Cosmic phenomena and processes. Cosmic phenomena Cosmic processes

02.07.2020

Reviews of the book The True, Mad, Guilty Moriarty l The True, Mad, Guilty

Life at Full Power - Jim Lauer, Tony Schwartz

Space future of humanity Text

Famous pirates of the Caribbean, next to whom the movie Jack Sparrow is just a boy

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

State educational institution of higher professional education

Altai State University

Faculty of Geography

Department of Physical Geography and GIS

Course work

The influence of cosmic processes and phenomena on the development of the Earth

Is done by a student

1st year 901 group

A.V. Starodubov

Ph.D., Art. Rev. V.A. Bykova

Barnaul 2011

Introduction

Chapter 1. Information about the Earth

1.1 Magnetosphere

1.2 Radiation belts of the Earth

1.3 Gravity

Conclusion

Literature

Annex 1

Appendix 2

Appendix 3

Appendix 4

Appendix 5

Appendix 6

Appendix 7

This work, on the topic of the influence of cosmic processes and phenomena on the development of the Earth, is completed on 48 pages.

The course work contains 9 drawings. It also contains 1 table. In addition, the abstract contains 7 appendices. In addition, it is worth adding that the bibliography contains 22 sources.

Introduction

The purpose of this work is to consider the influence of the main cosmic factors and phenomena on planet Earth.

This problem has not lost its significance. From the very first days of its existence to this day, the planet has been dependent on the influence of space. In the second half of the 20th century - the first half of the 21st century, the planet’s dependence on outer space and its impact increased. Now that humanity has entered the era of technological development, the risk of catastrophic consequences is especially great. Powerful solar flares, as paradoxical as it may sound, entail problems for: a) commodity producers; b) ordinary citizens; c) states. Numerous devices created by man, one way or another, depend on solar activity. And their shutdown caused by solar activity is, first of all, a loss of time and money for the producer.

The most famous researchers of the above problem are: a group of American scientists led by J. Van Allen, Soviet scientists led by S.N. Vernov and A.E. Chudakov, A. Sklyarov.

The goal is revealed through the following tasks:

1. Review the available literature on the topic;

2. Consider the influence of the Magnetic sphere on planet Earth;

3. Analyze the interaction of the Van Alen Radiation Belt and the Earth;

4. Study the effect of gravity on planet Earth;

5. Consider the consequences of the impact of small cosmic bodies;

6. Consider the interaction of the Sun and Earth;

The object of research is space processes and phenomena.

The subject of the study is the impact of cosmic processes and phenomena on the development of the earth.

The information base for writing the work was books, the Internet, maps, and the media. I used several methods to write my course work: comparative descriptive, cartographic, paleogeographic (historical-genetic), geophysical and mathematical.

Chapter 1. Information about the Earth

Earth is the third planet in the solar system, in order from the Sun. It revolves around the Sun in a nearly circular orbit at an average distance of 149.6 million km. The revolution around the Sun occurs counterclockwise. The average speed of the Earth's orbit is 29.765 km/s, the orbital period is 365.24 solar days or 3.147 * 10 7 s. The Earth also has a rotation in the forward direction, which is equal to 23 hours 56 minutes 4.1 s or 8.616 * 10 4 s.

The figure of the Earth is a geoid, i.e. equipotential surface of gravity. Outside the continents, the geoid coincides with the undisturbed surface of the World Ocean.

The mass of the Earth is Mg= 5.977 * 10 27 g, the average radius Rg=6371 km, the surface area of the Earth S= 5.1 * 10 18 cm 2 , average density ρ= 5.52 g/cm 3 average acceleration of gravity on the earth's surface g= 9.81 Gal.

1.1 Magnetosphere

The magnetosphere is one of the most important spheres of the Earth. Almost all planets have magnetic fields, with the exception of Pluto and the Moon and the Sun. The Earth's magnetic field is approximated by an infinitesimal dipole, the axis of which is located 436 km from the center of the Earth towards the Pacific Ocean and is inclined by 12° relative to the Earth's rotation axis. Magnetic field lines leave the North Magnetic Pole in the Southern Hemisphere and enter the South Magnetic Pole in the Northern Hemisphere. The magnetic poles are constantly wandering, affected by the world's magnetic anomalies.

The origin of the magnetic field is associated with the interaction of the solid inner core, the liquid outer and solid monolith, forming a kind of magnetic hydro-dynamo. The sources of the main geomagnetic field, as well as its variations, are 95% associated with the internal field and only 1% is due to the external field, which experiences continuous rapid changes.

The magnetosphere has an asymmetric structure - it decreases in size on the side of the Sun to approximately 10 Earth radii and increases to 100 on the other side. This is due to the dynamic pressure - shock wave - of the solar wind particles (Ʋ = 500 km/s). If this pressure increases, acquiring the shape of a paraboloid, then the magnetosphere on the solar side is flattened more strongly. The pressure weakens and the magnetosphere expands. Solar plasma flows around the magnetosphere, the outer boundary of which – the magnetopause – is located so that the pressure that the solar wind exerts on the magnetosphere is balanced by the internal magnetic pressure.

When the magnetosphere contracts as a result of the pressure of the solar wind, a ring current arises in it, which creates its own magnetic field, merging with the main magnetic field, as if helping the latter cope with pressure, and the magnetic field strength on the Earth’s surface increases - this is confidently registered.

The magnetic field is rarely calm - its intensity increases sharply, then it decreases and returns to its normal value. Strong magnetic storms are caused by powerful chromospheric flares, when particles fly at speeds of up to 1000 km/s and then the ionosphere is also disturbed. 8 minutes after the flares, all short-wave communication may cease, as X-ray emission increases greatly, layer D ˝ in the ionosphere it ionizes faster and absorbs radio waves. After some time, the F 2 layer is destroyed, and the ionization maximum shifts upward (see Appendix 2).

In general, it can be noted that the ionosphere and magnetosphere are a single whole, and at the same time, the daily rotation of the Earth causes them to also rotate, and only above 30 thousand km does the plasma no longer respond to the rotation of the Earth. With the help of spacecraft, the boundary of the magnetosphere was determined.

1.2 Radiation belts of the Earth

The internal regions of the Earth's magnetosphere, in which the Earth's magnetic field holds charged particles (protons, electrons, alpha particles) with kinetic energy from tens of Kev to hundreds of MeV. The exit of charged particles from the reactive surface is prevented by the special configuration of the geomagnetic field lines, which creates a magnetic trap for the charged particles. Captured in the Earth's magnetic trap, particles, under the influence of the Lorentz force, undergo a complex movement, which can be represented as an oscillatory movement along a spiral trajectory along the magnetic field line from the Northern Hemisphere to the Southern Hemisphere and back, with simultaneous slower movement (longitudinal drift) around the Earth. When a particle moves in a spiral in the direction of increasing magnetic field (approaching the Earth), the radius of the spiral and its pitch decrease. The particle velocity vector, remaining unchanged in magnitude, approaches a plane perpendicular to the direction of the field. Finally, at a certain point (called a mirror point) the particle is “reflected”. It begins to move in the opposite direction - to the conjugate mirror point in the other hemisphere. A proton with energy ~ 100 MeV completes one oscillation along the field line from the Northern Hemisphere to the Southern Hemisphere in a time of ~ 0.3 sec. The residence (“life”) of such a proton in a geomagnetic trap can reach 100 years (~ 3×10 9 sec), during which time it can make up to 10 10 oscillations. On average, captured high-energy particles make up to several hundred million oscillations from one hemisphere to the other. Longitudinal drift occurs at a much lower speed. Depending on the energy, the particles make a full revolution around the Earth in a time from several minutes to a day.

Positive ions drift westward, and electrons drift eastward. The movement of a particle in a spiral around a magnetic field line can be represented as consisting of a rotation around the so-called. instantaneous center of rotation and translational movement of this center along the line of force.

When a charged particle moves in the Earth's magnetic field, its instantaneous center of rotation is located on the same surface, called the magnetic shell. The magnetic shell is characterized by the parameter L, its numerical value in the case of a dipole field is equal to the distance, expressed in Earth radii, to which the magnetic shell extends (in the equatorial plane of the dipole) from the center of the dipole. For the real magnetic field of the Earth, parameter L approximately retains the same simple meaning.

The particle energy is related to the value of the parameter L; On shells with lower values of L there are particles with higher energies. This is explained by the fact that high-energy particles can only be retained by a strong magnetic field, i.e., in the inner regions of the magnetosphere.

Typically, there are internal and external R. p. 3., a belt of low-energy protons (ring current belt) and a zone of quasi-capture of particles, or auroral radiation (according to the Latin name for auroras). The internal radiation belt is characterized by the presence of high-energy protons (from 20 to 800 MeV) with a maximum flux density of protons with energy E p >20 MeV up to 10 4 proton/(cm 2 ×sec×ster) at a distance L~ 1.5. The inner belt also contains electrons with energies from 20-40 kev to 1 MeV; The electron flux density with E e ³40Kev is approximately

10 6 -10 7 electron/(cm 2 ×sec×ster). The inner belt is located around the Earth at equatorial latitudes.

On the outer side, this belt is limited by a magnetic shell with L~ 2, which intersects with the Earth’s surface at geomagnetic latitudes ~ 45°. The inner belt comes closest to the Earth's surface (at altitudes up to 200-300 km) near the Brazilian magnetic anomaly, where the magnetic field is greatly weakened; above the geographic equator, the lower boundary of the inner belt is 600 km above America and up to 1600 km above Australia. At the lower boundary of the inner belt, particles, experiencing frequent collisions with atoms and molecules of atmospheric gases, lose their energy, are scattered and “absorbed” by the atmosphere (see Appendix 3).

The Earth's outer radiation belt is contained between magnetic shells cL~ 3 and L~ 6 with a maximum particle flux density of L~ 4.5. The outer belt is characterized by electrons with energies of 40-100 keV, the flux of which at a maximum reaches 10 6 -10 7 electron/(cm 2 ×sec×ster). The average “lifetime” of particles in the outer belt is 10 5 -10 7 sec. During periods of increased solar activity, electrons of high energies (up to 1 Mevi higher) are also present in the outer belt.

The belt of low-energy protons (E p ~ 0.03-10 MeV) extends from L~ 1.5 to L~ 7-8. The quasi-capture zone, or auroral radiation, is located behind the outer belt; it has a complex spatial structure caused by the deformation of the magnetosphere by the solar wind (the flow of charged particles from the Sun). The main component of particles in the quasi-capture zone are electrons and protons with energies E< 100кэв.

The outer belt and the belt of low-energy protons come closest (up to an altitude of 200-300 km) to the Earth at latitudes of 50-60°. At latitudes above 60° the quasi-capture zone is projected. It coincides with the region of maximum frequency of occurrence of auroras. In some periods, the existence of narrow particles of the polar aurora is noted. Belts of high-energy electrons (E e ~ 5 MeV) on magnetic shells with L ~ 2.5-3.0 are described.

Energy spectra for all functions of the form: N(E)~E g, where N(E) is the number of particles with a given energy E, or N(E) ~ with characteristic values g»1.8 for protons in the energy range from 40 to 800 MeV, E 0 ~ 200-500 keV for electrons of the outer and inner belts and E 0 ~ 100 keV for low-energy protons (1).

The origin of captured particles with energy significantly exceeding the average energy of thermal motion of atoms and molecules of the atmosphere is associated with the action of several physical mechanisms: the decay of neutrons created by cosmic rays in the Earth’s atmosphere (the protons formed in this case replenish the internal resonant particles); “pumping” of particles into the belts during geomagnetic disturbances (magnetic storms), which primarily determines the existence of electrons in the inner belt; acceleration and slow transfer of particles of solar origin from the outer to the inner regions of the magnetosphere (this is how the electrons of the outer belt and the belt of low-energy protons are replenished). Penetration of solar wind particles into the solar wind system is possible through special points of the magnetosphere, as well as through the so-called. neutral layer in the tail of the magnetosphere (from its night side).

In the region of the daytime cusps and in the neutral layer of the tail, the geomagnetic field is sharply weakened and is not a significant obstacle to charged particles of interplanetary plasma. Polar cusps are funnel-shaped regions in the frontal part of the magnetopause at geomagnetic latitudes ~ 75°, resulting from the interaction of the solar wind and the Earth’s magnetic field. Through the cusps, solar wind particles can freely penetrate into the polar ionosphere.

Partially, the radioactive fields are also replenished due to the capture of protons and electrons from solar cosmic rays penetrating into the inner regions of the magnetosphere. The listed sources of particles are apparently sufficient to create a radio station with a characteristic distribution of particle fluxes. In the R.P.Z. there is a dynamic balance between the processes of replenishment of belts and the processes of loss of particles. Basically, particles leave the R.P.Z. due to the loss of their energy to ionization (this reason limits, for example, the stay of protons of the inner belt in a magnetic trap to a time t ~ 10 9 sec), due to the scattering of particles during mutual collisions and scattering by magnetic inhomogeneities and plasma waves of various origins. Scattering can reduce the “lifetime” of electrons in the outer belt to 10 4 -10 5 sec. These effects lead to a violation of the conditions of stationary motion of particles in the geomagnetic field (the so-called adiabatic invariants) and to the “precipitation” of particles from the R. p. . into the atmosphere along the magnetic field lines.

Radiation belts experience different temporal variations: the inner belt, located closer to the Earth and more stable, is insignificant, the outer belt is the most frequent and strong. The internal solar radiation is characterized by slight variations during the 11-year cycle of solar activity. The outer belt noticeably changes its boundaries and structure even with minor disturbances of the magnetosphere. The belt of low-energy protons occupies an intermediate position in this sense. R.P.Z. undergo especially strong variations during magnetic storms. First, in the outer belt the flux density of low-energy particles sharply increases and at the same time a noticeable fraction of high-energy particles is lost. Then new particles are captured and accelerated, resulting in streams of particles appearing in the belts at distances usually closer to the Earth than under quiet conditions. After the compression phase, a slow, gradual return of the R. p. z. to its original state occurs. During periods of high solar activity, magnetic storms occur very often, so that the effects of individual storms are superimposed on each other, and the maximum of the outer belt during these periods is located closer to the Earth (L~ 3.5) than during periods of minimum solar activity (L~ 4.5-5.0).

The precipitation of particles from a magnetic trap, especially from the quasi-capture zone (auroral radiation), leads to increased ionization of the ionosphere, and intense precipitation leads to auroras. The supply of particles in the R.P.Z., however, is insufficient to maintain a long-lasting aurora, and the connection of auroras with variations in particle fluxes in the R.P.Z. speaks only of their general nature, i.e., that in During magnetic storms, both particles are pumped into the radio station and released into the Earth's atmosphere. The aurora lasts the entire time these processes take place - sometimes a day or more. R.P.Z. can also be created artificially: by the explosion of a nuclear device at high altitudes; when injecting artificially accelerated particles, for example using an accelerator on board a satellite; when radioactive substances are dispersed in the near-Earth space, the decay products of which will be captured by a magnetic field. The creation of artificial belts during the explosion of nuclear devices was carried out in 1958 and 1962. Thus, after the American nuclear explosion (July 9, 1962), about 10 25 electrons with an energy of ~ 1 MeV were injected into the inner belt, which was two to three orders of magnitude higher than the intensity of the flow of electrons of natural origin. Remnants of these electrons were observed in the belts over a nearly 10-year period.

Historically, the inner belt was the first to be discovered (by a group of American scientists led by J. Van Allen, 1958) and the outer belt (Soviet scientists led by S.N. Vernov and A.E. Chudakov, 1958). Fluxes of R. p. z. particles were recorded by instruments (Geiger-Muller counters) installed on artificial earth satellites. Essentially, R. p. Z. do not have clearly defined boundaries, because each type of particle, in accordance with its energy, forms “its own” radiation belt, therefore it is more correct to talk about one single radiation belt of the Earth. The division of R. p. Z. into external and internal, adopted at the first stage of research and preserved to the present day due to a number of differences in their properties, is essentially arbitrary.

The fundamental possibility of the existence of a magnetic trap in the Earth’s magnetic field was shown by calculations by K. Störmer (1913) and H. Alfvén (1950), but only experiments on satellites showed that the trap actually exists and is filled with high-energy particles.

1.3 Gravity

The polarity of the Earth's magnetic field has changed many times over hundreds of millions of years, and the change in the sign of the polarity entailed a sharp drop in the magnetic field strength. This affected the state of the atmosphere, ionosphere, and magnetosphere. In them, from hard cosmic radiation, protective functions are disrupted. Even a layer of water of 1 - 1.5 m is an insurmountable obstacle to short-wave radiation. It is possible that mass extinctions of biota in the Phanerozoic, like climate change, may be associated with a temporary process of a sharp drop in magnetic field strength during its inversion.

In the solar system there are powerful gravitational forces - gravity. The sun and planets are attracted to each other. In addition, each planet has its own gravitational field. This force is greater the greater the mass of the planet, as well as the closer the body is to it.

The Earth's gravitational field can be represented as a large sphere in which the lines of force are directed towards the center of the planet. In him. The force of attraction acting on every point of the geosphere increases in the same direction. This force is enough to prevent the water of the oceans from flowing from the surface of the Earth. Water is retained in depressions, but easily spreads over a flat surface.

Gravitational forces constantly act on the substance of the Earth. Heavier particles are attracted to the core, displacing lighter ones, which float towards the earth's surface. There is a slow counter movement of light and heavy matter. This phenomenon is called gravitational differentiation. As a result, geospheres with different average densities of matter were formed in the body of the planet.

The mass of the Earth is more than 80 times the mass of its satellite. Therefore, the Moon is kept in near-Earth orbit and, due to the enormous mass of the Earth, constantly shifts towards its geometric center by 2 - 3 km. The Earth also experiences the attraction of its satellite, despite the enormous distance - 3.84 * 10 5 km.

"Lunar tides" are the most noticeable impact. Every 12 hours 25 minutes, under the influence of the mass of the Moon, the level of the Earth's oceans rises, on average, by 1 m. After 6 hours, the water level decreases. This level is different at different latitudes. In the Seas of Okhotsk and Bering - 10m, Bay of Fundy - 18m. Tidal “humps” of a solid surface are less than 35 cm. Due to the long duration of such a wave, such pulsations are invisible without special measurements. However, it is worth noting that waves constantly move across the surface of the Earth at a speed of 1000 km/h.

cosmic sun gravitational earth

Chapter 2. The influence of cosmic processes and phenomena on the development of the Earth

2.1 Impact of small cosmic bodies

In general, celestial bodies capable of “attacking” the Earth are called meteoroids (meteorite bodies) - these are either fragments of asteroids colliding in outer space, or fragments remaining when comets evaporate. If meteoroids reach the earth's atmosphere, they are called meteors (sometimes fireballs), and if they fall on the earth's surface, they are called meteorites (see Appendix 4).

Currently, 160 craters have been identified on the Earth’s surface, resulting from collisions with cosmic bodies. Here are the six most notable ones:

50 thousand years ago, Berringer Crater (Arizona, USA), circumference 1230 m - from the fall of a meteorite with a diameter of 50 m. This is the very first crater from a meteorite fall discovered on Earth. It was called “meteorite”. In addition, it has been preserved better than others.

35 million years ago, Chesapeake Bay crater (Maryland, USA), circumference 85 km - from the fall of a meteorite with a diameter of 2-3 km. The disaster that created it crushed the bedrock 2 km deep, creating a reservoir of salt water that affects the distribution of underground water flows to this day.

37.5 million years ago, Popigai crater (Siberia, Russia), circumference 100 km - from the fall of an asteroid with a diameter of 5 km. The crater is strewn with industrial diamonds, which resulted from the impact of monstrous pressures on graphite during impact.

65 million years ago, Chicxulub basin (Yucatan, Mexico), circumference 175 km - from the fall of an asteroid with a diameter of 10 km. It is assumed that the explosion of this asteroid caused enormous tsunamis and earthquakes of magnitude 10.

1.85 billion years ago, Sudbury crater (Ontario, Canada), circumference 248 km - from the fall of a comet with a diameter of 10 km. At the bottom of the crater, thanks to the heat released during the explosion and the water reserves contained in the comet, a system of hot springs arose. Along the perimeter of the crater, the world's largest deposits of nickel and copper ore were found.

2 billion years ago, Vredefort dome (South Africa), circumference 378 km - from the fall of a meteorite with a diameter of 10 km. The oldest and (at the time of the disaster) the largest of such craters on Earth. It arose as a result of the most massive release of energy in the entire history of our planet.

Admittedly, the most impressive discoveries of recent years in the field of paleoclimatology have been made during drilling of ice sheets and ice core studies in the central regions of Greenland and Antarctica, where the ice surface almost never melts, which means that the information it contains about the temperature of the surface layer of the atmosphere is preserved century. Through the joint efforts of Russian, French and American scientists, using the isotopic composition of an ice core from an ultra-deep ice hole (3350m) at the Russian Antarctic Vostok station, it was possible to recreate the climate of our planet during this period. So, the average temperature in the area of the Vostok station over these 420 thousand years ranged from approximately - 54 to - 77 o C. Thirdly, during the last “ice age” (20 - 10 thousand years ago) the climate in the middle zone Russia, including Siberia, was little different from today, especially in the summer. This is evidenced by the isotopic signature of atmospheric precipitation, which persists for hundreds of thousands of years in the ice of polar glaciers and permafrost, soil carbonates, phosphates of mammal bones, tree rings, etc. The main danger on a global scale is asteroids with a radius of more than 1 km. Collisions with smaller bodies can cause significant local destruction (the Tunguska phenomenon), but do not lead to global consequences. The larger the asteroid, the less likely it is to collide with Earth.

Every year, 2-3 flights of bodies with a diameter of 100-1000 m are recorded at a distance of 0.5-3 million km from the Earth. By neglecting the gravitational attraction from the Earth in a rough calculation and considering collisions to be random, it is possible to determine the frequency of collisions with bodies of a specified size. To do this: it is necessary to multiply the cross section of the Earth, equal to 4·Pi·(6400 km) 2 (2), by the frequency of asteroid passage per 1 km 2 - it is approximately ~3/4·Pi·1.7 million km 2 (3). The reciprocal of the calculated value will be equal to the number of years passing on average between two collisions. The resulting figure is ~ 25 thousand years (in fact, somewhat less, if we also take into account the influence of Earth’s gravity and the fact that some flights went unnoticed). This is quite consistent with the data.

Collisions with large asteroids are quite rare compared to the length of human history. However, the rarity of a phenomenon does not mean periodicity; therefore, given the random nature of the phenomenon, a collision cannot be ruled out at any time - unless the probability of such a collision is quite small in relation to the probability of other disasters threatening an individual (natural disasters, accidents, etc.). However: on a geological and even biological time scale, collisions are not so rare. Over the entire history of the Earth, several thousand asteroids with a diameter of about 1 km and dozens of bodies with a diameter of more than 10 km fell on it. Life on Earth has existed for much longer. Although many assumptions have been made about the catastrophic impact of collisions on the biosphere, none of them has yet received convincing evidence. Suffice it to mention that not all experts agree with the hypothesis about the extinction of dinosaurs due to the collision of the Earth with a large asteroid 65 thousand years ago. Opponents of this idea (including many paleontologists) have many justified objections. They indicate that the extinction occurred gradually (millions of years) and affected only some species, while others were not noticeably affected over the course of epochs. A global catastrophe would inevitably affect all species. In addition, in the biological history of our planet, a number of species have disappeared from the scene more than once, but experts cannot confidently connect these phenomena with any catastrophe.

The diameters of asteroids vary from several meters to hundreds of kilometers. Unfortunately, only a small part of asteroids have been discovered to date. Bodies measuring about 10 km or less are difficult to detect and may remain undetected until the moment of collision. The list of undiscovered bodies of larger diameter can hardly be considered significant, since the number of large asteroids is significantly less than the number of small ones. Apparently, there are practically no potentially dangerous asteroids (that is, in principle, capable of colliding with the Earth over a period of time of the order of millions of years), whose diameter would exceed 100 km. The speeds at which collisions with asteroids occur can range from ~5 km/s to ~50 km/s, depending on the parameters of their orbits. Researchers agree that the average collision speed should be ~(15-25) km/s.

Collisions with comets are even less predictable, since most comets arrive in the inner regions of the Solar System as if from “nowhere,” that is, from regions very distant from the Sun. They remain undetected until they get close enough to the Sun. From the moment of discovery to the passage of the comet through perihelion (and to a possible collision) no more than a few years pass; then the comet moves away and disappears again into the depths of space. Thus, there is very little time left to take the necessary measures and prevent a collision (although the approach of a large comet cannot go unnoticed, unlike an asteroid). The speed of approach of comets to the Earth is much greater than that of asteroids (this is due to the strong elongation of their orbits, and the Earth ends up near the point of closest approach of the comet to the Sun, where its speed is maximum). The collision speed can reach ~70 km/s. At the same time, the sizes of large comets are not inferior to the sizes of medium-sized asteroids ~(5-50) km (their density, however, is less than the density of asteroids). But precisely because of the high speed and comparative rarity of the passage of comets through the inner regions of the Solar System, their collisions with our planet are unlikely.

A collision with a large asteroid is one of the largest events on the planet. It would obviously have an impact on all the shells of the Earth without exception - the lithosphere, atmosphere, ocean and, of course, the biosphere. There are theories that describe the process of impact crater formation; the impact of the collision on the atmosphere and climate (the most important from the point of view of the impact on the planet’s biosphere) is similar to nuclear war scenarios and major volcanic eruptions, which also lead to the release of large amounts of dust (aerosol) into the atmosphere. Of course, the scale of the phenomena depends to a certain extent on the collision energy (that is, primarily on the size and speed of the asteroid). It has been discovered, however, that when considering powerful explosive processes (from nuclear explosions with a TNT equivalent of several kilotons to the fall of the largest asteroids), the principle of similarity is applicable. According to this principle, the picture of occurring phenomena retains its general features on all energy scales.

The nature of the processes accompanying the fall to Earth of a round asteroid with a diameter of 10 km (that is, the size of Everest). Let us take the speed of the asteroid as it falls to be 20 km/s. Knowing the density of the asteroid, you can find the collision energy using the formula

M = Pi D3 ro/6 (4),

ro is the density of the asteroid,

m, v and D are its mass, speed and diameter.

The densities of cosmic bodies can vary from 1500 kg/m3 for cometary nuclei to 7000 kg/m3 for iron meteorites. Asteroids have a stony-iron composition (different for different groups). Can be taken as the density of a falling body. ro~5000 kg/m3. Then the collision energy will be E~5·1023 J. In TNT equivalent (the explosion of 1 kg of TNT releases 4.2·106 J of energy) this will be ~1.2·108 Mt. The most powerful thermonuclear bomb tested by humanity, ~100 Mt, had a million times less power.

Energy scales of natural phenomena

You should also keep in mind the time during which the energy is released and the area of the event zone. Earthquakes occur over a large area, and energy is released over a period of about hours; the destruction is moderate and evenly distributed. When bombs explode and meteorites fall, local destruction is catastrophic, but its scale quickly decreases with distance from the epicenter. Another conclusion follows from the table: despite the colossal amount of energy released, the scale of the fall of even large asteroids is comparable to another powerful natural phenomenon - volcanism. The explosion of the Tambora volcano was not the most powerful even in historical times. And since the energy of an asteroid is proportional to its mass (that is, the cube of its diameter), the fall of a body with a diameter of 2.5 km would release less energy than the explosion of Tambora. The explosion of the Krakatoa volcano was equivalent to the fall of an asteroid with a diameter of 1.5 km. The influence of volcanoes on the climate of the entire planet is generally recognized, however, it is not known that large volcanic explosions were catastrophic in nature (we will return to comparing the impact on the climate of volcanic eruptions and asteroid falls).

Bodies with a mass of less than 1 ton are almost completely destroyed when flying through the atmosphere, and a fireball is observed. Often a meteorite completely loses its initial speed in the atmosphere and upon impact already has a free fall speed (~200 m/s), forming a depression slightly larger than its diameter. However, for large meteorites, the loss of velocity in the atmosphere plays practically no role, and the phenomena accompanying supersonic flight are lost in comparison with the scale of the phenomena that occur when an asteroid collides with the surface.

Formation of explosive meteorite craters in a layered target (see Appendix 5):

a) The beginning of penetration of the striker into the target, accompanied by the formation of a spherical shock wave propagating downwards;

b) development of a hemispherical crater funnel, the shock wave breaks away from the contact zone of the impactor and the target and is accompanied from the rear by an overtaking unloading wave, the unloaded substance has a residual speed and spreads to the sides and upwards;

c) further formation of the crater transition crater, the shock wave fades, the bottom of the crater is lined with impact melt, a continuous curtain of emissions spreads outward from the crater;

d) the end of the excavation stage, the growth of the funnel stops. The modification stage proceeds differently for small and large craters.

In small craters, incoherent wall material—impact melt and crushed rock—slides into a deep crater. When mixed, they form impact breccia.

For transition craters of large diameter, gravity begins to play a role - due to gravitational instability, the bottom of the crater bulges upward with the formation of a central rise.

The impact of a massive asteroid on rocks creates pressures at which the rock behaves like a liquid. As the asteroid moves deeper into the target, it carries with it ever larger masses of matter. At the point of impact, the asteroid’s substance and surrounding rocks instantly melt and evaporate. Powerful shock waves arise in the soil and body of the asteroid, which push the material apart and throw it to the sides. The shock wave in the ground moves ahead of the falling body somewhat ahead of it; shock waves in the asteroid first compress it, and then, reflected from the rear surface, tear it apart. The pressure developed in this case (up to 109 bar) is sufficient to completely evaporate the asteroid. A powerful explosion occurs. Research shows that for large bodies the center of the explosion is located near the surface of the earth or slightly below, that is, a ten-kilometer asteroid penetrates 5-6 km into the target. During the explosion, meteorite material and surrounding crushed rocks are ejected from the resulting crater. The shock wave in the ground spreads, losing energy and destroying rocks. When the destruction limit is reached, crater growth stops. Having reached the interface between media with different strength properties, the shock wave is reflected and lifts the rocks in the center of the resulting crater - this is how the central uplifts observed in many lunar circuses arise. The crater bottom consists of destroyed and partially melted rocks (breccia). Added to these are the debris ejected from the crater and falling back, filling the circus.

You can approximately indicate the dimensions of the resulting structure. Because the crater is formed by an explosive process, it is approximately circular in shape, regardless of the angle of impact of the asteroid. Only at small angles (up to >30° from the horizon) is some elongation of the crater possible. The volume of the structure significantly exceeds the size of the fallen asteroid. For large craters, the following approximate relationship between its diameter and the energy of the asteroid that formed the crater has been established: E~D4, where E is the energy of the asteroid, D is the diameter of the crater. The diameter of the crater formed by a 10-kilometer asteroid will be 70-100 km. The initial depth of the crater is usually 1/4-1/10 of its diameter, that is, in our case, 15-20 km. Filling with debris will somewhat reduce this value. The rock fragmentation boundary can reach a depth of 70 km.

The removal of such an amount of rock from the surface (leading to a decrease in pressure on the deep layers) and the entry of the fragmentation zone into the upper mantle can cause the occurrence of volcanic phenomena at the bottom of the resulting crater. The volume of evaporated material is likely to exceed 1000 km 3 ; the volume of molten rock will be 10 times, and crushed rock will be 10,000 times greater than this figure (energy calculations confirm these estimates). Thus, several thousand cubic kilometers of molten and destroyed rock will be released into the atmosphere.

An asteroid falling onto a water surface (more likely based on the ratio of the area of continents and land on our planet) will have similar features. The lower density of water (meaning lower energy losses when penetrating into water) will allow the asteroid to go deeper into the water column, right up to hitting the bottom, and explosive destruction will occur at greater depths. The shock wave will reach the bottom and form a crater on it, and about several thousand cubic kilometers of water vapor and aerosol will be thrown into the atmosphere, in addition to the rock from the bottom.

There is a significant analogy between what happens in the atmosphere during a nuclear explosion and during an asteroid impact, of course, taking into account the difference in scale. At the moment of collision and explosion of an asteroid, a giant fireball is formed, in the center of which the pressure is extremely high and temperatures reach millions of kelvins. Immediately after formation, the ball, consisting of evaporated rocks (water) and air, begins to expand and float in the atmosphere. The shock wave in the air, spreading and attenuating, will retain its destructive ability up to several hundred kilometers from the epicenter of the explosion. As it rises, the fireball will carry with it a huge amount of rock from the surface (since when it rises, a vacuum is formed under it). As it rises, the fireball expands and deforms into a toroid, forming a characteristic “mushroom”. As more and more air masses expand and are drawn into motion, the temperature and pressure inside the ball drop. The ascent will continue until the pressure is balanced with the external one. In kiloton explosions, the fireball equilibrates to heights below the tropopause (<10 км). Для более мощных, мегатонных взрывов шар проникает в стратосферу. Огненный шар, образовавшийся при падении астероида, поднимется ещё выше, возможно, до 50-100 км (поскольку подъём происходит за счёт зависящей от плотности среды архимедовой силы, а с высотой плотность атмосферы быстро падает, больший подъём невозможен). Постепенно остатки огненного шара рассеиваются в атмосфере. Значительная часть испарённой породы конденсируется и выпадает локально, вместе с крупными кусками и затвердевшим расплавом. Наиболее мелкие аэрозольные частицы остаются в атмосфере и разносятся.

2.1.1 Short-term consequences of the collision

It is clear that local destruction will be catastrophic. At the crash site, an area with a diameter of more than 100 km will be occupied by a crater (together with a shaft). A seismic shock caused by a shock wave in the ground will be destructive over a radius of more than 500 km, just like a shock wave in the air. On a smaller scale, areas located perhaps up to 1,500 km from the epicenter will be subject to destruction.

It would be appropriate to compare the consequences of the fall with other earthly catastrophes. Earthquakes, having significantly less energy, nevertheless cause destruction over large areas. Complete destruction is possible at distances of several hundred kilometers from the epicenter. It should also be taken into account that a significant part of the population is concentrated in seismically hazardous zones. If we imagine the fall of an asteroid of a smaller radius, then the area of destruction caused by it will decrease approximately in proportion to 1/2 the power of its linear dimensions. That is, for a body with a diameter of 1 km, the crater will be 10-20 km in diameter, and the radius of the destruction zone will be 200-300 km. This is even less than during major earthquakes. In any case, given the colossal local destruction, there is no need to talk about the global consequences of the explosion itself on land.

The consequences of falling into the ocean can lead to a catastrophe on a large scale. Following the fall, a tsunami will arise. The height of this wave is difficult to judge. According to some assumptions, it can reach hundreds of meters, but I do not know the exact calculations. Obviously, the mechanism of wave generation here is significantly different from the mechanism of generation of most tsunamis (during underwater earthquakes). A real tsunami, capable of spreading over thousands of kilometers and reaching the coast, must have a sufficient length in the open ocean (one hundred or more kilometers), which is ensured by an earthquake that occurs during a fault of great length. It is unknown whether a powerful underwater explosion will produce a long wave. It is known that during tsunamis arising as a result of underwater eruptions and landslides, the height of the wave can indeed be very high, but due to its short length it cannot spread across the entire ocean and attenuates relatively quickly, causing destruction only in adjacent areas (see below for more on this) . In the event of a huge real tsunami, a picture would be observed - colossal destruction in the entire coastal zone of the ocean, flooding of islands, down to heights below the wave height. If an asteroid falls into a closed or limited body of water (inland or interisland sea), almost only its coast will be destroyed.

In addition to the destruction directly associated with the fall and immediately following it, one should also consider the long-term consequences of the collision, its impact on the climate of the entire planet and the possible damage caused to the Earth's ecosystem as a whole. Press reports are full of warnings about the onset of a “nuclear winter” or, conversely, the “greenhouse effect” and global warming. Let's take a closer look at the situation.

As mentioned above, the fall of a 10-kilometer asteroid will lead to the simultaneous release of up to 104 thousand km 3 of matter into the atmosphere. However, this figure is probably overestimated. According to calculations for nuclear explosions, the volume of ejected soil is about 100 thousand t/Mt for less powerful explosions and slowly decreases, starting with a power of 1 Mt. Based on this, the mass of the ejected substance will not exceed 1500 km 3 . Note that this figure is only ten times higher than the eruption of the Tambora volcano in 1815 (150 thousand km 3). The bulk of the ejected material will be large particles that will fall out of the atmosphere within hours or days directly in the impact area. Long-term climatic consequences should be expected only from submicron particles thrown into the stratosphere, where they can remain for a long time and will be spread over the entire surface of the planet in about six months. The share of such particles in the emission can be up to 5%, that is, 300 billion tons. Calculated per unit area of the earth's surface, this will be 0.6 kg/m2 - a layer about 0.2 mm thick. In this case, per 1 m 2 there are 10 tons of air and >10 kg of water vapor.

Due to the high temperatures at the explosion site, the ejected substance contains virtually no smoke and soot (that is, organic matter); but some soot will be added as a result of fires that may engulf areas near the epicenter. Volcanism, manifestations of which are not excluded at the bottom of the resulting crater, will not exceed ordinary eruptions in scale, and therefore will not add a significant contribution to the total mass of the ejection. When an asteroid falls into the ocean, thousands of cubic kilometers of water vapor will be released, but compared to the total amount of water contained in the atmosphere, its contribution will be insignificant.

In general, the impact of substances released into the atmosphere can be considered within the framework of scenarios for the consequences of a nuclear war. Although the power of the asteroid explosion will be ten times greater than the total power of explosions in the most severe of the mentioned scenarios, its local nature, in contrast to a planet-wide war, determines the similarity of the expected consequences (for example, the explosion of a 20-kiloton bomb over Hiroshima led to destruction equivalent to a conventional bombing of the total explosive power of 1 kiloton of TNT bombs).

There are many assumptions about the impact of large amounts of aerosol emitted into the atmosphere on the climate. Direct study of these effects is possible when studying large volcanic eruptions. Observations show in general that during the most powerful eruptions, immediately following which several cubic kilometers of aerosol remain in the atmosphere, in the next two to three years summer temperatures everywhere decrease and winter temperatures increase (within 2-3°C, on average significantly less) . There is a decrease in direct solar radiation, and the proportion of scattered radiation increases. The proportion of radiation absorbed by the atmosphere increases, the temperature of the atmosphere rises, and the surface temperature drops. However, these effects are not long-lasting - the atmosphere clears quite quickly. Over a period of about six months, the amount of aerosol decreases tenfold. Thus, a year after the explosion of the Krakatoa volcano, about 25 million tons of aerosol remained in the atmosphere, compared to the initial 10-20 billion tons. It is reasonable to assume that after the fall of the asteroid, the purification of the atmosphere will occur at the same pace. It should also be taken into account that a decrease in the flow of energy received will also be accompanied by a decrease in the flow of energy lost from the surface, due to increased shielding - the “greenhouse effect”. Thus, if after the fall there is a drop in temperature by several degrees, within two or three years the climate will practically return to normal (for example, after a year about 10 billion tons of aerosol will remain in the atmosphere, which is comparable to what was immediately after the explosion of Tambora or Krakatoa).

An asteroid impact certainly represents one of the biggest catastrophes for the planet. Its impact is easily comparable to, and may even exceed, other, more common natural disasters, such as an explosive volcanic eruption or a major earthquake. The fall leads to total local destruction, and the total area of the affected zone can reach several percent of the entire area of the planet. However, impacts of truly large asteroids that can have a global impact on the planet are quite rare in the time scale of the existence of life on Earth.

A collision with small asteroids (up to 1 km in diameter) will not lead to any noticeable planetary consequences (excluding, of course, the almost incredible direct hit in an area where nuclear materials are accumulated).

Collisions with larger asteroids (approximately from 1 to 10 km in diameter, depending on the speed of the collision) are accompanied by a powerful explosion, complete destruction of the fallen body and the release of up to several thousand cubic meters of rock into the atmosphere. In terms of its consequences, this phenomenon is comparable to the largest disasters of earthly origin, such as explosive volcanic eruptions. The destruction in the impact zone will be total, and the planet’s climate will change abruptly and return to normal only in a few years. The exaggeration of the threat of a global catastrophe is confirmed by the fact that during its history the Earth has suffered many collisions with similar asteroids and this has not left a proven noticeable mark on its biosphere (in any case, it has not always left).

Among the works on meteorite subjects known to us, Andrei Sklyarov’s “The Myth of the Flood” is perhaps the most elegant and meticulously worked out. Sklyarov studied many myths of different peoples, compared them with archaeological data and came to the conclusion that in the 11th millennium BC. A large meteorite fell to Earth. According to his calculations, a meteorite with a radius of 20 km flew at a speed of 50 km/sec, and this happened in the period from 10480 to 10420 BC.

A meteorite that fell almost tangentially to the earth's surface in the Philippine Sea region caused the earth's crust to slip over magma. As a result, the crust turned relative to the axis of rotation of the globe, and a shift of the poles occurred. In addition to the displacement of the earth's crust relative to the poles, which then led to the redistribution of glacial masses, the fall was accompanied by tsunamis, activation of volcanoes, and even the tilt of the Philippine oceanic plate, which resulted in the formation of the Mariana Trench.

As already mentioned, the work amazes with its grace and careful attention to detail, so it is especially unfortunate that it has nothing to do with reality.

First, over the past 60 million years, the equatorial level of the world's oceans has not changed significantly. Proof of this was obtained (in the form of a side effect) when drilling wells on atolls in search of a test site for hydrogen bombs. In particular, wells on the Enewetak Atoll, located on the slope of an oceanic trench and gradually descending, showed that over the past 60 million years a coral layer has continuously grown on it. This means that the temperature of the surrounding ocean waters during all this time did not drop below +20 degrees. In addition, there were no rapid changes in sea level in the equatorial zone. Enewetak Atoll is located quite close to the meteorite impact site proposed by Sklyarov, and the corals would inevitably have been damaged, which was not discovered.

Secondly, over the past 420 thousand years, the average annual temperature of the Antarctic ice sheet has not risen above minus 54 0 C, and the sheet has never disappeared during this entire period.

Through the joint efforts of Russian, French and American scientists, using the isotopic composition of an ice core from an ultra-deep ice hole (3350 m) at the Russian Antarctic Vostok station, it was possible to recreate the climate of our planet during this period. So, the average temperature in the area of the Vostok station over these 420 thousand years ranged from approximately - 54 to - 77 o C.

Thirdly, during the last “ice age” (20 - 10 thousand years ago), the climate in central Russia, including Siberia, differed little from today, especially in summer. This is evidenced by the isotopic signature of atmospheric precipitation, which persists for hundreds of thousands of years in the ice of polar glaciers and permafrost, soil carbonates, phosphates of mammal bones, tree rings, etc.

2.2 Impact of the Sun on Earth

An equally important factor in the development of the Earth is solar activity. Solar activity is a set of phenomena on the Sun associated with the formation of sunspots, faculae, flocculls, filaments, prominences, the occurrence of flares, accompanied by an increase in ultraviolet, x-ray and corpuscular radiation.

The most powerful manifestation of solar activity affecting the Earth is solar flares. They appear in active regions with a complex magnetic field structure and affect the entire thickness of the solar atmosphere. The energy of a large solar flare reaches a huge value, comparable to the amount of solar energy received by our planet for an entire year. This is approximately 100 times more than all the thermal energy that could be obtained by burning all proven mineral reserves.

This is the energy emitted by the entire Sun in 1/20th of a second, with a power not exceeding hundredths of a percent of the total radiation power of our star. In flare-active regions, the main sequence of high- and medium-power flares occurs over a limited time interval (40-60 hours), while small flares and glows are observed almost constantly. This leads to an increase in the general background of electromagnetic radiation from the Sun. Therefore, to assess solar activity associated with flares, special indices began to be used, directly related to real fluxes of electromagnetic radiation. Based on the flux of radio emission at a wave of 10.7 cm (frequency 2800 MHz), the index F10.7 was introduced in 1963. It is measured in solar flux units (s.f.u.). It is worth considering that 1 s.e.p. = 10-22 W/(m 2 Hz). The F10.7 index corresponds well to changes in the total sunspot area and the number of flares in all active regions.

The disaster that unfolded in the Asia-Pacific region in March 2010 can clearly illustrate the consequences of a solar flare. Outbreaks were observed from March 7 to 9, the minimum score was C1.4, the maximum was M5.3. The first to respond to the disturbance of the magnetic field was an earthquake on 03/10/2011 at 04:58:15 (UTCtime), the hypocenter at a depth of 23 km. The magnitude was 5.5. The next day there was another outbreak, but even more powerful. The X1.5 flare is one of the strongest in recent years. The Earth's response was first an earthquake of magnitude 9.0; the hypocenter was located at a depth of 32 km. The epicenter of the earthquake was 373 km from the capital of Japan, Tokyo. The earthquake was followed by a devastating tsunami, which changed the appearance of the east coast of the island. Honshu. Volcanoes also responded to the powerful outbreak. The Karangetang volcano, considered one of the most active in Indonesia, began erupting on Friday hours after a powerful earthquake struck Japan. The Japanese volcanoes Kirishima and Shinmoe began to erupt.

From March 7 to March 29, solar activity is higher than usual and from March 7 to March 29, earthquakes do not stop in the Asia-Pacific and Indian regions (AT region - magnitude from 4, I. region - magnitude from 3).

Conclusion

As a result of reviewing the literature available on the topic and based on the stated goals and objectives, several conclusions can be drawn.

The magnetosphere is one of the most important spheres of the Earth. Sudden changes in the magnetic field, i.e. magnetic storms can penetrate the atmosphere. The most striking example of the impact is the shutdown of electrical appliances that contain microcircuits and transistors.

Radiation belts play a big role in interaction with the Earth. Thanks to the belts, the Earth's magnetic field holds charged particles, namely protons, alpha particles and electrons.

Gravity is one of the most important processes influencing the development of the Earth. Gravitational forces constantly act on the substance of the Earth. As a result of gravitational differentiation, geospheres with different average densities of matter were formed in the body of the planet.

Small cosmic bodies are an equally important factor in the interaction of the Space-Earth system. It is worth considering that the fall of a large asteroid into the ocean will raise a destructive wave that will circle the globe several times, sweeping away everything in its path. If an asteroid hits the mainland, a layer of dust will rise into the atmosphere, which will not allow sunlight to pass through. The effect of the so-called nuclear winter will occur.

Perhaps the most important factor is solar activity. An example of the interaction between the Sun and the Earth is the events of March 10-11, 2011. During this period of time, after a powerful outbreak, on the island. An earthquake hit Honshu, followed by a tsunami, and then volcanoes woke up.

Thus, space processes are a determining factor in the interaction of the Space-Earth system. Also, it is important that in the absence of the above phenomena, life on the planet could not exist.

Literature

1. Gnibidenko, Z.N., / Cenozoic paleomagnetism of the West Siberian plate / Geo. – Novosibirsk, 2006. - P. 146-161

2. Sorokhtin, O.V. // Theory of the development of the Earth: origin, evolution and tragic future / RAEN. – M., 2010. - P. 722-751

3. Krivolutsky, A.E. / Blue Planet / Thought. – M., 1985.- P.326-332

4. Byalko, A.V. / Our planet – Earth / Science. - M., 1989.- P.237

5. Khain, V.E./ Planet Earth/ MSU Geol. fak. - M., 2007.- P.234-243

6. Leonov, E.A. // Space and ultra-long-term hydrological forecast/ Science. - M., 2010

7. Romashov, A.N. / Planet Earth: Tectonophysics and evolution / Editorial URSS – M., 2003

8. Todhunter, I. / /History of mathematical theories of gravity and the figure of the Earth from Newton to Laplace/ Editorial URSS. – M., 2002.- P.670

9. Vernov S.N. Radiation belts of the Earth and cosmic rays / S.N. Vernov, P.V. Vakulov, E.V. Gorchakov, Yu.I. Logachev.-M.: Education, 1970.- P.131

10. Hess V. // Radiation belt and the Earth’s magnetosphere / Atomizdat - M., 1973.-P.423.

11. Roederer X. // Dynamics of radiation captured by the geomagnetic field / World. - M, 1972. – P. 392

12. RL:http://dic.academic.ru/pictures/wiki/files/

77/Magnetosphere_rendition.jpg

13. URL: http://www.glubinnaya.info/science/sun/sun.files/fig-1000.jpg

14. URL: http://www.movelife.ru/image/big/0000054.gif

15. URL: http://travel.spotcoolstuff.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/barringer-crater-2.jpg

16. URL: http://www.meteorite.narod.ru/proba/stati/stati58.htm

17. URL: http://att-vesti.narod.ru/KATASTR.PDF

18. URL: http://www.meteorite.narod.ru/proba/stati/stati51.htm

19. URL: http://crydee.sai.msu.ru/Universe_and_us/1num/v1pap4.htm

20. URL: http://www.tesis.lebedev.ru/sun_flares.html

A.G. Zhabin, Doctor of Geological and Mineralogical Sciences

In mineral crystals, rocks, and layered sediments, signs are recorded and preserved for billions of years that characterize not only the evolution of the Earth itself, but also its interaction with space.

Terrestrial and cosmic phenomena.

In geological objects, the language of physical and chemical properties contains unique genetic information about the impact of cosmic processes on the Earth. Speaking about the method for extracting this information, the famous Swedish astrophysicist H. Alfven states the following:

“Since no one can know what happened 45 billion years ago, we are forced to start with the present state of the solar system and, step by step, reconstruct earlier and earlier stages of its development. This principle, highlighting unobservable phenomena, lies in the basis of the modern approach to the study of the geological evolution of the Earth; its motto: “the present is the key to the past.”

In fact, it is now possible to qualitatively diagnose many types of external cosmic influence on the Earth. Its collision with giant meteorites is evidenced by astroblemes on the earth's surface (Earth and Universe, 1975, 6, pp. 13-17.-Ed.), the appearance of denser types of minerals, displacement and melting of various rocks. Cosmic dust and penetrating cosmic particles can also be diagnosed. It is interesting to study the connection between the tectonic activity of the planet and various chronorhythms (time rhythms) caused by cosmic processes, such as solar activity, supernova explosions, and the movement of the Sun and the Solar System in the Galaxy.

Let us discuss the question of whether it is possible to identify cosmogenic chronorhythms in the properties of earthly minerals. Rhythmic and large-scale, the nature of solar activity and other cosmophysical factors covering the entire planet can serve as the basis for planetary “benchmarks” of time. Therefore, the search and diagnosis of material traces of such chronorhythms can be considered as a new promising direction. It jointly uses isotope (radiological), biostratigraphic (based on fossil remains of animals and plants) and cosmogenic-rhythmic methods, which in their development will complement each other. Research in this direction has already begun: astroblemes have been described, layers containing cosmic dust have been discovered in salt strata, and the periodicity of crystallization of substances in caves has been established. But if in biology and biophysics new special sections have recently emerged: cosmorhythmology, heliobiology, biorhythmology, dendrochronology, then mineralogy still lags behind such studies.

Periodic rhythms.

Particular attention is now being paid to the search for possible forms of fixation in minerals of the 11-year cycle of solar activity. This chronorhythm is recorded not only on modern ones, but also on paleoobjects in clay-sandy sediments of the Phanerozoic, in CoIIenia algae from the Ordovician (500 million years ago), and on sections of fossil Permian (285 million years ago) petrified trees. We are just beginning to look for the reflection of such cosmogenic rhythmicity in minerals that grew on our planet in the hypergenesis zone, that is, in the very upper part of the earth’s crust. But there is no doubt that climatic periodicity of a cosmogenic nature will manifest itself through different intensities of circulation of surface and groundwater (alternating droughts and floods), different heating of the upper film of the earth’s crust, through changes in the rate of destruction of mountains, sedimentation (Earth and Universe, 1980, 1, p. 2-6. - Ed.). And all these factors influence the earth's crust.

The most promising places for searching for signs of such cosmogenic chronorhythms are the weathering crust, karst caves, zones of oxidation of sulfide deposits, salt and flysch type sediments (the latter are layered alternations of rocks of different compositions, caused by oscillatory movements of the earth’s crust), so-called ribbon clays associated with periodic melting of glaciers.

Let us give several examples of periodicity recorded during the growth of mineral crystals. Calcite stalactites (CaCO3) from the Sauerland caves (Germany) have been well studied. It has been established that the average thickness of the layer growing on them every year is very small, only 0.0144 mm. (growth rate is approximately 1 mm in 70 years), and the total age of the stalactite is about 12,000 years. But against the background of zones, or shells, with annual periodicity, thicker zones were also discovered on the stalactites, which grew at 10-11 year intervals. Another example is celestine crystals (SgSO4) up to 10 cm in size, which grew in voids among the Silurian dolomites of Ohio (USA). They reveal very fine, well-consistent zoning. The power of one pair of zones (light and dark) ranges from 3 to 70 microns, but in some places where there are many thousands of such pairs, the power is more stable 7.5 - 10.6 microns. Using a microprobe, it was possible to determine that the light and dark zones differ in the value of the Sr/Ba ratio and the curve has a pulsating character (sedimentary dolomites had become completely petrified by the time they were leached and voids formed). After considering the possible reasons for the occurrence of such zoning, preference was given to the annual periodicity of crystallization conditions. Apparently, warm and hot chloride waters containing Sr and Ba (water temperature ranges from 68 to 114C) and moving upward in the interior of the Earth were periodically, once a year, diluted with surface waters. As a result, fine zoning of celestite crystals could arise.

A study of thin-layered sphalerite crusts from Tennessee (USA), found within the Pine Point ore deposit, also showed the periodic growth of shells, or zones, on these crusts. Their thickness is about 5 - 10 microns, with thicker ones alternating through 9 - 11 thin zones. The annual periodicity in this case is explained by the fact that groundwater penetrating into the ore deposit changes the volume and composition of solutions.

Fine annual zoning is also present in agate growing in the near-surface layer of the earth's crust. In descriptions of agates made back in the last century, up to 17,000 thin layers in one inch are sometimes noted. Thus, a single zone (light and dark stripe) has a power of only 1.5 µm. It is interesting to compare such a slow crystallization of agate minerals with the growth of nodules in the ocean. This speed is 0.03 - 0.003 mm. per thousand years, or 30 - 3 microns. in year. Apparently, the above examples reveal a complex chain of interrelated phenomena that determine the influence of the 11-year cycle of solar activity on the growth of mineral crystals in the surface layer of the earth's crust. Probably, changes in meteorological conditions under the influence of solar corpuscular radiation are manifested, in particular, in fluctuations in water content in the upper sections of the earth's crust.

Supernova explosions.

In addition to annual and 11-year chronorhythms, there are single cosmogenic “benchmarks” of time. Here we mean supernova explosions. Leningrad botanist N.V. Lovellius studied the structure of the growth rings of an 800-year-old juniper tree growing at an altitude of 3000 m on one of the slopes of the Zeravshan ridge. He discovered periods when growth of tree rings slowed down. These periods fall almost exactly on the years 1572 and 1604, when supernovas exploded in the sky: Tycho Brahe's supernova and Kepler's supernova. We do not yet know the geochemical and mineralogical consequences of intense cosmic ray fluxes in connection with the five supernova explosions that occurred in our Galaxy over the last millennium (1006, 1054, 1572, 1604, 1667), and we do not yet know how to diagnose such signs. It is important here not so much to see traces of primary cosmic rays in terrestrial minerals (something is already known here), but to find a method for determining time intervals when in the past cosmic rays had a particularly intense impact on our planet. Such time intervals, synchronized throughout the Earth, could be compared to ubiquitous layers of known age, marking stratigraphic horizons. According to astrophysicists, during the existence of the Earth, the stars closest to the Sun flared up as supernovae about ten times. Thus, nature puts at our disposal at least ten consecutive chronoreferences, common for the entire planet. Mineralogists will have to find traces of such cosmogenic temporary reference points in the properties of mineral crystals and the rocks they compose. An example is lunar regolith. It reflects the history of the impact of solar wind, galactic cosmic rays, and micrometeorites on the Moon. Moreover, large cosmogenic chronorhythms here should manifest themselves in more contrast, because the Moon does not have an atmosphere, and, therefore, cosmic influences on it are not so greatly distorted. A study of the regolith showed that the intensity of proton irradiation on the Moon from 1953 to 1963 was four times the average intensity for the previous several million years.

The idea of a causal connection between the periodicity of geological processes on Earth and the periodicity of interaction between the Earth and Space is increasingly penetrating the consciousness of geologists and planetary scientists. Now it has become clear that the periodization of geological history, geochronology is connected with solar activity by the unity of the time structure. But new data have recently been received. It turned out that planetary tectono-magmatic (mineralogical) epochs correlate with the length of the galactic year. For example, for post-Archean time it was possible to establish nine maxima of mineral matter deposition. They took place approximately 115, 355, 530, 750, 980, 1150, 1365, 1550 and 1780 million years ago. The intervals between these maxima are 170 - 240 million years (an average of 200 million years), that is, equal to the duration of the galactic year.

Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences G.L. Pospelov, analyzing the place of geology in natural science, noted that the study of multi-stage geological complexes will lead this science to the discovery of phenomena such as “quantization” of various processes in the macrocosm. Mineralogists, together with stratigraphic geologists, astrogeologists, and astrophysicists, are collecting facts that in the future will make it possible to create a time scale common to all planets of the Solar System.

A.G. Zhabin, Doctor of Geological and Mineralogical Sciences

Terrestrial and cosmic phenomena.

Periodic rhythms.

Supernova explosions.

Schematic section of a layered section of the earth's crust. Hydrothermal veins exposed to the surface (left) and “blind” (right) are visible (thick black lines). In the left there is an exchange of hydrotherms with surface groundwater.

1, 2, 3, 4 - successive stages of mineral growth: quartz and pyrite crystals. The growth of crystals in the depths of the Earth turns out to be associated with the 11-year cycle of solar activity.

Similar abstracts:

Geology (from geo. i.logiya), a complex of sciences about the earth's crust and deeper spheres of the Earth; in the narrow sense of the word - the science of the composition, structure, movements and history of the development of the earth's crust and the placement of minerals in it.

Ontogenic analysis of unique layered gravity textures and spherulitic intergrowths of nickel and rammelsbergite revealed a dendritic mechanism of sequential growth of layers, as well as the simultaneous growth of nickel spheroidolites.

Formation and distribution of minerals. Chemical composition of minerals. Mineral structures and polymorphism. Classification of minerals. The concept of rocks.

The red cortex has varying mobility. Mountain systems and ocean basins constantly appear on the surface of the Earth. Sedimentary rocks initially lie horizontally.

The concept of metamorphism. Factors of metamorphism. Types of metamorphism. Stages, zones and facies of metamorphism. Metamorphic rocks.

The gaseous shell of the Earth - its atmosphere, like other earthly shells, including the hydrosphere and biosphere, is a derivative of the internal activity of the planet. It was formed due to degassing and volcanism from the asthenosphere zone.

Where do volcanic events occur in the Cenozoic? How volcanic processes transform the earth's crust.

The actual magnetic field observed on the Earth's surface reflects the cumulative effect of various sources.

The lithosphere is the outer solid shell of the Earth, which includes the entire Earth's crust with part of the Earth's upper mantle and consists of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Humanity has taken its first active steps towards understanding space quite recently. Only about 60 years have passed since the launch of the first spacecraft with the first satellite on board. But during this short historical period of time, it was possible to learn about many cosmic phenomena and conduct a large number of diverse studies.

Oddly enough, with a deeper knowledge of space, more and more mysteries and phenomena are opening up for humanity that do not have answers at this stage. It is worth noting that even the closest cosmic body, namely the Moon, is still far from being studied. Due to the imperfection of technology and spacecraft, we do not have answers to a huge number of questions that relate to outer space. Nevertheless, our portal site will be able to answer many questions that interest you and tell you a lot of interesting facts about cosmic phenomena.

The most unusual space phenomena from the portal site

A rather interesting cosmic phenomenon is galactic cannibalism. Despite the fact that galaxies are inanimate beings, one can still conclude from the term that it is based on the absorption of one galaxy by another. Indeed, the process of absorbing their own kind is characteristic not only of living organisms, but also of galaxies. So, currently, very close to our galaxy, a similar absorption of smaller galaxies by Andromeda is taking place. There are about ten such absorptions in this galaxy. Among galaxies, such interactions are quite common. Also, quite often, in addition to cannibalism of planets, their collision can occur. When studying cosmic phenomena, they were able to conclude that almost all the studied galaxies have at some time had contact with other galaxies.

Another interesting cosmic phenomenon can be called quasars. This concept refers to unique space beacons that can be detected using modern equipment. They are scattered in all remote parts of our Universe and indicate the origin of the entire cosmos and its objects. The peculiarity of these phenomena is that they emit a huge amount of energy, its power is greater than the energy emitted by hundreds of galaxies. Even at the beginning of the active study of outer space, namely in the early 60s, many objects were recorded that were considered quasars.

Their main characteristics are powerful radio emission and fairly small sizes. With the development of technology, it became known that only 10% of all objects that were considered quasars were actually these phenomena. The remaining 90% emitted virtually no radio waves. All objects related to quasars have very powerful radio emission, which can be detected by special earthling instruments. Yet very little is known about this phenomenon, and they remain a mystery to scientists; a lot of theories have been put forward on this subject, but there are no scientific facts about their origin. Most tend to believe that these are nascent galaxies, in the middle of which there is a huge black hole.

A very well-known and at the same time unexplored phenomenon of the cosmos is dark matter. Many theories talk about its existence, but not a single scientist has been able to not only see it, but also record it with the help of instruments. It is still generally accepted that there are certain accumulations of this matter in space. In order to conduct research on such a phenomenon, humanity does not yet have the necessary equipment. Dark matter, according to scientists, is formed from neutrinos or invisible black holes. There are also opinions that no dark matter exists at all. The origin of the hypothesis about the presence of dark matter in the Universe was put forward due to the inconsistencies of gravitational fields, and it was also studied that the density of cosmic spaces is non-uniform.

Outer space is also characterized by gravitational waves; these phenomena have also been studied very little. This phenomenon is considered to be distortion of the time continuum in space. This phenomenon was predicted a very long time ago by Einstein, where he spoke about it in his famous theory of relativity. The movement of such waves occurs at the speed of light, and it is extremely difficult to detect their presence. At this stage of development, we can observe them only during fairly global changes in space, for example, during the merger of black holes. And even observation of such processes is possible only with the use of powerful gravitational-wave observatories. It should be noted that it is possible to detect these waves when emitted by two powerful interacting objects. The best quality of gravitational waves can be detected when two galaxies come into contact.

More recently, vacuum energy has become known. This confirms the theory that interplanetary space is not empty, but is occupied by subatomic particles, which are constantly subject to destruction and new formations. The existence of vacuum energy is confirmed by the presence of cosmic energy of the antigravitational order. All this sets cosmic bodies and objects in motion. This raises another mystery about the meaning and purpose of the movement. Scientists have even come to the conclusion that vacuum energy is very high, it’s just that humanity has not yet learned to use it, we are used to getting energy from substances.

All these processes and phenomena are open for study at the present time; our portal site will help you get acquainted with them in more detail and will be able to give many answers to your questions. We have detailed information about all studied and little-studied phenomena. We also have cutting-edge information on all the space exploration that is currently underway.

Micro black holes, which were discovered quite recently, can also be called an interesting and rather unexplored cosmic phenomenon. The theory of the existence of very small black holes in the early 70s of the last century almost completely overturned the generally accepted theory of the big bang. It is believed that microholes are located throughout the Universe and have a special connection with the fifth dimension, in addition, they have their influence on time space. To study phenomena associated with small black holes, the Hadron Collider was supposed to help, but such experimental studies are extremely difficult even with the use of this device. Nevertheless, scientists do not abandon the study of these phenomena and their detailed study is planned in the near future.

In addition to small black holes, phenomena are known that reach gigantic sizes. They are characterized by high density and a strong gravitational field. The gravitational field of black holes is so powerful that even light cannot escape this pull. They are very common in outer space. There are black holes in almost every galaxy, and their sizes can exceed the size of our star by tens of billions of times.

People who are interested in space and its phenomena must be familiar with the concept of neutrinos. These particles are mysterious primarily due to the fact that they do not have their own weight. They are actively used to overcome dense metals such as lead, since they practically do not interact with the substance itself. They surround everything in space and on our planet, they easily pass through all substances. Even 10^14 neutrinos pass through the human body every second. These particles are mainly released by radiation from the Sun. All stars are generators of these particles; they are also actively ejected into outer space during stellar explosions. To detect neutrino emissions, scientists placed large neutrino detectors on the seabed.

Many mysteries are connected with the planets, namely with the strange phenomena that are associated with them. There are exoplanets that are located far from our star. An interesting fact is that even before the 90s of the last century, humanity believed that planets outside our solar system could not exist, but this is completely wrong. Even at the beginning of this year, there are about 452 exoplanets, which are located in various planetary systems. Moreover, all known planets have a wide variety of sizes.

They can be either dwarf or huge gas giants, which are the size of stars. Scientists are persistently searching for a planet that would resemble our Earth. These searches have not yet been successful, since it is difficult to find a planet that would have such dimensions and an atmosphere of similar composition. At the same time, for the possible origin of life, optimal temperature conditions are also necessary, which is also very difficult.

Analyzing all the phenomena of the planets being studied, in the early 2000s it was possible to discover a planet similar to ours, but still it has a significantly larger size, and it completes a revolution around its star in almost ten days. In 2007, another similar exoplanet was discovered, but it is also large in size, and a year passes on it in 20 days.

Research into cosmic phenomena and exoplanets, in particular, has made astronauts aware of the existence of a huge number of other planetary systems. Each open system gives scientists a new body of work to study because each system is different from the other. Unfortunately, still imperfect research methods cannot reveal to us all the data about outer space and its phenomena.

For almost 50 years, astrophysicists have been studying weak radiation, discovered in the 60s. This phenomenon is called the microwave background of space. This radiation is also often referred to in the literature as cosmic microwave background radiation, which remains after the big bang. As is known, this explosion marked the beginning of the formation of all celestial bodies and objects. Most theorists, when advocating the Big Bang theory, use this background as proof that they are right. The Americans even managed to measure the temperature of this background, which is 270 degrees. Scientists after this discovery were awarded the Nobel Prize.

When talking about cosmic phenomena, it is simply impossible not to mention antimatter. This matter is, as it were, in constant resistance to the ordinary world. As you know, negative particles have their positively charged twin. Antimatter also has a positron as a counterweight. Due to all this, when the antipodes collide, energy is released. Often in science fiction there are fantastic ideas in which spaceships have propulsion systems that operate due to the collision of antiparticles. Physicists have achieved interesting calculations, according to which the interaction of one kilogram of antimatter with a kilogram of ordinary particles will release an amount of energy that is comparable to the energy of the explosion of a very powerful nuclear bomb. It is generally accepted that ordinary matter and antimatter have a similar structure.

Because of this, the question arises about this phenomenon: why do most space objects consist of matter? The logical answer would be that similar accumulations of antimatter exist somewhere in the Universe. Scientists, answering a similar question, start from the theory of the big bang, in which in the first seconds a similar asymmetry in the distribution of substances and matter arose. Scientists managed to obtain a small amount of antimatter in laboratory conditions, which is enough for further research. It should be noted that the resulting substance is the most expensive on our planet, since one gram of it costs 62 trillion dollars.

All of the above cosmic phenomena are the smallest part of everything interesting about cosmic phenomena, which you can find on the website portal. We also have many photos, videos and other useful information about outer space.

An unaccountable instinctive fear of the blind forces of nature was inherent in the worldview of primitive man.

The echoes of this fear, especially of little-studied space, affected people in subsequent eras. Oddly enough, the more a person became aware of his cosmic environment, the more concerned he became about the possibility of a global cosmic catastrophe. At the beginning of the century, panic spread widely among the world's population in connection with the upcoming intersection of the Earth's orbit by the tail of Halley's comet. As you know, quite recently panic broke out in various circles abroad in connection with the notorious “parade of planets.”

If you want to eat well and visit a decent Tatar restaurant, we recommend turning to professionals of Tatar cuisine. Whether it is a festive banquet, birthday, anniversary or corporate party, in any case, you will be satisfied with the service and the dishes offered.

But can cosmic phenomena really pose any danger to the Earth? Can cosmic processes generally influence terrestrial processes? Has such interference in the process of biosphere evolution taken place before?

The methodological principles on which the study of the history of the Earth is based, as well as the most important postulates of the theory of biosphere evolution, significantly depend on the answers to these questions. Let's illustrate this with a simple example. If large-scale changes in environmental conditions on the Earth's surface occur for purely terrestrial reasons, they must occur slowly, since it is impossible to accumulate energy in the earth's crust for a rapid (say, within a few days) global change in the ecological situation. The famous eruption of the Santoripe volcano in the 15th century. before i. e. (which led to the decline of the Minoan civilization) or the explosion of the Tambora volcano in 1815 (dust from this explosion caused a sudden cold snap and snowfalls throughout the Northern Hemisphere) were believed to have maximum energy release (about 1027 erg). Slow, gradual changes in environmental conditions immediately predetermine in this case the choice of models of biological evolution.

However, if astrophysical phenomena made some contribution to the history of the Earth (for example, a nearby Supernova explosion), then global changes occurred suddenly and quickly (for example, the surface flux of ultraviolet radiation would sharply increase after a nearby Supernova explosion). Facts indicating that processes occurring outside the Earth (in near and far space) make some contribution to the Earth’s ecology have been accumulating for a long time. The idea that the evolution of the biosphere occurs under conditions determined by the totality of purely terrestrial and cosmic phenomena was expressed at different times by H. Shapley and I. S. Shklovsky. This point of view is shared by F. Hoyle and V. McCrea.

In recent years, a special direction of research has gradually taken shape, called “cosmic catastrophism.” Since systematic, targeted research in this direction began relatively recently, not many concrete, established results have been obtained. Thus, it has been established that solar activity changes over long time intervals on a much larger scale than follows from a relatively short series of telescopic observations of the Sun. However, whether there really are so-called superflares that could have a damaging effect on the biosphere is not clear. There is no doubt that Supernovae have erupted dozens of times in the immediate vicinity of the Solar System and that such events have affected our environment, but the connection between specific crisis stages in the development of the biosphere and these phenomena continues to remain unknown. Over the past 3 billion years of biosphere history, the Solar System has passed through molecular clouds of interstellar gas many times, which inevitably had some environmental consequences, but what exactly cannot be said yet.

Still, some of the theoretical and observational results obtained in this area are very interesting. And, perhaps, the most important result of the research that will be discussed in this brochure is, first of all, that at present there are enough considerations and arguments demonstrating the need to take into account astrophysical data in ecology and paleoecology, and therefore the development of a specific hypothesis about the influence of any cosmic process on biological history now no longer seems to be a pseudoscientific heresy.

Any new direction of research has, of course, its own history, and “ cosmic catastrophism" is by no means an exception. Due to lack of space, we cannot talk here about the origins and history of these ideas. The only thing I would like to draw attention to is a certain connection between this area of research and the ideas of the book of the famous naturalist J. Cuvier “Discourse on revolutions on the surface of the globe” (1812). The history of geological disasters is outlined, the author does not connect them with space. But modern “cosmic catastrophism” notes that the cosmic impact on the history of the Earth, on the evolution of the biosphere, is often catastrophic in nature. “So, life on our Earth has been repeatedly shaken by terrible events” - these words of J. Cuvier would be very suitable as an epigraph to many publications on the problems of “cosmic catastrophism”.

If you find an error, please highlight a piece of text and click Ctrl+Enter.

Cosmic phenomena and processes. Cosmic phenomena Cosmic processes

Read also

Terrestrial and cosmic phenomena.

Periodic rhythms.

Supernova explosions.

The most unusual space phenomena from the portal site