Methods of natural science research. Natural science and humanitarian methods of cognition. Research methodology
Lecture No. 1
Topic: Introduction
Plan
1. Basic sciences about nature (physics, chemistry, biology), their similarities and differences.
2. Natural scientific method of cognition and its components: observation, measurement, experiment, hypothesis, theory.
Basic sciences about nature (physics, chemistry, biology), their similarities and differences.
The word "natural science" means knowledge about nature. Since nature is extremely diverse, in the process of understanding it, various natural sciences were formed: physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, geography, geology and many others. Each of the natural sciences studies some specific properties of nature. When new properties of matter are discovered, new natural sciences appear with the aim of further studying these properties, or at least new sections and directions in existing natural sciences. This is how a whole body of natural sciences was formed. Based on the objects of research, they can be divided into two large groups: sciences about living and inanimate nature. The most important natural sciences about inanimate nature are: physics, chemistry, astronomy.
Physics– a science that studies the most general properties of matter and the forms of its motion (mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, atomic, nuclear). Physics has many types and sections (general physics, theoretical physics, experimental physics, mechanics, molecular physics, atomic physics, nuclear physics, physics of electromagnetic phenomena, etc.).
Chemistry– the science of substances, their composition, structure, properties and mutual transformations. Chemistry studies the chemical form of the movement of matter and is divided into inorganic and organic chemistry, physical and analytical chemistry, colloidal chemistry, etc.
Astronomy- science of the Universe. Astronomy studies the movement of celestial bodies, their nature, origin and development. The most important branches of astronomy, which today have essentially turned into independent sciences, are cosmology and cosmogony.
Cosmology– physical doctrine about the Universe as a whole, its structure and development.
Cosmogony– a science that studies the origin and development of celestial bodies (planets, Sun, stars, etc.). The newest direction in space exploration is astronautics.
Biology- science of living nature. The subject of biology is life as a special form of movement of matter, the laws of development of living nature. Biology seems to be the most branched science (zoology, botany, morphology, cytology, histology, anatomy and physiology, microbiology, virology, embryology, ecology, genetics, etc.). At the intersection of sciences, related sciences arise, such as physical chemistry, physical biology, chemical physics, biophysics, astrophysics, etc.
So, in the process of understanding nature, separate natural sciences were formed. This is a necessary stage of cognition - the stage of differentiation of knowledge, differentiation of sciences. It is due to the need to cover an increasingly larger and more diverse number of natural objects being studied and to penetrate deeper into their details. But nature is a single, unique, multifaceted, complex, self-governing organism. If nature is one, then the idea of it from the point of view of natural science should also be one. Such a science is natural science.
Natural science– the science of nature as a single integrity or the totality of sciences about nature, taken as a single whole. The last words in this definition once again emphasize that this is not just a set of sciences, but a generalized, integrated science. This means that today the differentiation of knowledge about nature is being replaced by its integration. This task is determined, firstly, by the objective course of knowledge of nature and, secondly, by the fact that humanity learns the laws of nature not for the sake of simple curiosity, but for using them in practical activities, for its own life support.
2. Natural scientific method of cognition and its components: observation, measurement, experiment, hypothesis, theory.
Method- is a set of techniques or operations of practical or theoretical activity.
Methods of scientific knowledge include the so-called universal methods , i.e. universal human methods of thinking, general scientific methods and methods of specific sciences. Methods can also be classified according to the ratio empirical knowledge (i.e. knowledge obtained as a result of experience, experimental knowledge) and theoretical knowledge, the essence of which is knowledge of the essence of phenomena, their internal connections.
Features of the natural scientific method of cognition:
1. Is objective in nature
2. The subject of knowledge is typical
3. Historicity is not required
4. Only knowledge creates
5. The natural scientist strives to be an outside observer.
6. Relies on the language of terms and numbers
Self-test questions
1. Question: What is cognition?
a) Obtaining information about a selected natural phenomenon.
b) Conducting experimental work.
c) Construction of hypotheses based on experimental data, their theoretical generalization and formation of a forecast for the further development of the chosen area of research.
d) Creation of a perfect theory and attempts to confirm it experimentally.
2. Question: What is systematicity as one of the principles of cognition?
a) Clarity of definitions in experimental studies.
b) Interrelation of diverse approaches to the study of the selected problem.
c) Certainty of solving the problem in the chosen way.
d) The interconnectedness of positive and negative points of view.
3. Question: What is a “concept”?
a) The point of view of an individual scientist on an established scientific fact.
b) A system of theoretical principles characterizing a group of similar natural phenomena.
c) Scientific research based only on theoretical justification.
d) Detailed description of a particular research object.
4. Question: What is the subject of “Concepts of Modern Natural Science”?
a) Study of the principles of the evolution of the Universe.
b) Experimental study of the emergence of man.
c) Knowledge of the most general natural science concepts, principles, laws of organization of the Universe.
d) Study of mathematical models of processes and phenomena on Earth.
5. Question: What is scientific knowledge?
a) Universal experimental base.
b) A group of hypotheses devoted to the global problem of the universe.
c) The entire set of various experimental and theoretical scientific disciplines.
d) Futuristic ideas about the fate of the Universe.
6. Question: What does “fundamental” scientific knowledge mean?
a) Theological validity of scientific statements.
b) The universality of scientific knowledge, based on a system of basic concepts.
c) Logicality in solving a specific scientific problem.
d) Consistency in setting the research problem.
7. Question: How do you understand the “testability” of scientific knowledge?
a) The ability to obtain similar results using an independent research method.
b) Clarification of the mechanisms of processes.
c) Participation in the study of a control group of experts.
d) Subjective views of the researcher.
8. Question: What is the “universality” of scientific knowledge?
a) Results of scientific research, regardless of the method of obtaining them.
b) Applicability of research results in various fields of science.
c) Coincidence of research results at different periods of time.
d) High accuracy of research results.
9. Question: What is “falsifiability” of scientific evidence?
a) Constant repeatability of research results.
b) Ability to justify the direction of research.
c) Improving the research management system.
d) Denial of previous research results due to new data obtained.
10. Question: What is “applied” research?
a) Research that allows you to make any assumptions.
b) Research that allows the use of scientific results to implement applied, technological problems.
c) Research in auxiliary areas of technology development.
d) Study of additional properties of concepts and theories.
11. Question: What is the information and monitoring group of research methods?
a) A group of methods that allows you to objectively summarize literature data.
b) A group of methods that allows you to systematize knowledge on a selected object.
c) A group of methods that allows one to generalize systematic, periodically conducted observations and experiments.
d) A group of methods for combining theoretical and theological studies of the same object.
12. What is a theoretical-analytical group of research methods?
a) A group of theoretical methods that allow one to analyze research data, theoretically generalize them with previously obtained or already known ones, and make a prediction about the properties of similar phenomena that have not yet been discovered.
b) A group of theoretical methods that allows one to draw particular conclusions about the state of the selected object of study.
c) A group of experimental methods for studying the most general natural phenomena.
d) A group of methods for a comprehensive study of the properties of a selected object.
13. Question: What does the term “natural science culture” mean?
a) A system of religious ideas about nature.
b) Historical approach to studying the development of society.
c) A system of scientific views and basic ideas that allows a deeper understanding of natural phenomena.
d) Social principles of the development of science.
14. Question: What is “humanitarian culture”?
a) A system of views and concepts reflecting the development of society, its humanitarian values.
b) The level of development of literature.
c) The degree of social activity of a person.
d) Features of a person’s psychological activity in determining his role in society.
15. Name the basic principles of combining natural science and humanitarian culture.
a) The individual’s desire to improve humanitarian knowledge about the properties of a particular natural object.
b) Formation of a comprehensive understanding of the world around us in all its manifestations: natural science and humanitarian.
c) The desire to improve natural scientific ideas about the formation of the Universe.
d) The possibility of a comprehensive description of an individual’s behavior in society.
Questions for testing on the topic
1. What is the purpose of studying this discipline?
Methodology of natural science knowledge
Lecture 1: " Basic provisions of the methodology of natural science knowledge.
Scientific knowledge of the surrounding world is a system of theories that received experimental confirmation at a certain historical stage; modern methods of theoretical and experimental research; hypotheses suggesting the future development of scientific ideas.
Thanks to its accuracy and objectivity, scientific knowledge has become methodological foundation of natural science in the modern evolving world.
The basis of modern scientific knowledge is natural science approach, based on the latest scientific achievements. It combines modern achievements of physics, chemistry, biology, medicine and related disciplines, primarily in philosophical, conceptual, conceptual terms.
The most important tool of the natural science approach is method of scientific knowledge- a system of actions that has been tested many times, constantly improving, thanks to new knowledge gained, leading to new, possibly theoretically predicted results.
For example, a person dresses using the skills he acquired in childhood, but new forms of clothing require him to use this experience to master new forms of clothing. The use of a telescope as a research method allows us to study various parts of the Universe, both already known and new, with completely new properties. Microscopy is a method that opens the door to scientists into the microworld: the world of studied and completely new microparticles and organisms.
The cornerstone of the idea of method of scientific knowledge is methodology- the science of its structure, optimization of application, the doctrine of the principles, forms and methods (methods) of organizing scientific activity: theoretical and experimental research.
For the first time main features methods of scientific knowledge were formulated by Rene Descartes (1596 - 1650).
They are based on ideas about truth, as a subject of knowledge: the mandatory reliability of scientific knowledge; scientific fact as an object of study and the unity of theoretical and empirical approaches in research.
We must understand that absolute truth is unattainable. Its search is eternal and every time, establishing any level of truth of a particular fact, civilization moves one step forward along the endless path of knowledge of nature. Therefore, it is correct to say about the truth of a given scientific fact at the existing level of knowledge: development of science, technological support.
Similarly, one can imagine reliability of scientific knowledge. Reliability, i.e. “full” verifiability of scientific facts is carried out up to the sensitivity of research instruments, existing research methods, and scientific theories recognized at this stage.
Is it necessary, understanding all this, to strive for maximum reliability of scientific data? Of course yes. After all, only maximum reliability today provides a solid theoretical basis for research tomorrow, with which, in turn, a breakthrough will be made to the next level of reliability.
Scientific fact – event existing regardless of our feelings and the possibilities of its study. The main problem is its identification, understanding, interpretation within the framework of the existing scientific base and, if the latter is impossible, evidence-based adjustment of scientific knowledge on this issue.
But there is truly an immutable truth in scientific knowledge. This unity of theoretical and empirical approach in the study. Interestingly, these approaches can very rarely be applied simultaneously.
Experimentally The discovery of a particular phenomenon leads to its theoretical comprehension. For example, the experimental discovery of helium superfluidity gave impetus to the creation of the theory of superfluidity. On the contrary, the theoretical prediction of the existence of unknown chemical elements with certain properties by D.I. Mendeleev allowed them to be obtained as a result of directed experiments.
Based on application, there are two groups of methods: experimental (empirical) and theoretical. A combination of these two groups of methods is also possible.
TO experimental methods include direct obtaining information about the object of study, for example observation– perception of events in the world around us: we see (observe) the change of day and night, the appearance of snow in winter and greenery in spring; experiment– the purposeful study of objects or phenomena of the world around us, artificially transferring them, with the help of arbitrary external influence, into the conditions necessary for research. For example, obtaining a human electrocardiogram, studying the structural properties of minerals, metals, and the structure of matter using modern experimental equipment. Measurement– experimental determination of certain quantitative characteristics of an object or phenomenon in the world around us using measuring instruments. The simplest measuring device is a wooden fabric meter. In modern science there are no instrumental methods that do not use quantitative characteristics of the object of study. Description– a method that allows you to record the results of an observation or experiment as a statement of facts with their detailed description.
However, this is not enough. The importance of science lies in the ability to analyze, plan and predict further developments of events. Therefore, experimental methods are closely related to theoretical ones.
TO theoretical methods include: formalization– displaying the results of experiments or observations in the form of a system of generalizing definitions, statements or conclusions;
axiomatization– formation of theoretical constructions based on axioms - statements that do not require proof. For example, Euclidian geometry, taught in high school, is based on several axioms; hypothetico-deductive an approach consisting of putting forward any hypotheses and their subsequent logical and empirical testing. For example, the hypothesis that the causes of the occurrence of winds lie in a large temperature difference at the boundaries of atmospheric fronts and they are stronger, the more this difference is confirmed in numerous theoretical constructions and the results of empirical studies.
In practical science, all these methods are widely used and mutually complement each other.
Distinguish general, publicly available and specific scientific methods. The most common and universal universal methods. We will focus on them:
analysis and synthesis– processes of mental or actual decomposition of the whole into its component parts and the formation of the whole from its component parts;
induction and deduction– movement from the particular to the general and from the general to the particular;
abstraction– neglect of a number of minor, in the researcher’s opinion, features when developing a hypothesis, building a model, etc.;
generalization– identification of the most common features of objects or phenomena, allowing them to be compared with something already known;
analogy– a method that allows you to predict new properties of an object or phenomenon by comparing them with already known samples;
modeling– formation of a conditional idea (model) about an object or phenomenon based on knowledge of a number of basic features or characteristics;
classification– division of the studied objects or phenomena into groups, in accordance with characteristic features.
Functional,methods , used to study this discipline are divided into two groups: experimental monitoring And theoretical-analytical.
The essence of the first group of methods consists in monitoring experimental data in various fields of natural sciences, their statistical processing, systematization and generalization.
The second group is called upon to analyze the obtained generalized results of experiments, to form unified theoretical ideas at the level of hypotheses, theories, and laws that allow not only to describe existing facts, but also to predict new processes and natural phenomena.
Mastery of scientific methodology allows you to correctly, in accordance with the existing paradigm or, conversely, contrary to it, competently and consistently construct a study.
Without knowledge of the methodology and the use of its principles, the research takes on the character of a confusing, disorderly set of facts and hypotheses. At the same time, it is impossible to achieve the main goal of scientific research - the formation of a generalized theory based on the results of system experiments.
Lecture 2: " Classic methodological concepts of the theory of knowledge"
No less important is the study methodological concepts of scientific knowledge, allowing for the systematic formation of scientific research . Indeed, it is the order of application of scientific methods, their structure and interconnection that determines the success of scientific research.
Features of the choice and application of a particular methodological concept of scientific knowledge are determined by the specifics of the object (objects) of research, the researcher’s approach to this problem and the conditions of the study, depending on the direction of his scientific interests and the capabilities of the equipment.
For example, the study of a celestial body may be associated with the study of a variety of problems: the trajectory of its movement, relative luminosity, gravitational field, etc. In each case, specialized methodological schemes and research methods are used.
This means that the most important, initial goal of the researcher is the choice of methodological approaches, methodological systems of knowledge that allow the most effective interpretation of specific scientific results.
To the most famous concepts of scientific research methodology include the theory of “scientific revolutions” by the American science historian T. Kuhn (1922-1996), the research programs of I. Lakatos (1922-1974), the concept of “external functioning” by Karl Popper (1902 – 1994) and the concept of the physical research program of M. D. Akhundov and S.V. Illarionov.
Generally speaking, a scientific theory (according to K. Popper) is a kind of scientific machine, a system created by a brilliant individual. It is given certain tasks, it is equipped with the necessary (in the author’s opinion) methods for solving it, and principles for choosing an object of study. Essentially, a scientific theory is an invention rationally discussed and critically analyzed. The external functioning of a theory consists of constant clashes with other theories. The outcome of these collisions is determined criteria for verification (verifiability) and falsifiability (possible falsifiability) selected theories. The theory that is most stable according to these criteria is considered the most correct at this stage of the study.
The theory of “scientific revolutions” by T. Kuhn is based on the doctrine of “paradigm” - a system of conceptual worldview ideas generally accepted in modern science. Examples of such paradigms can be the heliocentric ideas of N. Copernicus, mechanics of I. Newton, principles of relativity of A. Einstein, system concepts of I. Prigogine.
Structurally (according to T. Kuhn), there are two main stages in the theory of knowledge: the period of “normal” science – a relatively calm period of accumulation of new scientific facts that confirm or refute existing ideas (paradigm). For example, the geocentric picture of the world of Claudius Ptolemy (90 - 160) dominated for almost one and a half thousand years, until the end of the fifteenth century. The majority of scientific facts did not contradict this theory, but there were some that were difficult to explain from these positions. First of all, according to Ptolemy, the orbits of celestial bodies had a complex loop-shaped configuration, which did not always correspond, for example, to the very accurate astronomical observations of the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546 - 1601) for his time.
Another, chronologically later example of the accumulation of facts from the period of “normal” science are the results of the Michelson-Morley experiment to determine the dependence of the speed of light on the direction of movement of the “world ether”, the basis of the Universe, filling the space between celestial bodies. The content of the experiment itself will be described below, but its results did not fit into the prevailing paradigm of the world order at that time, based on the mechanistic ideas of I. Newton. It was expected that in the direction of movement of the “world ether” the speed of light would be greater than against it.
But Michelson and Morley experimentally established the constancy of the speed of light, regardless of the direction of movement of the “world ether” or, which is the same thing, the speed of the radiation source or receiver!
New scientific facts, even those that do not coincide with generally accepted ideas, cannot immediately change the overall picture of the world, i.e. the existing “paradigm” at that time, until the number of contradictions becomes critical. This is often accompanied by a technological breakthrough in certain areas of science and technology, allowing new scientific data to be obtained.
If the number of contradictions is large, there is a need for a paradigm shift. Changing the content of a paradigm according to T. Kuhn is called a “scientific revolution”, is accompanied by a change in the main scientific priorities, competition between hypotheses and particular theories. It is accompanied by a radical change in basic concepts and ideas about the world around us. A new paradigm is emerging. After her accession, the next period of “normal” science begins.
An example of the application of T. Kuhn's concept as a methodological research system can be the identification of the mechanism of transition from the classical ideas of I. Newton, the paradigm formulated by him in 1687 in the three-volume work “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” to the relativistic ideas of A. Einstein about the relativity of space-time continuum.
The emergence of the “scientific revolution” and Einstein’s new paradigm was preceded by a period of accumulation of facts (the period of “normal” science). Many new facts, for example, the behavior of elementary particles, the curvature of transmitted light in the gravitational field of the Sun, could not be explained from the position of the previous paradigm of classical science.
The use of T. Kuhn's ideas allows, in the process of research, to rely on an already existing paradigm, comparing established new scientific facts with it, to determine the degree of their correspondence and the possibility of raising the question of the need to replace it or, conversely, to confirm it. The steady tendency towards increasing contradictions between new scientific facts and the previous paradigm leads to the raising of the question of changing the latter (scientific revolution).
After the reign of the new paradigm, the period of “normal” science begins again, which ended, in our example, with the advent of quantum mechanics, which considered the Universe and its elements as probabilistic wave formations.
Methodological difficulties in applying T. Kuhn's concept lie in the lack of description of the mechanisms of paradigm change under the influence of new accumulated experimental facts.
To solve this problem, the concept of research programs by Imre Lokatos was developed, which is a structured method of cognition. At its core "hard core" formed from fundamental, sufficiently substantiated theoretical concepts, fundamental approaches that form a generally recognized system of worldview in a given scientific field. "Hard Core" added "protective belt" auxiliary hypotheses, the change of which does not lead to a change in the structure of the most important concepts of the “hard core”. Important regulatory elements are "negative heuristic", designed to exclude any attempts to explain new phenomena that are not consistent with the “hard core and "positive heuristics" allowing us to determine research directions within the existing “hard core”. (By the way, heuristics means cognition).
As long as the existing fundamental concepts allow at least a little progress, the tools of positive and negative heuristics will protect the existing theoretical structure. However, with the emergence and subsequent accumulation of a large number of systematized anomalous facts, the previous research program is replaced by a new one that explains these phenomena Let us consider the application of the research program of I. Lokatosh using the example of the paradigm of quantum mechanics, the most important provisions of which: the concepts of E. Schrödinger, W. Heisenberg and Louis de Broglie, the age-old equations formed the “hard core” of the study.
Quantum-mechanical methods for calculating the structure of microparticles and the flow of processes have formed a “protective belt” of auxiliary hypotheses, based on negative and positive heuristics.
The accumulation of a large number of contradictory facts (“negative heuristics”) led to a consistent change in the “protective belt” (the period of “normal” science according to T. Kuhn), and then the “hard core” of quantum mechanics (the scientific revolution according to T. Kuhn). A new paradigm has emerged: the “concept of self-organization of systems” by Ilya Prigogine (1917 – 2003).
The complexity of I. Lokatosh’s concept is the formation of a “hard core” as a set of unchanging fundamental theories of a given direction of science, which did not allow the dynamic use of this structure to open new scientific fields.
The use of structural constructs of the methodology for the dynamic creation of new concepts has been expanded concept of a physics research program(M.D. Akhundov and S.V. Illarionov). It consists in the possibility of changing the content of the “hard core”: the fundamental (most important, basic) principles according to I. Lokatosh are replaced with basic ones - more generalized, universal, flexible and changeable, allowing the creation of new scientific disciplines, areas of research, and planning possible discoveries.
An important role in the formation of the basic principles of the “hard core” within the framework of the concept of a physical research program is played by the so-called “seed images” (S.N. Zharov) - the initial model representations that form the initial basic structure. As “primary images” (initial worldview ideas), I. Newton used the concepts of corpuscles, emptiness, absolute space and absolute time, which formed the basis of his scientific research program.
Further development of these ideas led to the creation of the mechanics of a material point (L. Euler), solid body mechanics, hydrodynamics, and the theory of machines. These transformations went through a preliminary gradual change in the “protective belt” of hypotheses and auxiliary theories to a new paradigm (an updated “hard core”) formed by updated basic theories. Moreover, the transformation of fundamental ideas into basic ones occurs gradually, as they develop and universalize.
When forming a methodological research scheme, almost all of these concepts are used simultaneously. First of all, the existing paradigm in the chosen direction of science is determined, the fundamental principles that form it (the “hard core”), and theoretical concepts that influence the fundamental theories that make up the “hard core”. Based on new scientific data, its basis is formed, new directions of research, new scientific methods arise, which will ultimately lead to another scientific revolution, a change in the paradigm, the “hard core” of fundamental and basic theories, the “protective belt” equipped with a positive and negative heuristics.
Classical ideas about the motion of bodies, based on the works of I. Newton, formed the research paradigm: the “hard core” of fundamental theories, consisting of the laws of mechanics of I. Newton and the law of universal gravitation. On this basis, a “protective belt” of auxiliary hypotheses, theories, methods is formed, for example, the study of the movement of a point in emptiness, a medium with resistance (water, air, etc.). The solution to these problems ensured the transformation of the fundamental principles of the “hard core” into basic ones through a change in the structure of the “protective belt”. Basisity made it possible to apply the general principles of the “rigid core” to the creation of the mechanics of celestial bodies, hydrodynamics, aerodynamics, mechanics of solids, elasticity theory, etc. But during the period of “normal” science, there was an accumulation of data that led to the emergence of thermodynamics and electrodynamics, the interpretation of which within the framework of the mechanistic paradigm turned out to be impossible.
In other words, the conditions for a new scientific revolution have arisen.
To summarize, we note that in scientific and practical activities it is advisable to form a “hard core” of principles, theories, and concepts existing on this issue; formulate it as a paradigm, in the form of a generalized doctrine. Identify more specific hypotheses, theories, principles, forming a “protective belt”, using “positive and negative heuristics” to clarify the methodological structure.
Conclusions on the section "Methodology of natural science knowledge"
The scientific method is the basis of natural science knowledge. The science of its construction and application is called methodology. Knowledge of the basic methodological principles allows you to comprehensively formulate a method for studying a particular scientific problem.
An important role in creating a research method is played by its logical construction, based on the classical concepts of T. Kuhn, I. Lokatosh, K. Popper, M.D. Akhundov and S.V. Illarionov.
The method of scientific knowledge is a coherent system of consistent study and theoretical understanding of an unknown natural phenomenon.
Questions for self-control
1. What is the basis of modern scientific knowledge?
a) natural science approach
b) empirical research
c) theological studies
d) science fiction works
2. What is the method of scientific knowledge?
a) a system of actions leading to ambiguous results
b) a system of actions leading to general theological conclusions
c) a system of actions leading to a given, expected result.
d) individual actions unrelated to each other by a common system
3. What is the essence of the methodology of scientific knowledge?
a) in the study of individual natural phenomena using microscopy.
b) in the study of the principles, forms and methods (methods) of organizing scientific activity: theoretical and experimental research.
c) in studying the features of theory construction.
d) in the study of ancient literary sources and generalization of the results obtained.
4. What is truth, according to the teachings of Rene Descartes?
a) obtaining necessarily reliable scientific knowledge, with scientific fact as the object of study.
b) obtaining subjective data based on modern methods of scientific research.
c) general conclusions based on generalization of historical knowledge
d) generalized information obtained by the most authoritative scientists.
5. What, from Descartes’ point of view, constitutes certainty?
a) the maximum possible verifiability of scientific facts under given conditions.
b) irrefutable facts in a given territory.
c) periodic repeatability of results using selected laboratory equipment.
d) a truth that has been repeatedly confirmed in various literary sources.
6. What is a scientific fact?
a) an event that exists in our world from the point of view of modern scientists.
b) an event that exists independently of our sensations and the possibilities of studying it.
c) an event mentioned in theological literature.
d) an event that does not exist, but may occur.
a) methods of theoretical understanding of the state of an object, its main characteristics.
b) methods of directly obtaining information about the object of research by carrying out practical actions with the object.
c) methods of obtaining information by exchanging opinions with leading experts in the chosen industry.
d) methods of theological study of the problem.
8. What is the difference between observation and experiment?
a) in the preliminary determination of the result of observation.
b) in developing reliable theoretical ideas about the result of the experiment.
c) there are no differences between observation and experiment. These are synonyms.
d) in the purposeful study of objects or phenomena of the world around us when conducting an experiment.
9. What are theoretical methods?
a) research of the object using the most modern equipment.
b) theological direction of discussing the problem with leading scientists.
c) intellectual methods of generalizing scientific knowledge, creating hypotheses and theories.
d) observation of a natural phenomenon and its subsequent description.
10. What is formalization?
a) development of a system for formal presentation of a particular natural study.
b) displaying the results of experiments or observations in the form of a system of generalizing definitions, statements or conclusions;
c) development of formal limits for the application of a particular research method.
d) creation of new ideas in science, new research methods.
11. What does the term “axiomatization” mean?
a) formation of theoretical concepts based on a preliminary discussion of experimental results.
b) philosophical theory, meaning a comprehensive study of a problem.
c) the formation of theoretical constructions based on axioms - statements that do not require proof.
d) interpretation of this or that natural phenomenon on the basis of purely theoretical concepts.
12. What is the hypothetico-deductive method?
a) a method consisting of putting forward any hypotheses and their subsequent logical and empirical verification.
b) method of behavior analysis and synthesis.
c) method of verification of scientific data.
d) a method for modeling a process or phenomenon.
13. What is the main goal of scientific research?
a) creation of the main provisions of the methodology of scientific knowledge.
b) creation of principles for constructing scientific research.
c) development of a hypothesis for the flow of a process or phenomenon.
d) formation of a generalized theory based on the results of system experiments.
14. What is the theory of the American historian T. Kuhn?
a) in the creation of a theoretical method of the theory of knowledge.
b) in developing the theory of analysis and synthesis.
c) in creating a unified system of scientific views common to scientists all over the world.
d) in the alternation of periods of “scientific revolutions” and periods of accumulation of scientific facts.
15. What is the concept of I. Lakatos?
a) in denying the possibility of systematizing scientific research.
b) in creating a new visual model for constructing empirical research.
c) in the development of scientific research programs on fundamental problems of science.
d) in the formation of the concept of studying the Universe.
Lecture 1. Natural science.
Basic sciences about nature (physics, chemistry, biology), their similarities and differences. Natural scientific method of cognition and its components: observation, measurement, experiment, hypothesis, theory
Since ancient times, man has observed the world around him, on which his life depended, and tried to understand natural phenomena. The sun gave people warmth and brought withering heat, rains watered the fields with life-giving moisture and caused floods, hurricanes and earthquakes brought innumerable disasters. Not knowing the reasons for their occurrence, people attributed these actions to supernatural forces, but gradually they began to understand the real causes of natural phenomena and bring them into a certain system. This is how the natural sciences were born.
Since nature is extremely diverse, in the process of understanding it, various natural sciences were formed: physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, geography, geology and many others. This is how a whole body of natural sciences was formed. Based on the objects of research, they can be divided into two large groups: sciences about living and inanimate nature. The most important natural sciences about living and inanimate nature are: physics, chemistry, biology.
Physics – a science that studies the most general properties of matter and the forms of its motion (mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, atomic, nuclear). Physics has many types and sections (general physics, theoretical physics, experimental physics, mechanics, molecular physics, atomic physics, nuclear physics, physics of electromagnetic phenomena, etc.).
Chemistry – the science of substances, their composition, structure, properties and mutual transformations. Chemistry studies the chemical form of the movement of matter and is divided into inorganic and organic chemistry, physical and analytical chemistry, colloidal chemistry, etc.
Biology– science of living nature. The subject of biology is life as a special form of movement of matter, the laws of development of living nature. Biology seems to be the most branched science (zoology, botany, morphology, cytology, histology, anatomy and physiology, microbiology, virology, embryology, ecology, genetics, etc.). At the intersection of sciences, related sciences arise, such as physical chemistry, physical biology, chemical physics, biophysics, astrophysics, etc.
Natural science – the science of nature as a single integrity or the totality of sciences about nature, taken as a single whole.
Physics is the science of nature.
Since time immemorial, people began to conduct systematic observations of natural phenomena, sought to notice the sequence of occurring phenomena and learned to foresee the course of many events in nature. for example, the change of seasons, the time of river floods and much more. They used this knowledge to determine the time of sowing, harvesting, etc. Gradually, people became convinced that studying natural phenomena brings invaluable benefits.
In the Russian language, the word “physics” appeared in the 18th century, thanks to Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov, an encyclopedist scientist, the founder of Russian science, an outstanding figure of education, who translated from the first German textbook on physics. It was then that Russia began to seriously study this science.
Physical body– this is every object around us. What physical bodies do you know? (pen, book, desk)
Substance- this is everything that physical bodies are made of. (Showing physical bodies consisting of different substances)
Matter- this is everything that exists in the Universe regardless of our consciousness (celestial bodies, plants, animals, etc.)
Physical phenomena- these are changes that occur with physical bodies.
The main physical phenomena are:
Mechanical phenomena
Electrical phenomena
Magnetic phenomena
Light phenomena
Thermal phenomena
Methods of scientific knowledge:
Correlation of general scientific methods
Analysis- mental or real decomposition of an object into its constituent parts.
Synthesis- combining the elements learned as a result of analysis into a single whole.
Generalization- the process of mental transition from the individual to the general, from the less general to the more general, for example: the transition from the judgment “this metal conducts electricity” to the judgment “all metals conduct electricity”, from the judgment: “the mechanical form of energy turns into thermal” to the judgment “Every form of energy is converted into heat.”
Abstraction(idealization)- mental introduction of certain changes to the object under study in accordance with the objectives of the study. As a result of idealization, some properties and attributes of objects that are not essential for this study can be excluded from consideration. An example of such idealization in mechanics is material point, i.e. a point with mass but without any dimensions. The same abstract (ideal) object is absolutely rigid body.
Induction - the process of deriving a general position from observing a number of particular individual facts, i.e. knowledge from the particular to the general. In practice, incomplete induction is most often used, which involves making a conclusion about all objects of a set based on knowledge of only a part of the objects. Incomplete induction, based on experimental research and including theoretical justification, is called scientific induction. The conclusions of such induction are often probabilistic in nature. This is a risky but creative method. With a strict setup of the experiment, logical consistency and rigor of conclusions, it is able to give a reliable conclusion. According to the famous French physicist Louis de Broglie, scientific induction is the true source of truly scientific progress.
Deduction I - the process of analytical reasoning from the general to the particular or less general. It is closely related to generalization. If the initial general provisions are an established scientific truth, then the method of deduction will always produce a true conclusion. The deductive method is especially important in mathematics. Mathematicians operate with mathematical abstractions and base their reasoning on general principles. These general provisions apply to solving private, specific problems.
Analogy - a probable, plausible conclusion about the similarity of two objects or phenomena in some characteristic, based on their established similarity in other characteristics. An analogy with the simple allows us to understand the more complex. Thus, by analogy with the artificial selection of the best breeds of domestic animals, Charles Darwin discovered the law of natural selection in the animal and plant world.
Modeling - reproduction of the properties of an object of cognition on a specially designed analogue of it - a model. Models can be real (material), for example, airplane models, building models. photographs, prosthetics, dolls, etc. and ideal (abstract) created by means of language (both natural human language and special languages, for example, the language of mathematics. In this case we have mathematical model. Typically this is a system of equations that describes the relationships in the system being studied.
The historical method involves reproducing the history of the object being studied in all its versatility, taking into account all the details and accidents.
Boolean method - this is, in essence, a logical reproduction of the history of the object being studied. At the same time, this history is freed from everything accidental and unimportant, i.e. it is like the same historical method, but freed from its historical forms.
Classification - distribution of certain objects into classes (departments, categories) depending on their general characteristics, fixing natural connections between classes of objects in a unified system of a specific branch of knowledge. The formation of each science is associated with the creation of classifications of the objects and phenomena being studied.
Methods of empirical knowledge
Observations(presentation) : we can watch the trees, learn that some of them are shedding their leaves, that a log is floating in the water, that the compass needle points to the north. When observing, we do not interfere with the process that we observe.
Having accumulated certain data about phenomena over the course of observations, we try to find out how these phenomena occur and why. In the course of such reflections, various assumptions are born or hypotheses. To test the hypothesis, special experiments - experiments. Experiment involves active human interaction with the observed phenomenon. During experiments, measurements are usually made. An experiment presupposes a specific goal and a pre-thought-out plan of action. By putting forward one or another hypothesis, we can confirm or refute our hypothesis with the help of an experiment.
Observation- organized, purposeful, recorded perception of phenomena for the purpose of studying them under certain conditions.
Hypothesis- this word is of Greek origin, literally translated as “foundation”, “assumption”. In the modern sense, an unproven theory or assumption. A hypothesis is put forward based on observations or experiments.
Experience- a method of studying a certain phenomenon under controlled conditions. Differs from observation by active interaction with the object being studied
Sometimes, during experiments to study known natural phenomena, a new physical phenomenon is discovered. This is how it's done scientific discovery.
Physical quantity is a characteristic that is common to several material objects or phenomena in a qualitative sense, but can take on individual values for each of them.
To measure a physical quantity means to compare it with a homogeneous quantity taken as a unit.
Examples of physical quantities are path, time, mass, density, force, temperature, pressure, voltage, illumination, etc.
Physical quantities There are scalar and vector ones. Scalar physical quantities are characterized only by a numerical value, while vector ones are determined by both number (modulus) and direction. Scalar physical quantities are time, temperature, mass, vector ones are speed, acceleration, force.
Method is a set of rules, methods of cognitive and practical activity, determined by the nature and laws of the object under study.
The modern system of methods of cognition is highly complex and differentiated. The simplest classification of methods of cognition involves their division into general, general scientific, and specific scientific.
1. General methods characterize the techniques and methods of research at all levels of scientific knowledge. These include methods of analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, comparison, idealization, etc. These methods are so universal that they work even at the level of ordinary consciousness.
Analysis is a procedure of mental (or real) dismemberment, decomposition of an object into its component elements in order to identify their systemic properties and relationships.
Synthesis- the operation of combining the elements of the object being studied, selected in the analysis, into a single whole.
Induction- a method of reasoning or a method of obtaining knowledge in which a general conclusion is drawn based on a generalization of particular premises. Induction can be complete or incomplete. Complete induction is possible when the premises cover all phenomena of a particular class. However, such cases are rare. The impossibility of taking into account all phenomena of a given class forces us to use incomplete induction, the final conclusions of which are not strictly unambiguous.
Deduction- a way of reasoning or a method of moving knowledge from the general to the specific, i.e. the process of logical transition from general premises to conclusions about particular cases. The deductive method can provide strict, reliable knowledge, subject to the truth of the general premises and compliance with the rules of logical inference.
Analogy- a method of cognition in which the presence of similarity in the characteristics of non-identical objects allows us to assume their similarity in other characteristics. Thus, the phenomena of interference and diffraction discovered during the study of light allowed us to draw a conclusion about its wave nature, since previously the same properties were recorded in sound, the wave nature of which had already been precisely established. Analogy is an indispensable means of clarity and visualization of thinking. But Aristotle also warned that “analogy is not proof”! It can only give conjectural knowledge.
Abstraction- a method of thinking that consists in abstracting from unimportant properties and relationships of the object being studied that are insignificant for the subject of cognition, while simultaneously highlighting those of its properties that seem important and significant in the context of the study.
Idealization- the process of mentally creating concepts about idealized objects that do not exist in the real world, but have a prototype. Examples: ideal gas, absolutely black body.
2. General scientific methods– modeling, observation, experiment.
The initial method of scientific knowledge is considered observation, i.e. deliberate and purposeful study of objects, based on human sensory abilities - sensations and perceptions. During observation, it is possible to obtain information only about the external, superficial aspects, qualities and characteristics of the objects being studied.
The result of scientific observations is always a description of the object under study, recorded in the form of texts, drawings, diagrams, graphs, diagrams, etc. With the development of science, observation becomes more and more complex and indirect through the use of various technical devices, instruments, and measuring instruments.
Another important method of natural science knowledge is experiment. An experiment is a way of active, targeted research of objects under controlled and controlled conditions. An experiment includes observation and measurement procedures, but is not limited to them. After all, the experimenter has the opportunity to select the necessary observation conditions, combine and vary them, achieving the “purity” of the manifestation of the properties being studied, as well as interfere with the “natural” course of the processes under study and even reproduce them artificially.
The main task of an experiment, as a rule, is to predict a theory. Such experiments are called research. Another type of experiment is check- intended to confirm certain theoretical assumptions.
Modeling - a method of replacing the studied object with something similar to it in a number of properties and characteristics of interest to the researcher. The data obtained from studying the model is then, with some adjustments, transferred to the real object. Modeling is used mainly when direct study of an object is either impossible (obviously, the phenomenon of “nuclear winter” as a result of the massive use of nuclear weapons is better not to be tested except on a model), or is associated with exorbitant efforts and costs. It is advisable to first study the consequences of major interventions in natural processes (river turning, for example) using hydrodynamic models, and then experiment with real natural objects.
Modeling is actually a universal method. It can be used in systems of various levels. Usually there are such types of modeling as subject, mathematical, logical, physical, chemical, etc. Computer modeling has become widespread in modern conditions.
3. K specific scientific methods represent systems of formulated principles of specific scientific theories. N: psychoanalytic method in psychology, method of morphophysiological indicators in biology, etc.
Since time immemorial, people began to conduct systematic observations of natural phenomena, sought to notice the sequence of occurring phenomena and learned to foresee the course of many events in nature. for example, the change of seasons, the time of river floods and much more. They used this knowledge to determine the time of sowing, harvesting, etc. Gradually, people became convinced that studying natural phenomena brings invaluable benefits.
Then scientists appeared who devoted their lives to the study of natural phenomena and generalized the experience of previous generations. They recorded the results of observations and experiments and communicated their knowledge to their students. At first, the scientists were priests, whose knowledge allowed them to keep the people in subjection. Therefore, scientists made notes in encrypted form, and students were carefully selected and they had to keep their knowledge secret.
The first books about natural phenomena that became the property of the people appeared in Ancient Greece. This contributed to the rapid development of science in this country and the emergence of many outstanding scientists.
Greek word "fuzis" translated means nature, so the science of nature began to be called physics.
The greatest thinker of antiquity Aristotle(384-322 BC) the meaning of the word “physics” (from Greek - nature) included the entire body of information about nature, everything that was known about earthly and celestial phenomena. The term “physics” was introduced into the Russian language by the great encyclopedist scientist, the founder of materialist philosophy in Russia M.V. Lomonosov (1711 - 1765).
For a long time physics called natural philosophy(philosophy of nature), and it actually merged with natural science. As experimental material accumulates, its scientific generalization and research methods develop from natural philosophy as a general doctrine of nature Astronomy, chemistry, physics, biology and other sciences stood out. This determines the organic connection between physics and other natural sciences.
The process of long-term study of natural phenomena led scientists to the idea of the materiality of the world around us.
Matter is an objective reality that exists apart from our consciousness and is given to us in sensation (V.I.Lenin)
Matterincludes everything around us and ourselves. That is, everything that really exists in nature (and not in our imagination) is material.
The doctrine of the structure of matter is one of the central ones in physics. It covers two types of matter known to physics: substance and field. Matter exists not only in the form of matter - physical bodies, but also in the form of fields, for example electromagnetic, gravitational. For example, radio waves and light cannot be called matter. They represent a special form of matter - an electromagnetic field.
Substancecharacterized by discrete formation and finite rest mass.
Fieldcharacterized by continuity and zero rest mass.
An inherent property of matter is movement. In a philosophical sense any change that occurs in nature, in the world around us, represents movement of matter. Movement is a way of existence of matter.
All material objects (bodies) do not remain unchanged. Over time, their relative position, shape, size, state of aggregation, physical and chemical properties, etc. change.
Movement embraces all the changes and processes occurring in the Universe, starting from simple movement and ending with thinking.
Physics studies the most general forms of motion of matter and their mutual transformations, such as mechanical, molecular-thermal, electromagnetic, atomic and nuclear processes.
Such a division into forms of motion is arbitrary, but physics in the process of study is usually represented by just such sections.
Experience accumulated over centuries has convinced scientists that matter can change, but never appears or disappears. The movement of matter can also change its shape (transform from one form to another), but the movement of matter itself is neither created nor destroyed. Those. The world around us is eternally moving and developing matter.
The universal measure of the movement of matter in all its forms is energy, and the indestructibility of the movement of matter is expressed by the law of conservation of energy.
Matter exists in space and time.
Spacedetermines the relative position of (simultaneously existing) objects relative to each other and their relative magnitude (distance and orientation).
Those. space characterizes the extent of material objects. It continuous, isotropic(properties do not change when turning) and homogeneous. Described by Euclidean geometry, i.e. three-dimensional (in classical physics). Unit space in SI is 1 meter.Meter - 1.6 million light wavelengths of krypton atoms, or the length of the path traveled by light in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 s.
Timedetermines the sequence of natural phenomena(material events) and their relative duration(duration).
In classical physics, time is characterized homogeneity and continuity. Not isotropic i.e. flows in one direction. The SI unit of measurement is 1 second. Second- a time equal to 9,192,631,770 periods of radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom.
All natural phenomena occur in space in a certain sequence and have a finite duration. Consequently, space and time do not exist on their own, in isolation from matter, and matter does not exist outside of space and time.
The general measure of various forms of motion of matter is energy. Qualitatively different physical forms of motion of matter are capable of transforming into each other, but matter itself is indestructible and uncreated. Ancient materialist philosophers came to this conclusion. So, physics- a science that studies the simplest and at the same time the most general patterns of natural phenomena, the properties and structure of matter and the laws of its motion.
Physics is the basis of natural science. Physics belongs to the exact sciences and studies the quantitative laws of phenomena. She is science experimental. Many of its laws are based on facts established empirically. The facts remain, but their interpretation sometimes changes in the course of the historical development of science, in the process of an ever deeper understanding of the basic laws of nature.
The role of natural science in people's lives is great. Natural science is the basis of life support - physiological, technical, energetic. Natural science is the theoretical basis of industry and agriculture, all technologies, various types of production, including energy production, food, clothing, etc. Natural science is the most important element of human culture; it is one of the significant indicators of the level of civilization.
Features of the natural scientific method of cognition:
1. Is objective in nature
2. The subject of knowledge is typical
3. Historicity is not required
4. Only knowledge creates
5. The natural scientist strives to be an outside observer.
6. Relies on the language of terms and numbers
Method- is a set of techniques or operations of practical or theoretical activity.
Methods of scientific knowledge include the so-called universal methods , i.e. universal methods of thinking, general scientific methods and methods of specific sciences. Methods can also be classified according to the ratio empirical knowledge (i.e. knowledge obtained as a result of experience, experimental knowledge) and theoretical knowledge, the essence of which is knowledge of the essence of phenomena, their internal connections.
Classification of methods of scientific knowledge
It should be borne in mind that each branch of natural science, along with general scientific ones, uses its own specific scientific, special methods, determined by the essence of the object of study. However, often methods characteristic of a particular science are used in other sciences. This happens because the objects of study of these sciences are also subject to the laws of this science. For example, physical and chemical research methods are used in biology on the basis that objects of biological research include, in one form or another, physical and chemical forms of motion of matter and, therefore, are subject to physical and chemical laws (remember the “Kekule staircase” that we examined in the first lecture).
Universal methods in the history of knowledge there are two: dialectical and metaphysical. These are general philosophical methods.
The dialectical method is a method of understanding reality in its inconsistency, integrity and development.
The metaphysical method is a method opposite to the dialectical one, considering phenomena outside of their mutual connection and development.
Since the mid-19th century, the metaphysical method has been increasingly displaced from natural science by the dialectical method.
Correlation of general scientific methods
Analysis- mental or real decomposition of an object into its constituent parts.
Synthesis- combining the elements learned as a result of analysis into a single whole.
Generalization- the process of mental transition from the individual to the general, from the less general to the more general, for example: the transition from the judgment “this metal conducts electricity” to the judgment “all metals conduct electricity”, from the judgment: “the mechanical form of energy turns into thermal” to the judgment “Every form of energy is converted into heat.”
Abstraction (idealization)- mental introduction of certain changes to the object under study in accordance with the objectives of the study. As a result of idealization, some properties and attributes of objects that are not essential for this study can be excluded from consideration. An example of such idealization in mechanics is material point , i.e. a point with mass but without any dimensions. The same abstract (ideal) object is absolutely rigid body .
Induction- the process of deriving a general position from observing a number of particular individual facts, i.e. knowledge from the particular to the general. In practice, incomplete induction is most often used, which involves making a conclusion about all objects of a set based on knowledge of only a part of the objects. Incomplete induction, based on experimental research and including theoretical justification, is called scientific induction. The conclusions of such induction are often probabilistic in nature. This is a risky but creative method. With a strict setup of the experiment, logical consistency and rigor of conclusions, it is able to give a reliable conclusion. According to the famous French physicist Louis de Broglie, scientific induction is the true source of truly scientific progress.
Deduction- the process of analytical reasoning from the general to the particular or less general. It is closely related to generalization. If the initial general provisions are an established scientific truth, then the method of deduction will always produce a true conclusion. The deductive method is especially important in mathematics. Mathematicians operate with mathematical abstractions and base their reasoning on general principles. These general provisions apply to solving private, specific problems.
Analogy- a probable, plausible conclusion about the similarity of two objects or phenomena in some characteristic, based on their established similarity in other characteristics. An analogy with the simple allows us to understand the more complex. Thus, by analogy with the artificial selection of the best breeds of domestic animals, Charles Darwin discovered the law of natural selection in the animal and plant world.
Modeling- reproduction of the properties of an object of cognition on a specially designed analogue of it - a model. Models can be real (material), for example, airplane models, building models. photographs, prosthetics, dolls, etc. and ideal (abstract) created by means of language (both natural human language and special languages, for example, the language of mathematics. In this case we have mathematical model . Typically this is a system of equations that describes the relationships in the system being studied.
Historical method involves reproducing the history of the object being studied in all its versatility, taking into account all the details and accidents.
Boolean method- this is, in essence, a logical reproduction of the history of the object being studied. At the same time, this history is freed from everything accidental and unimportant, i.e. it is like the same historical method, but freed from its historical forms.
Classification- distribution of certain objects into classes (departments, categories) depending on their general characteristics, fixing natural connections between classes of objects in a unified system of a specific branch of knowledge. The formation of each science is associated with the creation of classifications of the objects and phenomena being studied.
Classification is the process of organizing information. In the process of studying new objects, a conclusion is made in relation to each such object: whether it belongs to already established classification groups.
Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge:
Observation- purposeful, organized perception of objects and phenomena. Scientific observations are carried out to collect facts that strengthen or refute a particular hypothesis and form the basis for certain theoretical generalizations.
Experiment- a method of research that differs from observation by an active nature. This is observation under special controlled conditions. The experiment allows, firstly, to isolate the object under study from the influence of side phenomena that are not significant for it. Secondly, during the experiment the course of the process is repeated many times. Thirdly, the experiment allows you to systematically change the very course of the process being studied and the state of the object of study.
Measurement- is a material process of comparison of any quantities with a standard, unit of measurement. The number expressing the ratio of the measured quantity to the standard is called numerical value this value.
Intuition. A special way to comprehend the truth is intuition. This is the type of knowledge that arises as if suddenly, like an insight from a person who has been trying to solve a question that has been tormenting him for a long time. Intuitive knowledge is direct - the method of its implementation is not realized by the person. However, after the problem is solved, the progress of its solution can be realized and analyzed. Intuition, therefore, is a qualitatively special type of cognition, in which individual links in the logical chain of cognition remain at the level of the unconscious.
Forms of scientific knowledge:
Fact, as a phenomenon of reality, becomes scientific fact, if it has passed strict verification of truth. Facts are the most reliable arguments for both proving and refuting any theoretical statements.
Scientific problems- these are conscious questions for which existing knowledge is not enough to answer. It can also be defined as “knowledge about ignorance.”
Scientific hypothesis- such presumptive knowledge, the truth or falsity of which has not yet been proven, but which is not put forward arbitrarily, but subject to a number of requirements, which include the following.
- No contradictions. The main provisions of the proposed hypothesis should not contradict known and verified facts. (It should be borne in mind that there are also false facts that themselves need to be verified).
- Consistency of the new hypothesis with well-established theories. Thus, after the discovery of the law of conservation and transformation of energy, all new proposals for the creation of a “perpetual motion machine” are no longer considered.
- Availability of the proposed hypothesis for experimental testing , at least in principle (see below - the principle of verifiability).
- Maximum simplicity of the hypothesis.
Categories of science- these are the most general concepts of the theory, characterizing the essential properties of the object of the theory, objects and phenomena of the objective world. For example, the most important categories are matter, space, time, movement, causality, quality, quantity, causality, etc.
Laws of Science reflect the essential connections of phenomena in the form of theoretical statements. Principles and laws are expressed through the relationship of two or more categories.
Scientific principles- the most general and important fundamental provisions of the theory. Scientific principles play the role of initial, primary premises and are laid in the foundation of the theories being created. The content of the principles is revealed in a set of laws and categories.
Scientific concepts- the most general and important fundamental provisions of theories.
Scientific theory- this is systematized knowledge in its totality. Scientific theories explain many accumulated scientific facts and describe a certain fragment of reality (for example, electrical phenomena, mechanical motion, transformation of substances, evolution of species, etc.) through a system of laws.
The main difference between a theory and a hypothesis is reliability, evidence. The term theory itself has many meanings. Theory in a strictly scientific sense is a system of already confirmed knowledge that comprehensively reveals the structure, functioning and development of the object under study, the relationship of all its elements, aspects and theories.
New theories are created according to some pattern paradigm.
A scientific theory must perform two important functions, the first of which is explanation of facts , and the second - prediction of new, still unknown facts and patterns characterizing them .
Scientific theory is one of the most stable forms of scientific knowledge, but they also undergo changes following the accumulation of new facts. When changes affect the fundamental principles of the theory, there is a transition to new principles, and, consequently, to new theory . Changes in the most general theories lead to qualitative changes in the entire system of theoretical knowledge. As a result, global natural science revolutions occur and the scientific picture of the world changes.
Scientific picture of the world is a system of scientific theories that describes reality. More details about scientific pictures of the world and their evolution will be discussed in the next lecture.
Process of scientific knowledge
Having defined the forms of scientific knowledge and methods of scientific knowledge, we can schematically represent the entire process of scientific knowledge in the form of a diagram:
