electromagnetic fields) from various sources. Pollutants (contaminants) may have natural (natural) and artificial (anthropogenic) origin. According to their physical state, for example, atmospheric pollutants are divided into solid (dusts, fumes), liquid (fogs), gaseous (gases, vapors) and combined. Of the total mass of substances emitted into the atmosphere, gases (vapors) make up about 90%. According to WHO estimates (see lecture 1), out of more than 6 million known chemical compounds, up to 500 thousand compounds are practically used. Of these, about 40 thousand have harmful properties for humans, and 12 thousand are toxic. Moreover, any chemical pollutant of the atmosphere has action threshold.
Natural sources of pollution include dust storms, volcanic eruptions, gas emissions from geysers and geothermal sources, intravital emissions into the atmosphere of plants, animals, microorganisms, etc.
Sources of artificial pollution are various industrial enterprises, utilities, leaks from gas storage facilities and pipelines, etc. Atmospheric pollutants are divided into primary, entering directly into the atmosphere, and secondary, resulting from their transformations. For example, sulfur dioxide entering the atmosphere is oxidized by atmospheric oxygen to sulfur trioxide, which then interacts with water vapor to form droplets of sulfuric acid. When assessing air pollution, the period of residence of pollutants in it is taken into account. Substances that have a similar effect on living organisms, that is, having the effect of summation of harmful effects, can simultaneously enter the atmosphere.
All harmful substances (HS), in accordance with GOST 12.1.0.07-76, according to the degree of impact on the human body, are divided into four hazard classes: 1st - extremely dangerous substances, MPC less than 0.1 mg/m 3; 2nd - highly hazardous substances, MPC 0.1-1 mg/m3; 3rd - moderately hazardous substances, MPC 1.1-10 mg/m3; 4th - slightly hazardous substances, MPC more than 10 mg/m3.
The main element of air pollution is aerosol formations. Aerosols - These are dispersed systems in which the dispersion medium is a gas, and the dispersion phases are solid or liquid particles. Typically, the particle sizes of aerosols are limited to an interval of 10 ~ 7 -10" 3 cm. Aerosols are divided into three groups. The first includes dust - collectives consisting of solid particles dispersed in a gaseous medium. The second group includes smoke - all aerosols that are obtained when gas condensation. The third group includes fogs - collectives of liquid particles in a gaseous medium.
Currently, about 20 million tons of particles are suspended in the earth’s atmosphere, of which approximately three quarters come from emissions from industrial enterprises.
Of the numerous atmospheric contaminants (as defined by the WHO expert committee), the main ones are suspended particles - aerosols of various compositions, followed by sulfur compounds and oxidants, that is, substances formed in the atmospheric air as a result of photochemical transformations. For example, already in 1975, about 100 million tons of solid substances were emitted into the atmosphere worldwide.
The particular importance of dust and other suspended particles is explained by the fact that they pollute the atmosphere not only as a result of direct emissions, but to a greater extent as a result of various transformations of gaseous substances emitted into the atmosphere (sulfur compounds, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons) with the formation of fine aerosols.
Sources of air pollution by emissions can be classified:
By purpose: a) technological, containing tail gases after recovery units (recovery, absorption, etc.); b) ventilation emissions - local suction, exhaust hoods.
By location: a) unshaded or high (high pipes, point sources that remove pollution to a height exceeding the height of the building by 2.5 or more times); b) shaded or low, that is, located at a height 2.5 times less than the height of the building; c) ground - located near the earth's surface (open technological equipment, spills, industrial sewage wells, etc.).
By geometric shape: a) point (pipes, shafts, fans); b) linear (aeration lamps, open windows, torches).
By operating mode: continuous and periodic action, salvo and instantaneous.
5.By propagation range: on-site, that is, creating high concentrations only on the territory of the industrial site, and in residential areas not producing noticeable pollution (for such emissions a sanitary protection zone of sufficient size is provided); off-site, when emitted pollutants are capable of creating high concentrations (on the order of the maximum permissible concentration for air in populated areas) in residential areas.
Gas industrial emissions can beorganized and unorganized.
Organized industrial release- emissions entering the atmosphere through special structures - gas ducts, air ducts, pipes, and fugitive release- emissions entering the atmosphere as a result of a violation of the tightness of equipment, unsatisfactory operation of the ventilation system, or local suction.
Wastewater containing dissolved and suspended substances discharged (waste) into hydrosphere or lithosphere, are considered as discharges. Discharges are separated to unorganized if they flow into a water body directly from the territory of an industrial enterprise that is not equipped with a special, for example, storm sewer or other collection devices, as well as on organized, if they are discharged through specially constructed sources - water outlets. Outlets are classified according to the following criteria: by type of reservoir or watercourse; at the location of the outlet; according to the design of the distribution part; according to the design of the head or discharge device.
The biological accumulation and accumulation of polluting liquid substances emitted by enterprises poses a great danger. Urban wastewater (mixtures of domestic and industrial) contains mineral (clay, sand, scale, soot, sulfates, chlorides, salts of heavy metals, etc.) and organic (protein substances, carbohydrates, fats, oils, petroleum products, synthetic surfactants etc.) pollution. Biogenic elements - nitrogen and phosphorus compounds are found in wastewater in organic and inorganic form.
All of the listed contaminants can be in coarse dispersed (settling under the influence of gravity), colloidal and dissolved states. Most of the organic pollutants in urban wastewater are in coarse (15-20%) and colloidal (50-60%) states.
Based on the degree of contamination and origin, wastewater can be divided into the following groups:
1) contaminated; representing a mixture of waste liquids after technological processes, as well as after washing equipment and floors (75-80%);
conditionally pure water from cooling equipment, compressor and refrigeration units, ventilation devices, etc. (6-18%);
household and fecal (5-6%);
storm water from washing the territory, vehicles, etc. (2-3%).
Morphological composition: ferrous and non-ferrous metals, waste paper and textile components, waste glass, plastic, leather, rubber, wood, stones, as well as the remains of unreacted solid raw materials, resins, distillation bottoms, various sediments and sludges, spent catalysts, filter materials, adsorbents that cannot be regenerated, general plant waste, etc. An average of 8-10% of the cost of manufactured products is spent on removing such production waste. For the storage of solid waste from Moscow enterprises, 20 hectares of land are allocated annually in the Moscow region. Transportation and storage of waste consumes billions of rubles annually.
Conventionally, enterprises can be divided into three groups, taking into account their potential for polluting the biosphere. The first group includes enterprises with a predominance of chemical technological processes. The second group includes enterprises with a predominance of mechanical (machine-building) technological processes. The third group includes enterprises that carry out both extraction and chemical processing of raw materials.
For example, chemical industry enterprises(Group I) are distinguished by a variety of toxic gas emissions and liquid effluents. The main ones are organic solvents, amines, aldehydes, chlorine and its derivatives, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen cyanide, fluorides, sulfur compounds (sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, carbon disulfide), organometallic compounds, phosphorus compounds, arsenic, mercury. A list of some environmentally hazardous waste from Group I enterprises is presented in Table 1. 2.2.
| Table 2.2 Typical atmospheric emissions from the main chemical industry production facilities Production | Harmful emissions into the atmosphere |
| Acids: | |
| - nitrogen | NO, N0 2, NH 3 |
| - sulfur | NO, N0 2 , S 0 2i SO3H 2 S0 4> Fe 2 0 3 (dust) |
| - salt | HCl, Cl 2 |
| - sorrel | NO, N0 2, C 2 H 2 0 4 (dust) |
| - sulfamic | NH 3 , NH(S0 3 NH 4 ) 2 , H2SO4 |
| - phosphorus (phosphorus) | P 2 0 5 , H3PO4, HF,phosphogypsum (dust) |
| - vinegar | CH3CHO, CH3COOH |
Soil is the top layer of land, formed under the influence of plants, animals, microorganisms and climate from the parent rocks on which it is located. This is an important and complex component of the biosphere, closely connected with its other parts.
The following main components interact in complex ways in soil:
Mineral particles (sand, clay), water, air;
Detritus - dead organic matter, the remains of the vital activity of plants and animals;
Many living organisms - from detritivores to decomposers, decomposing detritus to humus.
Thus, soil is a bioinert system based on the dynamic interaction between mineral components, detritus, detritivores and soil organisms.
Soils go through several stages in their development and formation. Young soils are usually the result of weathering of parent rocks or transport of sediment deposits (eg alluvium). Microorganisms, pioneer plants - lichens, mosses, grasses, and small animals - settle on these substrates. Gradually, other species of plants and animals are introduced, the composition of the biocenosis becomes more complex, and a whole series of relationships arises between the mineral substrate and living organisms. As a result, mature soil is formed, the properties of which depend on the original parent rock and climate.
The process of soil development ends when equilibrium is achieved, the correspondence of the soil with the vegetation cover and climate, that is, a state of menopause occurs. Thus, changes in soil that occur during the process of its formation resemble successional changes in ecosystems.
Each soil type corresponds to certain types of plant communities. Thus, pine forests, as a rule, grow on light sandy soils, while spruce forests prefer heavier and nutrient-rich loamy soils.
Soil is like a living organism within which various complex processes take place. In order to maintain the soil in good condition, it is necessary to know the nature of the metabolic processes of all its components.
Surface layers of soil usually contain many remains of plant and animal organisms, the decomposition of which leads to the formation of humus. The amount of humus determines the fertility of the soil.
The soil is home to a great variety of different living organisms - edaphobionts, forming a complex food detrital network: bacteria, microfungi, algae, protozoa, mollusks, arthropods and their larvae, earthworms and many others. All these organisms play a huge role in the formation of soil and changes in its physical and chemical characteristics.
Plants absorb essential minerals from the soil, but after the death of plant organisms, the removed elements return to the soil. Soil organisms gradually process all organic residues. Thus, under natural conditions there is a constant cycle of substances in the soil.
In artificial agrocenoses, such a cycle is disrupted, since people withdraw a significant part of agricultural products, using them for their own needs. Due to the non-participation of this part of the production in the cycle, the soil becomes infertile. To avoid this and increase soil fertility in artificial agrocenoses, people apply organic and mineral fertilizers.
Soil pollution. Under normal natural conditions, all processes occurring in the soil are in balance. But often people are to blame for disturbing the equilibrium state of the soil. As a result of the development of human economic activity, pollution occurs, changes in the composition of the soil and even its destruction. Currently, there is less than one hectare of arable land for every inhabitant of our planet. And these small areas continue to shrink due to inept human economic activities.
Huge areas of fertile land are destroyed during mining operations and during the construction of enterprises and cities. Destruction of forests and natural grass cover, repeated plowing of the land without following the rules of agricultural technology leads to soil erosion - destruction and washing away of the fertile layer by water and wind (Fig. 58). Erosion has now become a worldwide evil. It is estimated that over the last century alone, 2 billion hectares of fertile land for active agricultural use have been lost on the planet as a result of water and wind erosion.
One of the consequences of increased human production activity is intensive soil pollution. The main soil pollutants are metals and their compounds, radioactive elements, as well as fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture.
The most dangerous soil pollutants include mercury and its compounds. Mercury enters the environment with pesticides and industrial waste containing metallic mercury and its various compounds.
Soil contamination with lead is even more widespread and dangerous. It is known that when one ton of lead is smelted, up to 25 kg of lead is released into the environment with waste. Lead compounds are used as additives in gasoline, so motor vehicles are a serious source of lead pollution. Lead is especially high in soils along major highways.
Near large centers of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, soils are contaminated with iron, copper, zinc, manganese, nickel, aluminum and other metals. In many places their concentration is tens of times higher than the maximum permissible concentration.
Radioactive elements can enter the soil and accumulate in it as a result of fallout from atomic explosions or during the disposal of liquid and solid waste from industrial enterprises, nuclear power plants or research institutions related to the study and use of atomic energy. Radioactive substances from soils enter plants, then into the bodies of animals and humans, and accumulate in them.
Modern agriculture, which widely uses fertilizers and various chemicals to control pests, weeds and plant diseases, has a significant impact on the chemical composition of soils. Currently, the amount of substances involved in the cycle during agricultural activities is approximately the same as during industrial production. At the same time, the production and use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture increases every year. Their inept and uncontrolled use leads to disruption of the cycle of substances in the biosphere.
Particularly dangerous are persistent organic compounds used as pesticides. They accumulate in soil, water, and bottom sediments of reservoirs. But the most important thing is that they are included in ecological food chains, pass from soil and water to plants, then to animals, and ultimately enter the human body with food.
Today there is no need to convince anyone of the enormous importance issues related to environmental protection play for all of humanity. This problem is complex and multifaceted. It includes not only purely scientific aspects, but also economic, social, political, legal, and aesthetic.
The processes that determine the current state of the biosphere are based on chemical transformations of substances. The chemical aspects of the problem of environmental protection form a new section of modern chemistry, called chemical ecology. This direction examines the chemical processes occurring in the biosphere, chemical pollution of the environment and its impact on the ecological balance, characterizes the main chemical pollutants and methods for determining the level of pollution, develops physical and chemical methods for combating environmental pollution, and searches for new environmentally friendly sources of energy. and etc.
Understanding the essence of the problem of environmental protection, of course, requires familiarity with a number of preliminary concepts, definitions, judgments, a detailed study of which should contribute not only to a deeper understanding of the essence of the problem, but also to the development of environmental education. The geological spheres of the planet, as well as the structure of the biosphere and the chemical processes occurring in it are summarized in diagram 1.
Usually several geospheres are distinguished. The lithosphere is the outer hard shell of the Earth, consisting of two layers: the upper, formed by sedimentary rocks, including granite, and the lower, basalt. The hydrosphere is all the oceans and seas (the World Ocean), making up 71% of the Earth's surface, as well as lakes and rivers. The average depth of the ocean is 4 km, and in some depressions it is up to 11 km. The atmosphere is a layer above the surface of the lithosphere and hydrosphere, reaching 100 km. The lower layer of the atmosphere (15 km) is called the troposphere. It includes water vapor suspended in the air, moving when the planet's surface is unevenly heated. The stratosphere extends above the troposphere, at the boundaries of which the northern lights appear. In the stratosphere at an altitude of 45 km there is an ozone layer that reflects life-destructive cosmic radiation and partially ultraviolet rays. Above the stratosphere extends the ionosphere - a layer of rarefied gas made of ionized atoms.
Among all the spheres of the Earth, the biosphere occupies a special place. The biosphere is the geological shell of the Earth together with the living organisms that inhabit it: microorganisms, plants, animals. It includes the upper part of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere, the troposphere and the lower part of the stratosphere (including the ozone layer). The boundaries of the biosphere are determined by the upper limit of life, limited by the intense concentration of ultraviolet rays, and the lower limit, limited by the high temperatures of the earth's interior; Only lower organisms - bacteria - reach the extreme limits of the biosphere. Occupies a special place in the biosphere ozone protective layer. The atmosphere contains only vol. % ozone, but it created conditions on Earth that allowed life to arise and continue to develop on our planet.
Continuous cycles of matter and energy take place in the biosphere. Basically the same elements are constantly involved in the cycle of substances: hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur. From inanimate nature they pass into the composition of plants, from plants - into animals and humans. Atoms of these elements are retained in the circle of life for hundreds of millions of years, which is confirmed by isotope analysis. These five elements are called biophilic (life-loving), and not all of their isotopes, but only light ones. Thus, of the three isotopes of hydrogen, only . Of the three naturally occurring isotopes of oxygen 
biophilic only, and from carbon isotopes - only.
The role of carbon in the emergence of life on Earth is truly enormous. There is reason to believe that during the formation of the earth's crust, part of the carbon entered its deep layers in the form of minerals such as carbides, and the other part was retained by the atmosphere in the form of CO. The decrease in temperature at certain stages of the formation of the planet was accompanied by the interaction of CO with water vapor through the kcal reaction, so that by the time liquid water appeared on Earth, atmospheric carbon must have been in the form of carbon dioxide. According to the carbon cycle diagram below, atmospheric carbon dioxide is extracted by plants (1), and through food connections (2) carbon enters the body of animals:
The respiration of animals and plants and the decay of their remains constantly return enormous masses of carbon to the atmosphere and ocean waters in the form of carbon dioxide (3, 4). At the same time, there is some removal of carbon from the cycle due to partial mineralization of the remains of plants (5) and animals (6).
An additional, and more powerful, removal of carbon from the cycle is the inorganic process of weathering of rocks (7), in which the metals they contain under the influence of the atmosphere are transformed into carbon dioxide salts, which are then washed out by water and carried by rivers to the ocean, followed by partial sedimentation. According to rough estimates, up to 2 billion tons of carbon are bound annually when rocks are weathered from the atmosphere. Such an enormous consumption cannot be compensated by various freely occurring natural processes (volcanic eruptions, gas sources, the effect of thunderstorms on limestone, etc.), leading to the reverse transition of carbon from minerals to the atmosphere (8). Thus, both the inorganic and organic stages of the carbon cycle are aimed at reducing the content in the atmosphere. In this regard, it should be noted that conscious human activity significantly influences the overall carbon cycle and, affecting essentially all directions of processes occurring during the natural cycle, ultimately compensates for leakage from the atmosphere. Suffice it to say that due to the combustion of coal alone, more than 1 billion tons of carbon were returned to the atmosphere annually (in the middle of our century). Taking into account the consumption of other types of fossil fuels (peat, oil, etc.), as well as a number of industrial processes leading to the release of , we can assume that this figure is actually even higher.
Thus, the human influence on carbon transformation cycles is directly opposite in direction to the total result of the natural cycle:
The Earth's energy balance is made up of various sources, but the most important of them are solar and radioactive energy. During the evolution of the Earth, radioactive decay was intense, and 3 billion years ago there was 20 times more radioactive heat than now. Currently, the heat of the sun's rays falling on the Earth significantly exceeds the internal heat from radioactive decay, so that the main source of heat can now be considered the energy of the Sun. The sun gives us kcal of heat per year. According to the above diagram, 40% of solar energy is reflected by the Earth into space, 60% is absorbed by the atmosphere and soil. Part of this energy is spent on photosynthesis, part goes to the oxidation of organic substances, and part is preserved in coal, oil, and peat. Solar energy excites climatic, geological and biological processes on Earth on a grand scale. Under the influence of the biosphere, solar energy is converted into various forms of energy, causing enormous transformations, migrations, and the circulation of substances. Despite its grandeur, the biosphere is an open system, as it constantly receives a flow of solar energy.
Photosynthesis includes a complex set of reactions of different nature. In this process, the bonds in the molecules and are rearranged, so that instead of the previous carbon-oxygen and hydrogen-oxygen bonds, a new type of chemical bonds arises: carbon-hydrogen and carbon-carbon:
As a result of these transformations, a carbohydrate molecule appears, which is a concentrate of energy in the cell. Thus, in chemical terms, the essence of photosynthesis lies in the rearrangement of chemical bonds. From this point of view, photosynthesis can be called the process of synthesis of organic compounds using light energy. The overall equation of photosynthesis shows that in addition to carbohydrates, oxygen is also produced:
but this equation does not give an idea of its mechanism. Photosynthesis is a complex, multi-stage process in which, from a biochemical point of view, the central role belongs to chlorophyll, a green organic substance that absorbs a quantum of solar energy. The mechanism of photosynthesis processes can be represented by the following diagram:
As can be seen from the diagram, in the light phase of photosynthesis, the excess energy of “excited” electrons gives rise to the process: photolysis - with the formation of molecular oxygen and atomic hydrogen:
and the synthesis of adenosine triphosphoric acid (ATP) from adenosine diphosphoric acid (ADP) and phosphoric acid (P). In the dark phase, the synthesis of carbohydrates occurs, for the implementation of which the energy of ATP and hydrogen atoms, which arise in the light phase as a result of the conversion of light energy from the Sun, is consumed. The overall productivity of photosynthesis is enormous: every year the Earth's vegetation sequesters 170 billion tons of carbon. In addition, plants involve billions of tons of phosphorus, sulfur and other elements in the synthesis, as a result of which about 400 billion tons of organic substances are synthesized annually. Nevertheless, for all its grandeur, natural photosynthesis is a slow and ineffective process, since a green leaf uses only 1% of the solar energy falling on it for photosynthesis.
As noted above, as a result of the absorption of carbon dioxide and its further transformation during photosynthesis, a carbohydrate molecule is formed, which serves as a carbon skeleton for the construction of all organic compounds in the cell. Organic substances produced during photosynthesis are characterized by a high supply of internal energy. But the energy accumulated in the final products of photosynthesis is not available for direct use in chemical reactions occurring in living organisms. The conversion of this potential energy into active form is carried out in another biochemical process - respiration. The main chemical reaction of the respiration process is the absorption of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide:
However, the breathing process is very complex. It involves the activation of hydrogen atoms of the organic substrate, the release and mobilization of energy in the form of ATP and the generation of carbon skeletons. During the process of respiration, carbohydrates, fats and proteins, in reactions of biological oxidation and gradual restructuring of the organic skeleton, give up their hydrogen atoms to form reduced forms. The latter, when oxidized in the respiratory chain, release energy, which is accumulated in active form in the coupled reactions of ATP synthesis. Thus, photosynthesis and respiration are different, but very closely related aspects of the general energy exchange. In the cells of green plants, the processes of photosynthesis and respiration are closely linked. The process of respiration in them, as in all other living cells, is constant. During the day, along with respiration, photosynthesis occurs in them: plant cells convert light energy into chemical energy, synthesizing organic matter, and releasing oxygen as a byproduct of the reaction. The amount of oxygen released by a plant cell during photosynthesis is 20-30 times greater than its absorption during the simultaneous process of respiration. Thus, during the day, when both processes occur in plants, the air is enriched with oxygen, and at night, when photosynthesis stops, only the respiration process is preserved.
The oxygen necessary for breathing enters the human body through the lungs, whose thin and moist walls have a large surface area (about 90) and are penetrated by blood vessels. Getting into them, oxygen forms with hemoglobin contained in red blood cells - erythrocytes - a fragile chemical compound - oxyhemoglobin and in this form is carried by red arterial blood to all tissues of the body. In them, oxygen is split off from hemoglobin and is included in various metabolic processes, in particular, it oxidizes organic substances that enter the body in the form of food. In tissues, carbon dioxide joins hemoglobin, forming a fragile compound - carbhemoglobin. In this form, and also partially in the form of salts of carbonic acid and in physically dissolved form, carbon dioxide enters the lungs with the flow of dark venous blood, where it is excreted from the body. Schematically, this process of gas exchange in the human body can be represented by the following reactions:
Typically, the air inhaled by a person contains 21% (by volume) and 0.03%, and the air exhaled contains 16% and 4%; per day a person exhales 0.5. Similarly to oxygen, carbon monoxide (CO) reacts with hemoglobin, and the resulting compound is Heme. CO is much more durable. Therefore, even at low concentrations of CO in the air, a significant part of the hemoglobin becomes bound to it and ceases to participate in the transfer of oxygen. When the air contains 0.1% CO (by volume), i.e. at a ratio of CO and 1:200, equal amounts of both gases are bound by hemoglobin. Because of this, when inhaling air poisoned by carbon monoxide, death from suffocation can occur, despite the presence of excess oxygen.
Fermentation, as the process of decomposition of sugary substances in the presence of a special kind of microorganisms, occurs so often in nature that alcohol, although in insignificant quantities, is a constant component of soil water, and its vapors are always contained in small quantities in the air. The simplest fermentation scheme can be represented by the equation:
Although the mechanism of fermentation processes is complex, it can still be argued that phosphoric acid derivatives (ATP), as well as a number of enzymes, play an extremely important role in it.
Rotting is a complex biochemical process, as a result of which excrement, corpses, and plant remains return to the soil the bound nitrogen previously taken from it. Under the influence of special bacteria, this bound nitrogen ultimately turns into ammonia and ammonium salts. In addition, during decay, part of the bound nitrogen turns into free nitrogen and is lost.
As follows from the above diagram, part of the solar energy absorbed by our planet is “conserved” in the form of peat, oil, and coal. Powerful shifts of the earth's crust buried huge plant masses under layers of rocks. When dead plant organisms decompose without access to air, volatile decomposition products are released, and the residue is gradually enriched in carbon. This accordingly affects the chemical composition and calorific value of the decomposition product, which, depending on its characteristics, is called peat, brown and coal (anthracite). Like plant life, animal life of past eras also left us a valuable legacy - oil. Modern oceans and seas contain huge accumulations of simple organisms in the upper layers of water to a depth of about 200 m (plankton) and in the bottom region of not very deep places (benthos). The total mass of plankton and benthos is estimated at a huge figure (~ t). As the basis of nutrition for all more complex marine organisms, plankton and benthos are currently unlikely to accumulate as remains. However, in distant geological epochs, when the conditions for their development were more favorable, and there were much fewer consumers than now, the remains of plankton and benthos, as well as, possibly, more highly organized animals, which died in masses for one reason or another, could become the main building material for oil formation. Crude oil is a water-insoluble, black or brown oily liquid. It consists of 83-87% carbon, 10-14% hydrogen and small amounts of nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur. Its calorific value is higher than that of anthracite and is estimated at 11,000 kcal/kg.
Biomass is understood as the totality of all living organisms in the biosphere, i.e. the amount of organic matter and the energy contained in it of the entire population of individuals. Biomass is usually expressed in weight units in terms of dry matter per unit area or volume. The accumulation of biomass is determined by the vital activity of green plants. In biogeocenoses, they, as producers of living matter, play the role of “producers,” herbivorous and carnivorous animals, as consumers of living organic matter, play the role of “consumers,” and destroyers of organic residues (microorganisms), bringing the breakdown of organic matter to simple mineral compounds, are “decomposers.” A special energy characteristic of biomass is its ability to reproduce. According to the definition of V.I. Vernadsky, “living matter (a collection of organisms), like a mass of gas, spreads over the earth’s surface and exerts a certain pressure in the environment, bypasses obstacles that impede its progress, or takes possession of them, covering them. This movement is achieved through the reproduction of organisms.” On the land surface, biomass increases in the direction from the poles to the equator. In the same direction, the number of species participating in biogeocenoses is increasing (see below). Soil biocenoses cover the entire land surface.
Soil is a loose surface layer of the earth's crust, modified by the atmosphere and organisms and constantly replenished with organic residues. Soil thickness, along with surface biomass and under its influence, increases from the poles to the equator. The soil is densely populated by living organisms, and continuous gas exchange occurs in it. At night, as the gases cool and compress, some air enters it. Oxygen from the air is absorbed by animals and plants and is part of chemical compounds. Nitrogen introduced into the air is captured by some bacteria. During the day, when the soil heats up, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide are released from it. All processes occurring in the soil are included in the cycle of substances in the biosphere.
Hydrosphere of the Earth, or the World Ocean, occupies more than 2/3 of the planet's surface. The physical properties and chemical composition of ocean waters are very constant and create an environment favorable for life. Aquatic animals excrete it through respiration, and algae enrich the water through photosynthesis. Photosynthesis of algae occurs mainly in the upper layer of water - at a depth of up to 100 m. Ocean plankton accounts for 1/3 of the photosynthesis occurring on the entire planet. In the ocean, biomass is mostly dispersed. On average, the biomass on Earth, according to modern data, is approximately t, the mass of green land plants is 97%, animals and microorganisms are 3%. There is 1000 times less living biomass in the World Ocean than on land. The use of solar energy on the ocean area is 0.04%, on land - 0.1%. The ocean is not as rich in life as it was thought recently.
Humanity makes up only a small part of the biomass of the biosphere. However, having mastered various forms of energy - mechanical, electrical, atomic - it began to have a tremendous impact on the processes occurring in the biosphere. Human activity has become such a powerful force that this force has become comparable to the natural forces of nature. An analysis of the results of human activity and the impact of this activity on the biosphere as a whole led Academician V.I. Vernadsky to the conclusion that at present humanity has created a new shell of the Earth - “intelligent”. Vernadsky called it "noosphere". The noosphere is “the collective mind of man, concentrated both in its potential capabilities and in the kinetic influences on the biosphere. These influences, however, over the centuries were spontaneous and sometimes predatory in nature, and the consequence of such influence was threatening environmental pollution, with all the ensuing consequences."
Consideration of issues related to the problem of environmental protection requires clarification of the concept " environment"This term means our entire planet plus a thin shell of life - the biosphere, plus outer space that surrounds us and affects us. However, for simplicity, the environment often means only the biosphere and part of our planet - the earth's crust. According to V.I. Vernadsky, the biosphere is “the region of existence of living matter.” Living matter is the totality of all living organisms, including humans.
Ecology as a science about the relationships of organisms with each other, as well as between organisms and their environment, pays special attention to the study of those complex systems (ecosystems) that arise in nature on the basis of the interaction of organisms with each other and the inorganic environment. Hence, an ecosystem is a collection of living and nonliving components of nature that interact. This concept applies to units of varying extent - from an anthill (microecosystem) to the ocean (macroecosystem). The biosphere itself is a giant ecosystem of the globe.
Connections between ecosystem components arise primarily on the basis of food connections and methods of obtaining energy. According to the method of obtaining and using nutritional materials and energy, all organisms of the biosphere are divided into two sharply different groups: autotrophs and heterotrophs. Autotrophs are capable of synthesizing organic substances from inorganic compounds (, etc.). From these energy-poor compounds, cells synthesize glucose, amino acids, and then more complex organic compounds - carbohydrates, proteins, etc. The main autotrophs on Earth are the cells of green plants, as well as some microorganisms. Heterotrophs are not able to synthesize organic substances from inorganic compounds. They need the delivery of ready-made organic compounds. Heterotrophs are the cells of animals, humans, most microorganisms and some plants (for example, fungi and green plants that do not contain chlorophyll). In the process of feeding, heterotrophs ultimately decompose organic matter into carbon dioxide, water and mineral salts, i.e. substances suitable for reuse by autotrophs.
Thus, a continuous cycle of substances occurs in nature: chemical substances necessary for life are extracted by autotrophs from the environment and returned to it again through a series of heterotrophs. To carry out this process, a constant flow of energy from outside is required. Its source is the radiant energy of the Sun. The movement of matter caused by the activity of organisms occurs cyclically, and it can be used again and again, while the energy in these processes is represented by a unidirectional flow. The energy of the Sun is only transformed by organisms into other forms - chemical, mechanical, thermal. In accordance with the laws of thermodynamics, such transformations are always accompanied by the dissipation of part of the energy in the form of heat. Although the general scheme of the cycle of substances is relatively simple, in real natural conditions this process takes on very complex forms. Not a single type of heterotrophic organism is capable of immediately breaking down the organic matter of plants into final mineral products (, etc.). Each species uses only part of the energy contained in organic matter, bringing its decomposition to a certain stage. Residues unsuitable for a given species, but still rich in energy, are used by other organisms. Thus, in the process of evolution, chains of interconnected species have formed in the ecosystem, successively extracting materials and energy from the original food substance. All species that form the food chain exist on organic matter generated by green plants.
In total, only 1% of the radiant energy of the Sun falling on plants is converted into the energy of synthesized organic substances, which can be used by heterotrophic organisms. Most of the energy contained in plant foods is spent in the animal body on various vital processes and, turning into heat, is dissipated. Moreover, only 10-20% of this food energy goes directly to the construction of new substance. Large losses of useful energy predetermine that food chains consist of a small number of links (3-5). In other words, as a result of energy loss, the amount of organic matter produced at each subsequent level of food chains decreases sharply. This important pattern is called rule of the ecological pyramid and on the diagram it is represented by a pyramid, in which each subsequent level corresponds to a plane parallel to the base of the pyramid. There are different categories of ecological pyramids: the pyramid of numbers - reflecting the number of individuals at each level of the food chain, the pyramid of biomass - reflecting the corresponding amount of organic matter, the pyramid of energy - reflecting the amount of energy in food.
Any ecosystem consists of two components. One of them is organic, representing a complex of species that form a self-sustaining system in which the circulation of substances takes place, which is called biocenosis, the other is an inorganic component that gives shelter to the biocenosis and is called bioton:
Ecosystem = bioton + biocenosis.
Other ecosystems, as well as geological, climatic, and cosmic influences in relation to a given ecological system act as external forces. The sustainability of an ecosystem is always related to its development. According to modern views, an ecosystem has a tendency to develop towards its stable state - a mature ecosystem. This change is called succession. The early stages of succession are characterized by low species diversity and low biomass. An ecosystem in the initial stage of development is very sensitive to disturbances, and a strong impact on the main flow of energy can destroy it. In mature ecosystems, flora and fauna increase. In this case, damage to one component cannot have a strong impact on the entire ecosystem. Hence, a mature ecosystem has a high degree of sustainability.
As noted above, geological, climatic, hydrogeological and cosmic influences in relation to a given ecological system act as external forces. Among the external forces influencing ecosystems, human influence occupies a special place. The biological laws of the structure, functioning and development of natural ecosystems are associated only with those organisms that are their necessary components. In this regard, a person, both socially (personality) and biologically (organism), is not part of natural ecosystems. This follows at least from the fact that any natural ecosystem in its emergence and development can do without humans. Man is not a necessary element of this system. In addition, the emergence and existence of organisms is determined only by the general laws of the ecosystem, while man is generated by society and exists in society. Man as an individual and as a biological being is a component of a special system - human society, which has historically changing economic laws for the distribution of food and other conditions of its existence. At the same time, a person receives the elements necessary for life, such as air and water, from the outside, since human society is an open system into which energy and matter come from the outside. Thus, a person is an “external element” and cannot enter into permanent biological connections with elements of natural ecosystems. On the other hand, acting as an external force, humans have a great influence on ecosystems. In this regard, it is necessary to point out the possibility of the existence of two types of ecosystems: natural (natural) and artificial. Development (succession) natural ecosystems obeys the laws of evolution or the laws of cosmic influences (constancy or catastrophes). Artificial ecosystems- these are collections of living organisms and plants living in conditions that man created with his labor and his thought. The power of human influence on nature is manifested precisely in artificial ecosystems, which today cover most of the Earth’s biosphere.
Human ecological intervention has obviously always occurred. All previous human activity can be considered as a process of subordinating many or even all ecological systems, all biocenoses to human needs. Human intervention could not but affect the ecological balance. Even ancient man, by burning forests, upset the ecological balance, but he did it slowly and on a relatively small scale. Such intervention was more local in nature and did not cause global consequences. In other words, human activity of that time took place under conditions close to equilibrium. However, now the human impact on nature, due to the development of science, technology and technology, has taken on such a scale that the disruption of ecological balance has become threatening on a global scale. If the process of human influence on ecosystems were not spontaneous, and sometimes even predatory, then the issue of the environmental crisis would not be so acute. Meanwhile, human activity today has become so commensurate with the powerful forces of nature that nature itself is no longer able to cope with the loads it experiences.
Thus, the main essence of the problem of environmental protection is that humanity, thanks to its labor activity, has become such a powerful nature-forming force that its influence began to manifest itself much faster than the influence of the natural evolution of the biosphere.
Although the term “environmental protection” is very common today, it still does not strictly reflect the essence of the matter. Physiologist I.M. Sechenov once pointed out that a living organism cannot exist without interaction with the environment. From this point of view, the term "environmental management" appears to be more stringent. In general, the problem of rational use of the environment lies in the search for mechanisms that ensure the normal functioning of the biosphere.
CONTROL QUESTIONS
1. Define the concept of “environment”.
2. What is the main essence of the problem of environmental protection?
3. List the various aspects of the environmental problem.
4. Define the term “chemical ecology”.
5. List the main geospheres of our planet.
6. Indicate the factors that determine the upper and lower limits of the biosphere.
7. List the biophilic elements.
8. Comment on the impact of human activities on the natural cycle of carbon transformations.
9. What can you say about the mechanism of photosynthesis?
10. Give a diagram of the breathing process.
11. Give a diagram of fermentation processes.
12. Define the concepts “producer”, “consumer”, “decomposer”.
13. What is the difference between “autotrophs” and “heterotrophs”?
14. Define the concept of “noosphere”.
15. What is the essence of the “ecological pyramid” rule?
16. Define the concepts “biotone” and “biocenosis”.
17. Define the concept “ecosystem”.