The proposed topic is a timid attempt to come closer to understanding some part of the Creator’s plan to create the foundations for the construction and functioning of the Universe. The direction in which one can try to understand his plan was outlined by the Witch Doctor in commentary 1184 to the topic “What is gravity”: “At this stage, I understand the first principle this way: the first principle or first matter is what the ether-vacuum consists of, what creates fields of which elementary particles are made. And in the future, there will be the fundamental particles that make up the particles of the ether. But always and everywhere the fundamental principle will be particles.”
The proposed topic does not consider the particles of the fundamental principle that make up the particles of the ether; let’s start with what the ether consists of.

Initial assumptions constitute the weak link of any hypothesis. The absence today of the possibility of experimental verification of initial assumptions does not necessarily mean that they are incorrect; in addition, experimental data may be misinterpreted. Rutherford's misinterpretation of the results of alpha particle scattering experiments he conducted in 1911 complicated the understanding of the mechanism of communication between atoms for a century. In one of the comments, che wrote: “...after all, a theory is tested exclusively by the implementation of the predictions it generates...” Prediction of the properties of elements based on calculations performed according to the proposed electron structure scheme will serve as a test of the hypothesis proposed in the topic. In all the drawings in the topic, scale is not respected, the priority is clarity.

Initial assumptions.
Any interaction can only be transmitted through contact.
In nature, there is only contact interaction and continuous movement of particles of the fundamental principle (“this is what the ether-vacuum is made of, what creates fields, what elementary particles are made of”), regardless of whether they are single particles or they are part of a formation. These particles transmit the interaction and participate in it.
The universe is built on the harmonious relationships of sequences of contact interactions of particles of the fundamental principle.

Simple experiments.
Experiment 1. Take a permanent magnet and note the force of attraction magnetic field at some point (test body). Let's pass a constant electric current through a magnet. The magnetic field created by the electric current must be directed opposite to the magnetic field of the permanent magnet. We will increase the current by sequentially measuring the resistance of the permanent magnet. Up to a certain current value, the resistance in the magnet will practically not change. The force of attraction will also not change. At a certain current value, we obtain an abrupt decrease in the resistance of the permanent magnet, and the force of attraction will decrease abruptly. After this, when the transmission stops electric current magnetic properties permanent magnet are not restored.

Experiment 2. Place two permanent magnets in a container from which air has been pumped out (a vacuum has been created). The interaction of magnets in a container will be no different from their interaction under normal atmospheric conditions.

Experiment 3. Let’s cool the container and, accordingly, the permanent magnets to the temperature of liquid nitrogen. The properties of magnets disappear and are not restored when they are returned to the normal atmosphere.

Particles of the fundamental principle.
The magnetic field of a permanent magnet can only exist if charges are constantly moving along the surface of the magnet. Atoms interact with electrons.
Any interaction can only be transmitted through contact.
To ensure the transfer of charge from one atom to another atom, electrons must contain particles that will transfer this charge. These particles must also provide communication between atoms, the movement of charges along the surface of a permanent magnet, and current in conductors. It follows that
the electron must consist of particles that contactally transmit the interaction between atoms. These particles transmit the interaction and participate in it.
The ether consists of the same particles. The chaotic movement of these particles determines the temperature of the ether on the order of 30K. Neutrinos, photons, quarks in protons and neutrons consist of the same particles. Let's call them truly elementary particles. We will use the term “truly elementary” in a separate topic when considering “... in the future, there will be the fundamental particles that make up the particles of the ether.”

According to my ideas, to maintain harmony in the structure and functioning of our universe, truly elementary particles must have the following characteristics. Conditional size(diameter) is about 10-55m, the density of the substance is about 5^10+6g/cm+3. Inside the substance of a truly elementary particle there is a region (zone) in a nonequilibrium state - “tension”. The equivalent of this state will be called a positive charge. The amount of charge on all particles is the same q=10-20 C. What truly elementary particles differ from each other is the size of the “tension” region in their substances. Quantity valid elementary particles per unit volume of ether is constant, about 10+13 pieces per cubic centimeter, the average speed is about 5^10+5m/sec.

Electron structure.
Since today the electron has been tested for discreteness only up to a size of 10-19m, it is incorrect to say that it is indivisible. The modern idea of ​​an electron as a particle-wave not participating in contact interactions is incorrect. The above experiments indirectly indicate the discrete structure of the electron.
Let's imagine the electron as dynamic system from truly elementary particles
(hereinafter referred to as RE). Let's assume that two pairs of identical REs, let's call them basic ones, interact in contact - oscillate in pairs around one common point.

Rice. 1 Interaction of basic electron particles

The oscillations of RE pairs are shifted relative to each other by half a period, the lines of oscillations of the pairs are perpendicular to each other. The period of oscillation of one basic RE is about 5^10-25 sec., the amplitude of oscillation is about 10-15 m.

Let's assume that each base RE contact interacts alternately with three other identical REs, let's call them contact ones. The period of oscillation of one contact RE is about 3^10-24 sec., the average amplitude of oscillations under normal conditions is about 5^10-12 m.

Rice. 2 Interaction of base and contact particles - the structure of the electron.

An electron consists of sixteen truly elementary particles oscillating in two concentric “layers”: in the first - four (base), in the second - twelve (contact) RE. Structural notation. The structure of the electron ensures dynamic symmetry - each RE(base) contact alternately interacts with three RE(con). The vibrations of RE(kon) in the electrons of the atom are synchronized. The size of the electron (its conventional spherical boundary) is practically determined by the amplitude of oscillations RE(con). It is important to note that RE(con), reaching the maximum distance from the geometric center of the electron to its conditional spherical boundary, does not stop even for a moment, but moves along an elliptical semicircle and then moves in the opposite direction.
In nature, there is only contact interaction and continuous movement of truly elementary particles, regardless of whether it is a single particle or whether it is part of a formation.
The charge of an electron is equal to the sum of the charges RE of its components q(e) = 10-20 C. ^ 16pcs. = 1.6^10-19 C.

In an atom, the center of the electron (the point around which the RE(base) of the electron oscillates) is located from the center of the proton at a distance of about 1.4 proton radii. Area of ​​contact interactions RE(base) with RE(con) in free electron and in the electron in the hydrogen atom it is a sphere, in the helium atom it is a hemisphere, and with increasing element number it decreases. The segment of the region of contact interactions RE(bases) with RE(con) in the electrons of atoms is determined by the number of the element. The given design of the discrete structure of the electron is the minimum possible, which provides all the variety of connections between elements and their properties.

Formation of the magnetic field of a permanent magnet.
In each electron in a ferromagnetic atom, nine RE(con) create a bond between atoms through the mutual exchange of RE(con) between electrons of neighboring atoms. Three RE(con) of each electron on the surface of a ferromagnet do not participate in interactions with the RE(con) electrons of neighboring atoms.

During magnetization, under the influence of an external magnetic field on the surface of a ferromagnet, electrons deviate from the normal geometry of vibrations of three RE(kon), which are not involved in ensuring the connection between atoms. The radius of the elliptical semicircle increases until it contacts RE(con) in the electrons of neighboring atoms - RE(con) begin to transfer momentum to each other in the direction of the external magnetic field. Arises constant movement charges on the surface of a magnet in one direction - circular current. Violation of symmetry and harmony of vibrations does not occur, since the position of the point of contact RE(con) with RE(base) in the electron does not change. Due to their smallness, there is practically no resistance to the movement of RE(kon) along an elliptical semicircle, there is no loss of energy, therefore, after removing the external magnetic field, the movement of charges along the surface of the ferromagnet (circular current) is maintained.

The speed of momentum transfer between RE(con) in the electrons of neighboring atoms of a permanent magnet is comparable to the speed of light. The average speed of RE ether is several orders of magnitude lower. When they collide, the RE of the ether acquires an impulse in the direction of the circular current along the surface of the magnet - a disturbance of the ether occurs.

Rice. 3 Emergence of a permanent magnet field

At the initial moment of collision, directly at the surface of the magnet, the speed RE of the ether is high - the disturbance of the ether is maximum. As you move away from the surface of the magnet, the speed of the RE ether decreases due to collisions with other RE of the ether and at some distance from the magnet it becomes equal to the average speed of the chaotic movement of the RE of the ether - the disturbance of the ether disappears.

The region of disturbed ether, arising as a result of the transfer of momentum from RE(kon) in the electrons of neighboring atoms on the surface of a permanent magnet to RE of the ether, represents the magnetic field of a permanent magnet.

Let's consider the experiments presented in the topic.
Three RE(con) of each electron on the surface of a ferromagnet (conductor), which are not involved in creating a bond between atoms, are also involved in the transmission of electric current.

In this case, during the movement of RE(con) between neighboring electrons, they collide with RE of the ether, i.e. a disturbance of the ether – a magnetic field – arises. Thus, both in a permanent magnet and when transmitting current from an external source, all three RE(con) of each electron on the surface of a ferromagnet (conductor), not involved in creating a bond between atoms, participate in the formation of a magnetic field.

An abrupt decrease in the resistance of a permanent magnet and a drop in the force of attraction at a certain value direct current(experiment 1) is explained by the fact that RE(con) on the surface of the magnet stop transferring momentum to each other during oscillations and begin to transfer momentum at the moment of replacement of RE(con) in the electrons of neighboring atoms (current transfer from an external source).

If you bring another permanent magnet to a permanent magnet so that the directions of their circular currents are opposite, the RE of the ether, having received an impulse from the RE(kon) in the electrons of neighboring atoms, will move towards each other - the magnets will repel. When the directions of surface circular currents coincide, RE of the ether will be “displaced” from the space between the magnets, and RE of the ether from opposite sides will “push” the magnets towards each other. We observe a similar mechanism of “pushing” two boats when water moves between them.

When the magnets are cooled (experiment 3) it decreases to 10-13m. amplitude of oscillations RE(con) on the surface of the magnets. As a result, in the electrons of neighboring atoms on the surface of the magnets, the deviation RE(con) becomes insufficient for their contact interaction, the transfer of momentum stops, and the magnetic field disappears.

The movement of charges along the surface of a formation (the appearance of a magnetic field) is possible if the formation has a somewhat ordered atomic structure. In this case, RE(kon) in the electrons of neighboring atoms on the surface of the formation can, interacting with each other in contact, transfer the impulse RE of the ether in the direction of the magnetic field. According to this principle, some magnetization of a small ferromagnet by a permanent magnet and their interaction occurs. Since in a circular current on the surface of a permanent magnet under normal conditions there is practically no resistance to the movement of charges, there is practically no loss of energy, for example when magnetizing a small ferromagnet. Under normal conditions, a permanent magnet can perform the work of moving ferromagnets indefinitely. The work is done due to the energy of RE ether - from the space between the permanent magnet and the ferromagnet, RE ether is “displaced”, and RE ether from opposite sides “pushes” them towards each other.

When unordered atomic structure formation (dielectrics), the transfer of momentum between RE(con) in the electrons of neighboring atoms and then from RE(con) to the RE of the ether (perturbation of the ether) cannot occur - a magnetic field does not arise.
The appearance of the so-called “Abrikosov vortices” is explained by the presence in the volume of type II superconductors in the electrons of neighboring RE(kon) atoms that are not involved in the formation of bonds between atoms, i.e., they can ensure the movement of charges between them - a local circular current. Thus, only the discrete structure of the electron allows one to naturally explain the nature of magnetism.

Based on the contact interaction RE (kon) in the electrons of neighboring atoms, it seems possible in the future to perform calculations of the binding energy of atoms and the energy of movement of charges along the surface of a ferromagnet. The use of these calculations to predict the properties of elements, including in compounds, will serve as a test of the proposed hypothesis.
Boris Kirilenko.

Application

Communication of atoms.
Atomic bonding is the bonding between electrons of neighboring atoms. In elements and their compounds, atoms are arranged in such a way that when they vibrate in the region of maximum distance RE(con) from the centers of their electrons, RE(con) as part of the electrons of one atom enter the region of vibrations of RE(con) as part of the electrons of a neighboring atom. A region of overlapping RE(kon) vibrations is formed in the composition of the electrons of neighboring atoms.

The mechanism of communication between atoms in elements is the exchange of RE(con) between electrons of neighboring atoms.
For clarity, the figure shows only one electron for each atom; RE, which electrons are exchanged, are highlighted in color. The cone marks a segment of the region of contact interactions RE(bases) with RE(con) in the electrons of atoms.

The connection of atoms in an element.

The exchange of RE(con) occurs along the line of contact interactions RE(con) with RE(base) in electrons. On RE(con), which has entered the region of overlap of RE(con) vibrations in neighboring electrons, a force begins to act, attracting RE(con) to the center of the electron of the neighboring atom. A mutual exchange of RE(con) occurs in the electrons of neighboring atoms - the atoms are connected. RE(con) interactions within the electrons of neighboring atoms of an element are synchronized. The size and location of the exchange zone RE(con) relative to neighboring protons determine the properties of elements and their compounds.

Electrical conductivity
The transfer of current from an external source in a conductor occurs by replacing RE(con) in the electrons of neighboring atoms on the surface of the conductor in the direction of the external field.
The replacement of RE(kon) in the electron composition occurs perpendicular to the line contact interactions RE(con) with RE(base) in the electrons of atoms. For clarity, the figure shows only one electron for each atom; RE(con), which are replaced in electrons, are highlighted in color.

Current transmission in a conductor.

When the circuit is closed, RE(con) from the current source replaces RE(con) in the electron on the surface of the conductor at the nearest point of contact. Having become unbound, having received an impulse, RE(con) of the conductor replaces RE(con) in the composition of the neighboring electron of the conductor, etc. At the end point RE goes to the current source. Theoretically, the transfer of momentum (current) by replacing RE in neighboring electrons should occur at an angle of 900 to the line of contact interactions RE within the electron. In real conductors, the centers of atoms at the nodes of the crystal lattice vibrate. Together with the centers of atoms, the centers of electrons vibrate. As a result, impulse transmission occurs with a deviation from an angle of 900, i.e. energy loss occurs. Corresponding to this angle of deflection, the amount of energy not transferred (losses) is partially used for heating and partially removed by radiation.
End of topic.

Over the past 50 years, all branches of science have stepped forward rapidly. But after reading many journals about the nature of magnetism and gravity, one can come to the conclusion that a person has even more questions than before.

The nature of magnetism and gravity

It is obvious and clear to everyone that objects thrown up quickly fall to the ground. What attracts them? We can safely assume that they are attracted by some unknown forces. Those same forces are called natural gravity. Afterwards, everyone interested is faced with many disputes, guesses, assumptions and questions. What is the nature of magnetism? What are they? As a result of what influence are they formed? What is their essence and frequency? How do they affect environment and for each person separately? How can this phenomenon be rationally used for the benefit of civilization?

Magnetism concept

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, physicist Oersted Hans Christian discovered the magnetic field of electric current. This made it possible to assume that the nature of magnetism is closely related to the electric current that is formed inside each of the existing atoms. The question arises: what phenomena can explain the nature of terrestrial magnetism?

Today it has been established that magnetic fields in magnetized objects are generated to a greater extent by electrons, which continuously rotate around their axis and around the nucleus of an existing atom.

It has long been established that the chaotic movement of electrons is a real electric current, and its passage provokes the generation of a magnetic field. To summarize this part, we can safely say that electrons, due to their chaotic movement within atoms, generate intra-atomic currents, which, in turn, contribute to the generation of a magnetic field.

But what is the reason for the fact that in different matter the magnetic field has significant differences in its own magnitude, as well as different magnetization forces? This is due to the fact that the axes and orbits of movement of independent electrons in atoms can be in various positions relative to each other. This leads to the fact that the magnetic fields produced by moving electrons are located in appropriate positions.

Thus, it should be noted that the environment in which the magnetic field is generated has an impact directly on it, increasing or weakening the field itself.

The field of which weakens the resulting field is called diamagnetic, and materials that very weakly enhance the magnetic field are called paramagnetic.

Magnetic properties of substances

It should be noted that the nature of magnetism is generated not only by electric current, but also by permanent magnets.

Permanent magnets can be made from a small number of substances on Earth. But it is worth noting that all objects that will be within the radius of the magnetic field will be magnetized and become immediate. After analyzing the above, it is worth adding that the magnetic induction vector in the presence of a substance differs from the vacuum magnetic induction vector.

Ampere's hypothesis on the nature of magnetism

The cause-and-effect relationship, as a result of which the connection between the possession of magnetic properties by bodies was established, was discovered by the outstanding French scientist Andre-Marie Ampère. But what is Ampere's hypothesis about the nature of magnetism?

The story began thanks to the strong impression of what the scientist saw. He witnessed the research of Ørsted Lmyer, who boldly suggested that the cause of the Earth's magnetism is the currents that regularly pass inside globe. A fundamental and most significant contribution was made: the magnetic properties of bodies could be explained by the continuous circulation of currents in them. After Ampere put forward the following conclusion: the magnetic features of any of existing bodies determined by a closed circuit of electric currents flowing inside them. The physicist's statement was a bold and courageous act, since he crossed out all previous discoveries by explaining the magnetic properties of bodies.

Movement of electrons and electric current

Ampere's hypothesis states that within every atom and molecule there exists an elementary and circulating charge of electric current. It is worth noting that today we already know that those very currents are formed as a result of the chaotic and continuous movement of electrons in atoms. If the specified planes are located randomly relative to each other due to the thermal movement of molecules, then their processes are mutually compensated and have absolutely no magnetic features. And in a magnetized object, the simplest currents are aimed at ensuring that their actions are coordinated.

Ampere's hypothesis is able to explain why magnetic needles and frames with electric current in a magnetic field behave identically to each other. The arrow, in turn, should be considered as a complex of small circuits with current, which are directed identically.

A special group in which the magnetic field is significantly enhanced is called ferromagnetic. These materials include iron, nickel, cobalt and gadolinium (and their alloys).

But how to explain the nature of magnetism permanent magnets? Magnetic fields are formed by ferromagnets not only as a result of the movement of electrons, but also as a result of their own chaotic movement.

Momentum (intrinsic torque) acquired the name - spin. Electrons rotate around their axis throughout their entire existence and, having a charge, generate a magnetic field along with the field formed as a result of their orbital movement around the nuclei.

Marie Curie temperature

The temperature above which a ferromagnetic substance loses its magnetization received its specific name - the Curie temperature. After all, it was a French scientist with this name who made this discovery. He came to the conclusion: if you significantly heat a magnetized object, it will lose the ability to attract objects made of iron.

Ferromagnets and their use

Despite the fact that there are not many ferromagnetic bodies in the world, their magnetic features are very practical use and meaning. The core in the coil, made of iron or steel, multiplies the magnetic field, while not exceeding the current consumption in the coil. This phenomenon significantly helps to save energy. The cores are made exclusively from ferromagnetic materials, and it does not matter for what purpose this part will be used.

Magnetic method of recording information

Ferromagnetic materials are used to produce first-class magnetic tapes and miniature magnetic films. Magnetic tapes have wide application in the areas of sound and video recording.

Magnetic tape is a plastic base consisting of polyvinylchloride or other components. A layer is applied on top of it, which is a magnetic varnish, which consists of many very small needle-shaped particles of iron or other ferromagnetic.

The sound recording process is carried out on tape due to the field of which is subject to changes in time due to sound vibrations. As a result of the movement of the tape near the magnetic head, each section of the film is subject to magnetization.

The nature of gravity and its concepts

It is worth noting first of all that gravity and its forces are contained within the law universal gravity, which states that: two material points attract each other with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Modern science has begun to consider the concept of gravitational force a little differently and explains it as the action of the gravitational field of the Earth itself, the origin of which, unfortunately, has not yet been established by scientists.

Summarizing all of the above, I would like to note that everything in our world is closely interconnected, and there is no significant difference between gravity and magnetism. After all, gravity has the same magnetism, just not to a large extent. On Earth, you cannot separate an object from nature - magnetism and gravity are disrupted, which in the future can significantly complicate the life of civilization. Should reap the benefits scientific discoveries great scientists and strive for new achievements, but all data should be used rationally, without causing harm to nature and humanity.

Greetings, dear readers. Nature hides many secrets. Man managed to find explanations for some mysteries, but not for others. Magnetic phenomena in nature occur on our earth and around us, and sometimes we simply do not notice them.

One of these phenomena can be seen by picking up a magnet and pointing it at a metal nail or pin. See how they are attracted to each other.

Many of us still remember school course physicists are experimenting with this object, which has a magnetic field.

I hope you remember what magnetic phenomena are? Of course - this is the ability to attract others to oneself metal objects, having a magnetic field.

Consider magnetic iron ore, from which magnets are made. Each of you probably has such magnets on your refrigerator door.

You might be interested to know what other magnetic types there are. natural phenomena? From school physics lessons we know that fields can be magnetic and electromagnetic.

Let it be known to you that magnetic iron ore was known in living nature even before our era. At this time, a compass was created, which the Chinese emperor used during his numerous campaigns and just sea walks.

Translated from Chinese language the word magnet is like a loving stone. Amazing translation, isn't it?

Christopher Columbus, using a magnetic compass in his travels, noticed that geographical coordinates affect the deviation of the compass needle. Subsequently, this observation result led scientists to the conclusion that there are magnetic fields on earth.

The influence of the magnetic field in living and inanimate nature

The unique ability of migratory birds to accurately locate their habitats has always been of interest to scientists. The earth's magnetic field helps them lay unmistakably. And the migrations of many animals depend on this field of earth.

So not only birds, but also such animals as:

• Turtles
• Sea shellfish
• Salmon fish
• Salamanders
• and many other animals.

Scientists have found that in the body of living organisms there are special receptors, as well as magnetite particles, which help sense magnetic and electromagnetic fields.

But how exactly does any living creature living in wildlife, finds the desired landmark, scientists cannot answer unequivocally.

Magnetic storms and their impact on humans

We already know about the magnetic fields of our earth. They protect us from the effects of charged microparticles that reach us from the Sun. A magnetic storm is nothing more than a sudden change in what protects us. electromagnetic field land.

Have you ever noticed how sometimes a sudden sharp pain shoots into your temple and immediately a severe pain appears? headache? All these painful symptoms occurring in the human body indicate the presence of this natural phenomenon.

This magnetic phenomenon can last from an hour to 12 hours, or can be short-lived. And as doctors have noted, older people with cardiovascular diseases suffer more from this.

It has been noted that during a prolonged magnetic storm the number of heart attacks increases. There are a number of scientists who monitor the occurrence of magnetic storms.

So, my dear readers, sometimes it’s worth learning about their appearance and trying to prevent their terrible consequences if possible.

Magnetic anomalies in Russia

Throughout the vast territory of our earth there are various kinds of magnetic anomalies. Let's find out a little about them.

The famous scientist and astronomer P. B. Inokhodtsev studied back in 1773 geographical position all cities in central Russia. It was then that he discovered a strong anomaly in the area of ​​Kursk and Belgorod, where the compass needle was spinning feverishly. And only in 1923 the first well was drilled, which revealed metal ore.

Scientists even today cannot explain the huge clusters iron ore in the Kursk magnetic anomaly.

We know from geography textbooks that all iron ore is mined in mountainous areas. It is unknown how the iron ore deposits were formed on the plain.

Brazilian magnetic anomaly

Off the ocean coast of Brazil at an altitude of more than 1000 kilometers, most of the instruments flying over this place aircraft– aircraft and even satellites suspend their operations.

Imagine an orange orange. Its peel protects the pulp and the earth's magnetic field from protective layer atmosphere protects our planet from harmful effects from space. And the Brazilian anomaly is like a dent in this peel.

In addition, mysterious ones were observed more than once in this unusual place.

There are still many mysteries and secrets of our land to be revealed to scientists, my friends. I would like to wish you good health and that unfavorable magnetic phenomena will bypass you!

I hope you liked mine short review magnetic phenomena in nature. Or maybe you have already observed them or felt their effect on yourself. Write about it in your comments, I will be interested to read about it. And that's all for today. Let me say goodbye to you and see you again.

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The nature of magnetic phenomena

All substances, without exception, react when an external magnetic field is applied. If we consider the electron orbit as a circuit with a current, then when a magnetic field is applied, in accordance with Lenz’s rule, an emf should be induced, which in turn will create a magnetic field directed against the external one. Consequently, the magnetic field strength inside the material will decrease. Its relative decrease - diamagnetic susceptibility - is of the order of 10 -8. All substances have diamagnetism, and its value is almost independent of temperature.

In addition to the magnetic moment arising due to the motion of the electron along the orbit, the electron, having its own spin angular momentum, has a spin magnetic moment. Therefore, in the general case, an atom of a substance can have its own resultant magnetic moment. In the absence of a magnetic field, the magnetic moment of a body is zero due to the random distribution of atomic magnetic moments. The effect of the magnetic field will be reduced to the orientation of the magnetic moments of the atoms in the direction of the applied field, and inside the material the magnetic field strength will increase - the paramagnetic effect.

Paramagnetism, like diamagnetism, is a relatively weak effect, and substances in which only these effects occur are called weak magnets (). When the field is removed, both effects are eliminated. Temperature dependence The paramagnetic effect is described by the Curie–Weiss law:

where and Θ p are constants and is the paramagnetic susceptibility.

In their response to an external magnetic field, substances that have a magnetically ordered state (ferromagnets, antiferromagnets and ferrimagnets) differ sharply from dia- and paramagnets. These are substances in which, regardless of the external field, the magnetic moments of the electron spins are aligned parallel to each other (ferromagnetism) or antiparallel (antiferromagnetism). The magnetically ordered state has a quantum mechanical nature. Probabilistic determination of the location of the “wave-particle” electron, given by quantum mechanics, made it possible to understand what makes magnetic moments line up in parallel - this is the so-called exchange interaction energy. We can say that this is the electrostatic energy of the interaction of two electrons, when the first electron is in the place of the second, and the second is in the place of the first. The likelihood of such a situation in quantum mechanics not equal to zero. At a certain distance between interacting atoms, the energy of exchange interaction will be minimal if the magnetic moments of the spins are parallel (ferromagnetism) or antiparallel (antiferromagnetism).

So, the ordered alignment of the magnetic moments of electron spins is the result of the interaction of electrons. The question arises: what direction will the magnetic moments of spins in the crystal lattice choose? In this case, it is necessary to take into account the spatial location of the electron orbit in the crystal lattice. The interaction between the magnetic moments of the orbits and the magnetic moments of the spins comes into force. This interaction, denoted as the energy of magnetic crystallographic anisotropy, determines the direction in which the magnetic moments of the spins are aligned. Magnetic crystal anisotropy (difference in directions) of spontaneous magnetization in the crystal lattice arises. For iron, for example, the direction in which the magnetic moments line up is the edge of the cube of the unit cell.

In PDF format (143 kb).

With some caution, we can assume that we have sorted out the problem of gravity. We obtained internally consistent and experimentally consistent ideas about the nature of gravity and inertia. In the field of electricity, physics is quite knowledgeable. Electric current carriers are known and are widely used in science and technology. But what magnetism is and what its nature is, exactly as much is known, if not less, than about gravity in the time of Newton and the past century. Faraday introduced magnetic field lines. They are well demonstrated by iron filings on a permanent magnet. But to say that these lines actually exist is somewhat frivolous. Maxwell, using the model of vacuum as a kind of dielectric, gave physics the immortal formulas of electromagnetism. In physics they try not to focus on Maxwell's vacuum. As we see, it is completely in vain. Let us collect here information from physics and the relationships we have obtained.

Qualitatively, the phenomenon of the influence of magnetic intensity on a ferromagnet is explained in physics as follows. Due to the peculiarities of the outer electron shells of ferromagnetic atoms, each atom is already an individual magnet. A group of such atoms forms a magnetic domain, which is also a magnet, but on a macro scale. It is enough to force the orientation of the domains in predominantly one direction by an external magnetic field, and the entire ferromagnetic sample becomes a permanent magnet. However, not all domains are oriented in the same direction. If this could be done, then permanent magnets would acquire unprecedented magnetic induction and would have fantastic abilities when interacting with all substances, both paramagnetic and diamagnetic.

Diamagnets, the simplest example of which is the hydrogen atom, have a statistically “random” orientation of the planes of rotation of electrons around the nuclei of the substance. The word “disorderly” is put in quotation marks because in fact the orientation of the movement of electrons is determined by the structure of the vacuum, relative to which the atoms continuously change their position due to thermal movement atoms, and also due to the continuous interaction of atomic charges (electrons and positive nuclei) with vacuum. The latter interaction is known in science as vacuum fluctuations. And only with sufficiently strong magnetic tensions 100...1000 times stronger than existing permanent magnets is it possible to impart an organized orientation of rotation of the electrons of diamagnetic materials, which determines the interaction of the diamagnetic substance with an external magnetic field. According to Lenz's rule, the resulting organized magnetic induction of a substance (object) is directed against the acting external field. We obtain the repulsive force between the poles of the magnet and the induced poles of the magnets in the diamagnetic object. The phenomenon of levitation occurs. This is the explanation of this phenomenon in physics. The only thing missing is an explanation of the magnetic field itself as a flux of magnetic induction in a vacuum. The nature of the vacuum magnetic continuum lets us down physical basis for a correct understanding of the phenomena of electromagnetism in general and the given example of levitation.