Concrete results of Peter's activity 1. Causes, goals and results of the reform activities of Peter I. Industry, trade - the principle of cardinal reform

Concrete results of Peter's activity 1. Causes, goals and results of the reform activities of Peter I. Industry, trade - the principle of cardinal reform
Concrete results of Peter's activity 1. Causes, goals and results of the reform activities of Peter I. Industry, trade - the principle of cardinal reform

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The period of the reign of Peter the Great (his transformations and reforms) is accompanied by the complexity and inconsistency of the historical development of the country at that time. On the one hand, his actions were of great progressive significance, they met the national interests and needs, contributed to a significant acceleration of the country's historical development and were aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, they were carried out by feudal lords, using feudal methods and were aimed at strengthening their dominance. That is why the progressive transformations of the time of Peter the Great from the very beginning carried conservative features, which later came out more and more strongly. As a result of the transformations of Peter I, Russia was rapidly catching up with the development of European countries, in which the dominance of feudal-serf relations prevailed.

This complexity and inconsistency manifested itself with all its force in the transformative activity of Peter I, which was distinguished by inexhaustible energy, unprecedented scope, courage in breaking the already established laws, foundations, way of life and way of life. Perfectly understanding the importance of the development of trade and industry, Peter I carried out a number of measures that corresponded to the interests of the merchants. But he also strengthened the serfdom, substantiated the regime of autocratic despotism. The actions of Peter I were distinguished not only by decisiveness, but also by extreme cruelty.

1. Formpersonality of Peter the Great

Peter the Great was born on May 30, 1672. On this day, thanksgiving prayers were served throughout Moscow, and cannons were fired. The happy father, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov, forgave government debts, gave gifts to his neighbors, and canceled harsh sentences for criminals. From everywhere people with all kinds of gifts went to the royal palace.

Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich had great hopes for his youngest son. He himself was married a second time to Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina. From his first marriage with Marya Miloslavskaya, he already had three children - Fedor, Ivan and Sophia. But they were not able to translate their father's plans into reality, since one of them was sick and the other weak-minded.

Until the death of his father, Tsar Alexei, Peter lived as a darling in the royal family. He was only three and a half years old when his father died. Tsar Fedor was the godfather of his little brother and loved him very much. He kept Peter with him in the great Moscow palace and took care of his education. In 1676 Alexei Mikhailovich died. Peter was then three and a half years old, and his older brother Fedor ascended the throne, but in 1782 he also died, leaving no heirs to the throne.

Soon, Patriarch Joachim and the boyars proclaimed the younger Tsarevich Peter, who at that time was 10 years old, as king. However, the rights of Tsarevich Ivan were violated and his relatives could not come to terms with what had happened. The most intelligent and decisive among them were Princess Sofya Alekseevna and the boyar Ivan Mikhailovich Miloslavsky. Against their enemies - the Naryshkins, they raised an army of archers.

The archers were told that Tsarevich Ivan had been strangled and they were given a list of "traitor-boyars" in their hands. In response to this, the archers began an open rebellion. On May 15, 1682, armed, they came to the Kremlin. Tsarina Natalya Kirillovna led Tsar Peter and Tsarevich Ivan to the Red Porch of the Palace and showed them to the archers. However, the latter did not calm down, broke into the royal palace and, in front of the members of the royal family, brutally killed the boyar Matveev and many relatives of Queen Natalya.

Peter, being an eyewitness to these bloody scenes, caused surprise with his stamina - standing on the Red Porch, when the archers picked up Matveev and his supporters on spears, he did not change his face. But the May horrors are indelibly engraved in the memory of Peter, probably from here both the well-known nervousness and his hatred of the archers originate.

A week after the start of the rebellion - on May 23, the winners demanded from the government that both brothers be appointed kings, and a week later, at the new demand of the archers, for the youth of the kings, the reign was handed over to Princess Sophia. Peter's party was excluded from any participation in public affairs.

After these events, Tsaritsa Natalia, together with her son, left for the village of Preobrazhenskoye near Moscow. Peter has been addicted to war games since childhood. There he formed two “amusing” battalions from his peers, which in the future became real military units - the Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments - the main guard of Peter. Foreign officers were engaged in their training, and Peter himself went through all the soldier ranks, starting with a drummer. With great interest, the king began to study arithmetic, geometry, and military sciences, which were taught to him by the Dutchman Timmerman. The surviving notebooks of Peter testify to his persistent efforts to assimilate the applied side of arithmetical, astronomical and artillery wisdom: the same notebooks show that these wisdom remained a mystery to Peter. But turning art and pyrotechnics have always been Peter's favorite pastimes. Peter's passion for boats and ships is widely known. After Peter found an abandoned nautical boat in the village of Izmailovo and learned to sail on it, he went into this business and, under the guidance of the Dutch shipbuilder Brant, Peter sailed on his boat, first along the Yauza River, and then on Lake Pereyaslavsky, where he laid the first shipyard for the construction of ships. To many, this seemed like empty fun. Petra and its closeness to the Germans were condemned. Peter often visited the German settlement, because it was there that he could find explanations for many things that were incomprehensible to Russian people. Peter became especially close to the Scot Gordon, a general in the Russian service, a scientist, and to the Swiss Lefort, a colonel, a very capable and cheerful man. Under the influence of Lefort, Peter got used to noisy feasts and revelry. Unfortunately, neither Prince Boris Alekseevich Golitsyn, the tutor of Peter, nor his tutor Nikita Zotov, could keep the young tsar from revelry and noisy feasts.

Due to unfavorable childhood conditions, Peter was left without a proper education and instead of theological and scholastic knowledge, he acquired military-technical knowledge. The young sovereign was an unusual cultural type for Moscow society. He had no love for the old customs and orders of Moscow court life, but formed close relations with the "Germans". Peter did not like Sophia's government, he was afraid of the Miloslavskys and the archers, whom he considered Sophia's support and friends.

Princess Sophia considered Peter's military occupations to be foolish folly, but was pleased that he did not interfere in the royal affairs. For the time being, the mother also calmly treated her son's fun, but then she decided that it was time for him to settle down, lead a life worthy of the royal title, and found him a bride. This was the mother's only major and unsuccessful intervention in Peter's private life. In 1689, before reaching his seventeenth birthday, Peter marries the daughter of the Moscow boyar Evdokia Lopukhina. Tsarina Natalya hoped to distract her son from empty amusements and make him more respectable. According to Russian custom, he was now considered an adult and could claim independent rule.

With his marriage, Peter did not change his habits. The dissimilarity of the spouses' characters and the court's dislike for Lopukhina explains the fact that Peter's love for his wife did not last long, and then Peter began to prefer family life - camping, in the regimental hut of the Preobrazhensky regiment. A new occupation - shipbuilding - distracted him even further: from the Yauza, he, along with his ships, moved to Lake Pereyaslav and had fun there even in winter.

However, Princess Sophia did not want to lose power and raised archers against Peter. Peter found out about this at night and, as if in a nightgown, mounted a horse and rode off into the nearest forest, and from there to the Trinity-Sergius Lavra. According to historians, this was the only case when he was mortally afraid for his life, remembering his childhood horror after the death of his father, when in front of his eyes the archers raised his own uncle on spears and killed his other relatives. From that time on, he developed a nervous tic and convulsions, which from time to time distorted his face and shook his body.

But soon Peter came to his senses and brutally crushed the uprising. As a result, Princess Sophia was exiled to the Novodevichy Convent, the most active supporters were executed, and the rest were sent to eternal hard labor. Thus began the reign of Peter.

2. Reforms of Peter the Great

In his reforms, Peter I could not adhere to a predetermined plan and exact sequence, because all his transformations took place under the pressure of the military needs of the moment. And each of them gave rise to discontent, covert and open resistance, conspiracies and struggle, characterized by extreme bitterness on both sides.

The war with the Swedes took on a protracted character, was difficult, unprofitable and dangerous. Peter was fully involved in military affairs. He either fought in the forefront of his army, then rushed to Arkhangelsk and Voronezh in order to organize the defense of the country's northern and southern borders from possible enemy attacks. Under such conditions, the ruler could not think of systematic reforms. His main concern was to get enough men to successfully continue the war. The war demanded regular troops: he was looking for ways to increase and better organize them, and this circumstance pushed him to reform military affairs and reorganize the nobility and, in particular, the noble service.

The war required money - and in the process of finding them, Peter became more and more aware of the need for a tax reform and changes in the situation of the peoples of the country and the peasantry as a whole. Under the pressure of military needs, Peter hastily made a number of innovations that destroyed the old order, but did not create anything new in government.

2.1 Reform of government and authorities

Of all the transformations of Peter, this reform occupied a central position. The old clerk's apparatus was not able to cope with the existing management tasks. The essence of the reform was reduced to the formation of a noble-bureaucratic centralized apparatus of absolutism.

All the fullness of legislative, executive and judicial power was concentrated in the hands of the king. In 1711, the Boyar Duma was replaced by the highest body of executive and judicial power - the Senate. Members of the Senate were appointed by the king on the basis of merit. In the exercise of executive power, the Senate issued resolutions - decrees that had the force of law. In 1722, the Prosecutor General was placed at the head of the Senate, who was entrusted with control over the activities of all government agencies. He carried out this control through prosecutors appointed in all government offices. To them was added a system of fiscals, headed by the chief fiscal. The duties of the fiscals included reporting on all abuses of institutions and officials and their violation of “public interest”.

In 1717-1718, the outdated system of orders was replaced by colleges. Each collegium was in charge of a particular branch or area of ​​government. Three boards were considered the main ones: foreign, military and admiralty. Issues of trade and industry were in charge of: Commerce, Manufactory and Berg Collegiums. The last of them was in charge of metallurgy and mining. Three boards were in charge of finances: the Chamber Board - income, the State Board - expenses, and the Audit Board controlled the receipt of income, the collection of taxes, taxes, duties, the correctness of spending by the institutions of the amounts allocated to them. The College of Justice was in charge of civil proceedings, the Votchinnaya College, established somewhat later, was in charge of noble land ownership. To them was added the Chief Magistrate. A special place was occupied by the Theological College, or Synod, which governs the church. The boards received the right to issue decrees on those issues that they were in charge of.

In 1708, Peter for the first time introduced the division of the province into Russia. Several former counties were united into a province, and several provinces into a province. At the head of the province was the governor (or governor-general), subordinate to the Senate; at the head of the provinces and counties - governors. When they were elected from the nobility, landrats, later - zemstvo commissars, who helped them in managing the general council and in the counties.

The new management system secured the active participation of the nobility in the implementation of their dictatorship in the field. But at the same time she expanded the volume and forms of service of the nobles, which caused him discontent. Thus, after the reform, the state was ruled at the top by officials, and at the bottom by elected authorities, as before Peter. In general, the matter of management has become much more complicated, and not all parts have been sufficiently worked out.

2.2 Military reform

Military reform was badly needed. Peter gradually abolished the old type of troops. He destroyed the streltsy regiments immediately after the streltsy search in 1698. He gradually abolished the noble cavalry militias, recruiting the nobles to serve in the regular regiments.

Peter increased the number of regular regiments, gradually making them the main type of field troops. For the acquisition of these regiments, universal military service was introduced, universal for the nobles, recruiting for other classes. Only the families of the clergy were released from service. Also, Peter attached the Cossack troops to his army as a permanent component.

The results of Peter's military transformations were striking: at the end of his reign, he had an army in which there were about 200 thousand regular troops (field and garrison) and at least 75 thousand regular Cossacks; in addition, 28 thousand people served in the fleet, there were 48 large ships and up to 800 small ships.

2.3 Convertformations in the device of estates

1. Service class. The fight against the Swedes required the establishment of a regular army, and Peter gradually transferred all the nobles and service people to the regular service. The service for all service people became the same, they served without exception, indefinitely and began their service from the lower ranks.

All the former ranks of service people were united together, into one estate - the gentry. All the lower ranks could equally rise to the higher ranks. The order of such length of service was precisely determined by the “Table of Ranks” (1722). In this table, all ranks were divided into 14 ranks or according to their seniority. Anyone who reached the lowest rank 14 could hope to take the highest position and the highest rank. The “Table of Ranks” replaced the principle of generosity with the principle of length of service and serviceability. But Peter made one concession to people from the upper old nobility. He allowed noble youth to enter predominantly in his favorite guards regiments Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky.

Peter demanded that the nobles must learn to read and write and mathematics, and those who were not trained were deprived of the right to marry and receive an officer's rank. Peter limited the landowning rights of the nobles. He stopped giving them estates from the treasury when they entered the service, but provided them with a monetary salary. Noble patrimonies and estates were forbidden to be divided when transferred to sons (the law “On Majorate”, 1714).

Peter's measures regarding the nobility aggravated the position of this estate, but did not change its attitude towards the state. The nobility both before and now had to pay for the right to land ownership by service. But now the service has become harder, and land ownership more constrained. The nobility was indignant and demanded to ease their hardships. Peter severely punished attempts to evade service.

2. Urban estate (townspeople and city people). Before Peter I, the urban estate was a very small and poor class. Peter wanted to create an economically strong and active urban class in Russia, similar to what he saw in Western Europe.

Peter expanded the city self-government. In 1720, the chief magistrate was created, who was supposed to take care of the urban estate. All cities were divided according to the number of inhabitants into classes. Residents of cities were divided into "regular" and "irregular" ("mean") citizens. Regular citizens made up two "guilds": the first included representatives of the capital and the intelligentsia, the second - small merchants and artisans. Craftsmen were divided into "shops" according to crafts. Irregular people or "mean" were called unskilled workers. The city was governed by a magistrate of burgomasters, elected by all regular citizens. In addition, city affairs were discussed at town meetings or councils of regular citizens. Each city was subordinated to the main magistrate, bypassing any other local authorities.

Despite all the transformations, the Russian cities remained in the same miserable situation as they had been before. The reason for this was the structure of Russian life, far from the commercial and industrial system, and difficult wars.

3. Peasantry. In the first quarter of the century, it became clear that the household principle of taxation did not bring the expected increase in the receipt of taxes.

In order to increase their incomes, the landowners settled several peasant families in one yard. As a result, during the census in 1710, it turned out that the number of households had decreased by 20% since 1678 (instead of 791 thousand households in 1678 - 637 thousand in 1710). Therefore, a new principle of taxation was introduced. In 1718 - 1724. a census of the entire taxable male population is carried out, regardless of age and ability to work. All persons included in these lists (“revision tales”) had to pay 74 kopecks of poll tax per year. In the event of the death of the recorded person, the tax continued to be paid until the next revision, the family of the deceased or the community in which he was a member. In addition, all tax-paying estates, with the exception of the landlord peasants, paid the state 40 kopecks of quitrent, which was supposed to balance their duties with those of the landlord peasants.

The transition to per capita taxation increased the figure of direct taxes from 1.8 to 4.6 million, accounting for more than half of the budget receipts (8.5 million). The introduction of the poll tax increased the power of the landlords over the peasants, since the submission of revision tales and the collection of taxes were entrusted to the landowners.

In addition to the poll tax, the peasant paid a huge amount of various taxes and fees designed to replenish the treasury, which was empty as a result of wars, the creation of a cumbersome and expensive apparatus of power and administration, the regular army and navy, the construction of the capital and other expenses. In addition, the state peasants carried duties: road - for the construction and maintenance of roads, pit - for the transportation of mail, government cargo and officials, and so on.

At the end of the reign of Peter the Great, a lot has changed in the life of the estates. The nobles began to serve differently. Citizens received a new device and benefits. The peasantry began to pay differently and, on private lands, merged with the serfs. And the state determined their life by duty, not by right.

2.4 Church reform

An important place in the development of absolutism was occupied by church reform. In 1721, the patriarchate was abolished, and its place was taken by the Theological College, or "Holy Governing Synod." Its head was the chief prosecutor of the Synod appointed by the tsar. The liquidation of the patriarchate, the establishment of the Synod meant the liquidation of the independent political role of the Church. It became an integral part of the state apparatus.

In parallel with this, the state increased control over the income of the church from the monastery peasants, systematically withdrew a significant part of them for the construction of the fleet, the maintenance of the army, the disabled, schools and other expenses. It was forbidden to create new and limited the number of monks in existing monasteries. These actions of Peter aroused the discontent of the church hierarchy and the black clergy, and was one of the main reasons for their participation in all kinds of reactionary conspiracies.

2.5 Financial changes

Peter I not only changed the direct tax, making it a poll tax, but also significantly increased indirect taxes, invented new sources of income.

During the 8 years of the war, he recruited about 200 thousand soldiers, bringing the size of the army from 40 to 100 thousand. The cost of this army in 1709 is almost twice as expensive as in 1701 - 1,810,000 rubles. instead of 982.000. During the first 6 years of the war, more than 1.5 million rubles were paid. to the Polish king in the form of subsidies. The costs of the fleet, artillery, and the maintenance of diplomats caused by the war amounted to 2.3 million in 1701, 2.7 million in 1706 and 3.2 million in 1710. Already the first of these figures is too large compared to the funds that Peter received in the form taxes from the population (about 1.5 million). We had to look for additional sources of income.

At first, Peter took for his own purposes from state institutions not only their free funds, but also those amounts that were previously spent on other purposes: this upset the correct course of the state machine. The army was supported from the main income of the state - customs and tavern duties. For the maintenance of the cavalry, it was necessary to assign a new tax "dragoon money", for the fleet - "ship" and so on. However, these direct taxes were rather insufficient, especially since they were collected very slowly. Therefore, other sources of taxes were invented.

The earliest invention of this kind, introduced on the advice of Kurbatov - stamped paper, did not give the profits expected from it. The more important was the damage to the coin. A new measure to increase incomes was the "returning" in 1704 of old quitrent items and the return of new quitrents. By 1708, the total amount of government revenues under this item had risen from 300,000 to 670,000 rubles. annually. Further, the treasury took over the sale of salt, which brought it up to 300 thousand rubles. annual income, tobacco (this enterprise was unsuccessful) and other products that gave up to 100 thousand rubles. annually. As a result, at the end of Peter's reign, state revenues increased to more than 10 million.

Of course, this growth did not come easily to the people. Peter wanted to come to the aid of his subjects, improve their working conditions, and raise their well-being. He encouraged trade in every possible way. Knowing the poverty of Russian townspeople, he advised them to unite in companies and attracted nobles to trade. In addition, Peter encouraged the development of industry, he started factories, put them into operation, and then gave them to private hands. Under him, the mineral wealth of the Urals was first estimated, and coal was found in the South.

Peter I was looking for means of national enrichment and wished to raise labor productivity. To do this, he applied a policy of protectionism, patronizing every step of trade and production.

2.6 Reform of culture and life

The first secular school was opened in 1701 in Moscow's Sukharev Tower "School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences", which served as the basis for the Naval Academy in St. Petersburg. In the wake of it, medical, engineering, shipbuilding, mining, navigation, craft schools are being created. The emergence of a secular school required the creation of new textbooks. Of great importance was the creation in 1703 of "Arithmetic, that is, the science of numerals" by L. Magnitsky, which was a textbook on all sections of mathematics. Initially, when the need for specialists was especially great, the government allowed children of taxable estates into schools, but already at the end of the 17th century, schools acquired the character of estate noble educational institutions. Next to them grows a system of theological seminaries.

For the printing of secular educational, scientific, political literature and legislative acts, new printing houses were created in Moscow and St. Petersburg. The development of printing was accompanied by the beginning of an organized book trade, the creation in 1714 of the state library, which formed the basis of the library of the Academy of Sciences, and the appearance of large libraries in many aristocrats. Since 1703, the first Russian newspaper Vedomosti was systematically published, publishing information about the international, domestic and cultural life of that time, the course of hostilities.

The Kunstkamera, created by Peter I, laid the foundation for collecting collections of historical and memorial items and rarities, weapons, natural science collections, and so on. This was the beginning of the museum business in Russia.

The logical outcome of all the activities in the field of the development of science and education was the preparation for the opening of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. Since there was no general education school system in the country, an academic university and a gymnasium were its integral part. The opening of the academy, most of whose members were foreign scientists invited to Russia, took place at the very end of 1725.

From the first quarter of the 18th century, a transition to urban planning and regular city planning was carried out. The appearance of the city is no longer determined by religious architecture, but by palaces and mansions, houses of government agencies and aristocracy in painting, icon painting is replaced by a portrait. By the same time, there were attempts to create a Russian tetra. Festive holidays with illuminations, the performance of cantatas, the construction of triumphal arches have become more firmly established in life.

The old habitual long-sleeved clothes with long sleeves were banned and replaced with new ones. Camisoles, ties and frills, wide-brimmed hats, stockings, shoes, wigs quickly replaced old Russian clothes in the cities. The ban on wearing beards caused great resistance and discontent.

The establishment of ensembles marked the beginning of the establishment among the Russian nobility of "rules of good manners" and "noble behavior in society", and conversation in a foreign, mainly French language.

Changes in everyday life and culture were of great progressive significance. But they even more emphasized the separation of the nobility into a privileged noble class, turned the use of the benefits and achievements of culture into one of the noble estate privileges and were accompanied by the widespread gallomania and contempt for the Russian language and Russian culture among the nobility.

Conclusion

Opinions about the reign and reforms of Peter diverged greatly already during his lifetime. A small group of Peter's closest associates were of the opinion that they were very successful. The masses of the people, on the contrary, were ready to agree with the schismatics' assertion that Peter was the Antichrist. Both those and others proceeded from the general idea that Peter made a radical revolution and created a new Russia, not like the old one.

A new army, navy, relations with Europe, finally, a European appearance, European technology - all these were facts that caught the eye: they were recognized by everyone, differing only in a fundamental way in their assessment. What some considered useful, others considered harmful to Russian interests; what some considered a great service to the fatherland, others saw in it a betrayal of other traditions. Both views could bring factual evidence in their favor, since both elements were mixed in Peter's reforms - both necessity and chance.

The scale of the changes that took place during the reign of Peter is enormous. The territory of the country has grown significantly, which, after many centuries of struggle, gained access to the sea and eliminated the state of political and economic isolation, entered the international arena, took a prominent place in the system of international relations and turned into a great European power. At that time, a manufacturing industry arose in Russia, in which powerful metallurgy acquired special significance. The nature and extent of domestic and foreign trade and the volume of economic ties with other countries have changed radically. A powerful regular army and navy were created, a huge step was taken in the development of culture and education. A strong blow was dealt to the spiritual dictatorship of the church in culture, education and other areas of the country's life. The old routine patriarchal way of life was being broken.

All these changes took place in the conditions of the entry of feudal-serf relations into the stage of decomposition and the emergence in their depths of new bourgeois relations. Aimed at eliminating the technical, economic and cultural backwardness of the country, at accelerating and developing, they were of great progressive significance.

Their implementation was to a large extent connected with the activities and personality of Peter the Great, perhaps the most important statesman of pre-revolutionary Russia, with his exceptional determination, energy and courage with which he broke routine orders and overcame countless difficulties. An outstanding politician, military figure and diplomat, he was able to correctly assess the situation, highlight the main thing, draw the right conclusions from mistakes and failures.

Possessing a wide knowledge, showing great interest in literature, history, law, art, crafts and natural sciences, he perfectly knew military affairs, shipbuilding, navigation and artillery. He knew how to select active and energetic admirers in each of the branches and spheres of state activity.

But all the changes and reforms were carried out on a feudal basis, by feudal methods, and were aimed at preserving and strengthening the feudal-absolutist system, the estate structure of society, estate rights and privileges of the ruling class. They were accompanied by the spread of feudal relations to new territories and new categories of the population, to new spheres of economic life. This hindered the formation of capitalist relations in the country, the economic and cultural development of the people and did not allow to eliminate the technical, economic and cultural backwardness of the nation. The negative side of changes and transformations was organically connected with the activities of Peter I himself, who was characterized by extreme cruelty, arbitrariness, substantiation and implementation of the principles of unlimited autocratic arbitrariness.

I think that Pushkin's lines could become the motto of that time: "My friend, let us dedicate our souls to the homeland with wonderful impulses!" Peter the Great spared neither strength nor health for the sake of the prosperity of Russia, he tried to make his associates and the entire Russian people follow his example.

Bibliography

1. History of the USSR from ancient times to the end of the XVIII century. Ed. B.A. Rybakova. M., Publishing House "Higher School", 1975.

2. Klyuchevsky V.O. "Historical portraits", M., Pravda Publishing House, 1991.

3. Pavlenko N.I. "Peter I and his time", M., Publishing house "Enlightenment", 1989.

4. Platonov S.F. Textbook of Russian history for secondary school. Systematic course”, M., Publishing House “Link”, 1994.

5. Solovyov S.M. "Readings and stories on the history of Russia", M., Pravda Publishing House, 1989.

6. Syrov S.N. "Pages of history", M., Publishing house "Russian language", 1983.

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Russia at the end of the 17th century, by the very course of historical development, was faced with the need for fundamental reforms, since only in this way could it secure a worthy place among the states of the West and East. Its backwardness was a serious danger to the independence of the Russian people. Industry in its structure was serf-owning, and in terms of output it was significantly inferior to the industry of Western European countries. The Russian army for the most part consisted of a backward noble militia and archers, poorly armed and trained. The complex and clumsy ordering state apparatus, headed by the boyar aristocracy, did not meet the needs of the country. Enlightenment hardly penetrated the masses of the people, and even in the ruling circles there were many uneducated and completely illiterate people.

The renewal of Russia, carried out by Peter, was his personal affair, an unprecedentedly violent affair, but at the same time necessary. The reforms affected literally all aspects of the life of the Russian state and the Russian people.

There are different views on the consequences of the reforms of Peter the Great.

In a letter to the French ambassador in Russia, Louis XIV spoke of Peter as follows: “This sovereign reveals his aspirations by his concerns about preparing for military affairs and about the discipline of his troops, about training and enlightening his people, about attracting foreign officers and all kinds of capable people. This course of action and the increase in power, which is the greatest in Europe, make him formidable to his neighbors and arouse very thorough envy."

Voltaire also wrote repeatedly about Peter. Voltaire defines the main value of Peter's reforms as the progress that the Russians have achieved in 50 years, other nations cannot achieve this even in 500.

Westerners also positively assessed the reforms of Peter the Great, thanks to which Russia became a great power and joined the European civilization.

Well-known public figure P.N. Milyukov, in his works, develops the idea that the reforms were carried out by Peter spontaneously, from time to time, under the pressure of specific circumstances, without any logic and plan, they were "reforms without a reformer." He also mentions that only "at the cost of ruining the country, Russia was elevated to the rank of a European power." According to Milyukov, during the reign of Peter the Great, the population of Russia within the boundaries of 1695 decreased due to incessant wars.

All state activity of Peter I can be conditionally divided into two periods: 1696-1715 and 1715-1725.

The peculiarity of the first stage was the haste and not always thoughtful nature, which was explained by the conduct of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for warfare, were carried out by force and often did not lead to the desired result. In addition to state reforms, extensive reforms were carried out at the first stage in order to modernize the way of life.

In the second period, the reforms were more systematic and aimed at the internal arrangement of the state.

Medieval Moscow Rus turned into the Russian Empire. Huge changes have taken place in its economy, level and forms of development of productive forces, political system, structure and functions of government, administration and courts, in the organization of the army, in the class and class structure of the population, in the culture of the country and the way of life of the people. The place of Russia and its role in the international relations of that time changed radically.

The complexity and inconsistency of Russia's development during this period also determined the inconsistency of Peter's activities and the reforms he carried out. On the one hand, they had great historical significance, since they contributed to the progress of the country and were aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, they were carried out by the feudal lords, using feudal methods, and were aimed at strengthening their dominance. Therefore, the progressive transformations of the time of Peter the Great from the very beginning carried conservative features, which, in the course of the further development of the country, became stronger and could not ensure the elimination of socio-economic backwardness. As a result of Peter's transformations, Russia quickly caught up with those European countries where the dominance of feudal-serf relations was preserved, but it could not catch up with the countries that embarked on the capitalist path of development. The transformative activity of Peter was distinguished by indomitable energy, unprecedented scope and purposefulness, courage in breaking obsolete institutions, laws, foundations and way of life and way of life. Perfectly understanding the great importance of the development of trade and industry, Peter carried out a number of measures that satisfied the interests of the merchants. But he also strengthened and consolidated the serfdom, substantiated the regime of autocratic despotism.

In general, Peter's reforms were aimed at strengthening the Russian state and familiarizing the ruling stratum with Western European culture while strengthening the absolute monarchy. By the end of the reign of Peter the Great, a powerful Russian empire was created, headed by the emperor, who had absolute power. In the course of the reforms, the technical and economic backwardness of Russia from a number of other European states was overcome, access to the Baltic Sea was won, and transformations were carried out in all spheres of life in Russian society. At the same time, the people's forces were extremely exhausted, the bureaucratic apparatus grew, the prerequisites (Decree of Succession) were created for the crisis of the supreme power, which led to the era of "palace coups".

3

Active transformative activity of Peter I began immediately after returning from abroad.

What were the goals of Peter's reforms? I?

Radical Petrine transformations, according to A.B. Kamensky, were "a response to a comprehensive internal crisis, the crisis of traditionalism that befell the Russian state in the second half of XVII in.". The reforms were supposed to ensure the progress of the country, eliminate the gap between it and Western Europe, preserve and strengthen its independence, and put an end to the "old Moscow traditional way of life."

The reforms covered many spheres of life. Their sequence was determined, first of all, needs Northern wars, which lasted more than twenty years (1700-1721). In particular, the war forced to urgently create a new efficient army and navy. Therefore, the main reform was the military.

Before Peter I the basis of the Russian army was the noble militia. At the call of the tsar, the servants appeared "on horseback, in crowds and in arms." Such an army was poorly trained, poorly organized. Attempts to create a regular army (Streltsy regiments of Ivan IV , regiments of the “foreign system” of Alexei Mikhailovich) did not have much success due to the lack of money in the treasury for their maintenance. In 1705 Peter I introduced recruiting sets from taxable estates (peasants, townspeople). Recruits were recruited one at a time from twenty households. Soldier service was lifelong (in 1793 Catherine II limited it to 25 years). Before 1725 83 recruiting was carried out. They gave the army and navy 284 thousand people.

Recruitment kits solved the problem of the rank and file. To solve the problem of the officer corps, a reform of the estates was carried out. Boyars and nobles united into a single service estate(initially it was called the nobility, but later the name nobility). Each representative of the service class was obliged to serve from the age of 15 (the only privilege was that the nobles served in the guards regiments - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky). Only after passing the exam could a nobleman be promoted to officer. Nobles stopped receiving estates for service. Now they were paid a salary. Refusal to serve led to the confiscation of the estate. In 1714 was published" Decree about uniform inheritance”, according to which the estate was inherited only by one of the sons, and the rest had to earn a livelihood. For the training of officers, schools were opened - navigation, artillery, engineering.

In 1722 by decree of the king, the so-called. " report card about ranks". 14 military and equivalent civilian ranks were introduced. Each officer or official, having started his service from the lower ranks, depending on his zeal and intellect, could move up the career ladder up to the very top. The way was not closed to representatives of the taxable estates. A soldier could receive an officer's rank for bravery and automatically acquired personal nobility. Having risen to the eighth rank, he became a hereditary nobleman - the nobility began to be given to his children. Now the position in society was determined not only by his origin, but also place in official hierarchy. The main principle was - "He is not a nobleman who does not serve."

Thus, a rather complex military-bureaucratic hierarchy was formed with the king at the head. All estates were in the public service, bearing duties in favor of the state.

As a result of the reforms of Peter I were created regular army, numbering 212 thousand people and powerful fleet(48 battleships and 800 galleys with 24 thousand sailors).

Maintenance of the army and navy absorbed 2/3 of the state income. I had to find more and more new sources of income for the treasury. Taxes were the most important means of replenishing the treasury. Under Peter I indirect taxes were introduced (on oak coffins, for wearing Russian dresses, on beards, etc.). In order to increase the collection of taxes, a tax reform was carried out. Before Petra I the unit of taxation was the peasant yard(farm). Peasants, in order to pay less taxes, huddled several families into one yard - grandfathers, fathers, brothers, grandchildren, great-grandchildren lived together. Peter replaced the household tax poll. The unit of taxation is soul male gender, from infants to the elderly.

In 1710 was held census all hard-working people, both state and landowners. All of them were taxed. Was introduced passport system No one could leave their place of residence without a passport. Thus, the final enslavement Total population and not just landlord peasants. In European countries, there was nothing like a passport system*. With the introduction of the poll tax, per capita taxes increased three times on average.

Constant wars (out of 36 years of his reign, Peter I fought for 28 years), radical reforms dramatically increased the burden on central and local authorities. The old state machine was unable to cope with the new tasks and began to falter.

Peter I spent reorganization of the entire system of power and administration. In pre-Petrine Russia, laws were adopted by the tsar together with the Boyar Duma. After the approval of the tsar, the decisions of the Duma took the force of law. Peter stopped convening the Boyar Duma, and decided all the most important matters in the Middle Office, which was called from 1708. "Consilium of Ministers", i.e. with a narrow circle of confidants. Thereby, legislative branch power was liquidated. Laws were formalized by decrees of the king.

In 1711 was created ruling Senate. Unlike the Boyar Duma, the Senate did not pass laws. His functions were purely control. The Senate was given the task of supervising the bodies of local government, checking the compliance of the actions of the administration with the laws issued by the tsar. The members of the Senate were appointed by the king. Since 1722 position was introduced general-prosecutor, who was appointed by the king to control the work of the Senate ("the sovereign's eye"). In addition, the institute fiscals”, obliged to secretly check and report on the abuses of officials.

In 1718-1720. Was held collegiate reform, which replaced the system of orders with new central bodies of sectoral management - colleges. The collegiums were not subordinate to each other and extended their action to the territory of the whole country. The internal structure of the collegium was based on a collegial, clear regulation of the duties of officials, the stability of full-time employees. In total, 11 collegiums were created (instead of 50 orders): Military, Admiralty, Chamber Collegium, Revision Collegium, Justice Collegium, Kammerz Collegium, State Offices Collegium, Berg, Manufactory Collegium, Collegium of Foreign Affairs. The most important “state” colleges were those in charge of foreign and military affairs. Another group of colleges dealt with finance; revenues of the Chambers - board; expenses - State - offices - collegium; control over the collection and spending of funds - the Audit Board. Trade and industry were led, respectively, by the Commerce Collegium and Berg, the Manufactory Collegium, which was divided into two departments in 1722. In 1721 The patrimonial board was created, which was engaged in land ownership of the nobility and was located in Moscow. Another class college was created in 1720, the Chief Magistrate, who controlled the urban class - artisans and merchants.

The system of local government was reorganized. In 1707 issued a decree of the king, according to which the whole country was divided into provinces. Initially there were six of them - Moscow, Kyiv, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk. Then there were ten of them - the Ingrian (Petersburg)*and Siberian, and Kazan - is divided into Nizhny Novgorod and Astrakhan. At the head of the provinces were appointed by the king governors. The governors had broad powers, exercised administrative, judicial power, and controlled the collection of taxes. The provinces were divided into provinces with governors at the head, and the provinces were divided into counties, counties into districts, abolished later.

The reforms of central and local government were supplemented by church reform. Before Petra I Russian Orthodox Church headed patriarch elected by the higher clergy. Although the Orthodox Church recognized the primacy of the state over the church, nevertheless, the power of the patriarch was still quite great. The patriarch, like the tsar, bore the title of "great sovereign", enjoyed great independence. Reforms of Peter I , his desire to borrow Western customs, clothes, appearance, the dominance of foreigners in the royal court - all this caused discontent of the church. To limit its influence, Peter in 1721. abolished patriarchate. Instead, a collegium for church affairs was created - Holy Synod. The members of the Synod were appointed by the tsar from among the higher clergy, at the head of the Synod was appointed by the sovereign ober-prosecutor. Secret control over the activities of the Synod was exercised by the Chief Fiscal for Spiritual Affairs. Thus, the church was finally subordinate state, became part of the state apparatus, to the point that priests were required to immediately report all anti-government plans that became known during confession. This role of the church continued until 1917.

Thus, Peter I created a harmonious, centralized system of power and administration: autocrat - Senate - boards - provinces - provinces - counties. It was supplemented by the same harmonious system of control (Preobrazhensky order, fiscality), punitive bodies (Secret Chancellery, police) 22 September 1721 (on the day of the solemn celebration of the Peace of Nishtad, which marked the end of the long and difficult Northern War for Russia), the Senate awarded Peter I titles " Emperor», « Father Fatherland" and " Great". This act completed the process of transforming the estate-representative monarchy into an absolute one. Unlimited power of Peter I received legal consolidation, and Russia turned into empire.

Economic policy of Peter I was also aimed at strengthening the military power of the country. Along with taxes, the most important source of funds for the maintenance of the army and navy was domestic and foreign trade. In foreign trade, Peter I consistently pursued a policy of mercantilism. Its essence: the export of goods must always exceed their import. Such a policy ensured a positive trade balance, which led to the accumulation of money in the treasury.

To implement the policy of mercantilism, state control over trade was necessary. It was carried out by the Kammerz Collegium. The means of implementing the policy of mercantilism were high duties on imported goods, reaching 60%. For trade in a number of goods that brought the greatest profit (salt, tobacco, flax, leather, caviar, bread, etc.), state monopoly Only the state could sell and buy them.

Merchants were forced to unite in trading companies, indicated which ports to transport goods, at what prices to sell them, forcibly relocated from one city to another. Such a policy solved the problems of protectionism - the protection of domestic producers from the competition of foreign goods. At the initial stages of modernization, the policy of protectionism was fully justified. However, its long-term preservation could lead to the fact that, in the absence of competition, manufacturers would no longer care about the quality of goods and reduce their cost.

An important component of Peter's reforms was the rapid development of industry. This was due to the fact that it was impossible to supply the army and navy with everything necessary without a powerful industrial base. Under Peter I industry, especially those industries that worked for defense, made a breakthrough in its development. New factories were built, the metallurgical and mining industries developed. The Urals became a major industrial center. By 1712 the army and navy were fully provided with weapons of their own production. By the end of Peter's reign I in Russia there were over 200 manufactories, ten times more than before him.

Iron smelting increased from 150,000 poods in 1700. up to 800 thousand pounds in 1725 Russian pig iron from the Ural factories was exported even to England.

A typical feature of the economy of the time of Peter the Great was gain roles states in industrial leadership. Manufactory production could not develop in a natural way, since economic conditions were not ripe for this - the process of primitive accumulation was at the very beginning. Therefore, most manufactories were built with public money and belonged to the state. Almost all manufactories worked on state orders. Often the state itself built new factories, and then transferred them to private hands. But if the plant owner did not cope with the business - he gave expensive and low-quality products - the plant could be taken away and transferred to another owner. Such enterprises were called "possession" (ownership). It is no coincidence that Russian breeders were called "factory owners". The Russian factory owners of the time of Peter the Great were not capitalist entrepreneurs in the Western sense. They were rather landowners, only the plant played the role of the estate.

This similarity was especially vividly demonstrated by the way in which the question of working strength. As a result of the tax reform, serfdom became universal, the entire taxable population was attached to the land, and there were no free laborers. Therefore, Russian industry was based on use serf labor. Entire villages of state peasants were assigned to factories. They had to work for 2-3 months a year at the factory for corvée (mining ore, burning coal, etc.). These peasants were called ascribed. In 1721 Peter I issued a decree allowing factory owners to buy peasant property for work at the factory. These workers were called sessional. Consequently, manufactories under Peter I , well technically equipped, were not capitalist enterprises, but feudal-serf enterprises.

Particularly impressive were the transformations of Peter I in area education, science and technology, culture and life.

The restructuring of the entire education system was due to the need to train a large number of qualified specialists, who were in dire need of the country. The introduction of secular education in Russia took place almost 600 years after Western Europe. In 1699 Pushkar school was founded in Moscow, and in 1701. in the building of the Sukharev Tower, a “school of mathematical and navigational sciences” was opened, which became the predecessor of the school founded in 1715. Petersburg Maritime Academy. During the time of Peter the Great, the Medical School was opened (1707), as well as engineering, shipbuilding, navigational, mining and craft schools. In the province, elementary education was carried out in 42 digital schools, where local officials were trained, and garrison schools, where soldiers' children were taught. In 1703-1715. in Moscow there was a special general education school - the "gymnasium" of pastor E. Gluck, in which they taught mainly foreign languages. In 1724 A mining school was opened in Yekaterinburg. She trained specialists for the mining industry of the Urals.

Secular education demanded new textbooks. In 1703 “Arithmetic, that is, the science of numerals ...” was published by L.F. Magnitsky, who introduced Arabic numerals instead of alphabetic ones. Magnitsky and English mathematician A. Farvarson released "Tables of logarithms and sines". The Primer, Slavic Grammar and other books appeared. F.P. Polikarpov, G.G. Skornyakov-Pisarev, F. Prokopovich.

The development of science and technology in the time of Peter the Great was based primarily on the practical needs of the state. Great successes were achieved in geodesy, hydrography and cartography, in the study of the bowels and the search for minerals, in inventive business. M. Serdyukov was known for his achievements in the construction of hydraulic structures; Ya. Batishchev invented a machine for turning gun barrels with water; E. Nikonov presented a project for the creation of "hidden ships" (submarines); A. Nartov, the inventor of lathes and screw-cutting machines, the creator of an optical sight, was a famous mechanic of the time of Peter the Great.

Initiated by Peter I began collecting scientific collections. In 1718 a decree was issued ordering the population to present “both human and bestial, animal and bird freaks”, as well as “old inscriptions on stones, iron or copper, or some old unusual gun, dishes and everything else that is very old and unusual”. In 1719 The Kunstkamera, a collection of “rarities”, was opened for public viewing, which served as the basis for the collection of future museums: the Hermitage, the Artillery Museum, the Naval Museum, and others. In Petersburg academies Sciences. It was opened after the death of Peter I in 1725

During the reign of Peter I the Western European chronology was introduced (from the Nativity of Christ, and not from the creation of the world, as before)*. Printing houses, a newspaper appeared (from December 1702, the first periodical in Russia began to appear - the newspaper Vedomosti, with a circulation of 100 to 2500 copies). Libraries, a theater in Moscow, and much more were established.

A characteristic feature of Russian culture under Peter I its state character. Culture, art, education, science, Peter assessed from the standpoint of the benefits brought to the state. Therefore, the state financed and encouraged the development of those areas of culture that were considered most necessary. The work of a writer, actor, artist, teacher, scientist was turned into a kind of public service, provided with a salary. Culture provided certain social functions.

The second characteristic feature of Russian culture, which developed in the time of Peter I became civilizational split Russian society. Western customs, clothing, lifestyle, even language were actively borrowed. But all this was the lot of the service class - the nobility. The lower classes (peasantry, merchants) preserved the traditional culture. The upper and lower classes differed even externally. In essence, two cultures existed independently of each other in Russian culture: Western - noble, and traditional, soil - peasant, opposing each other.


* Passports were abolished in Russia in 1917. and reintroduced in 1932.

* In 1713, Peter I moved the capital of Russia from Moscow to St. Petersburg.

* Peter I, in order not to enter into unnecessary contention with the Orthodox Church, introduced the Julian calendar, although Europe lived according to the Gregorian. Hence the difference of 13 days, which lasted until 1918. The Russian Orthodox Church still lives according to the Julian calendar.

Since 1892 By 1898 Historians call "University of Peter". During this period of time, his sister Sophia was regent for two heirs, Ivan and Peter. During this period, he lives with his mother in the village of Preobrazhensky, and on the other side of the German settlement Kukuy, where immigrants from Western Europe lived, who were invited under Ivan III. Peter, coming on boats to them, there he absorbed the foundations of Western Europe, their culture. And comparing our Russian identity, he comes to the conclusion that Russia needs to be deployed to Western Europe. After the "great embassy" (a trip to Western Europe). 1697 He begins to carry out reforms to change the life of the Russian nobility (drink coffee, shave beards, introduced dresses according to the Hungarian model).

Purpose: To turn the development of Russia along the Western path. But not in order to stand next to them, but in order to make Russia a big prosperous power.

Results: Russia got access to the Baltic Sea, and became a maritime power with a strong fleet, a strong army, a developed economy of the country, turned from a exporter into an exporter. Rise of the international prestige of Russia.

The policy of enlightened absolutism in Russia. Catherine II.

1762-1796 The reign of Catherine II is called the "Golden Age of the Nobility" and the era of enlightenment of absolutism. Spread of culture, education in Russia.

Enlightened absolutism is the union of philosophers and monarchs. At this time, the theory became widespread according to which the feudal foundations of society can be overcome not by revolutionary, but by evolutionary ones, by the monarchs themselves and their nobles with the help of wise advisers of philosophers and other enlightened people. The kings, who should be enlightened people, students of the ideologists of enlightenment, were: Frederick II (King of Prussia) and Catherine II. During this period there was a "Golden Age of the nobility", according to the charter of the nobility of 1762. The nobles were allowed not to serve, and this made it possible for them to engage in education, send their children to study abroad. At this stage, the nobility was a highly enlightened elite society.

Measures to liberalize the peasant question and attempts at political modernization in the first half of the 19th century. Alexander I, Nicholas I.

Liberalization of the peasant question - the reform of serfdom. Alexander I, grandson of Catherine II, his reign can be divided into two parts:

1. The days of Alexander are a great start;

2.Reigning;

In 1802, a decree was issued "On free cultivators", which permitted the release of their peasants with land. In 1808-1809 it was forbidden to sell peasants, print newspapers about sales, and send them into exile at the will of the landowner. But the results were insignificant.

Nicholas I carried out many reforms. Reform "On State Peasants" (1837-1842). Partial self-government was given to this category, schools, hospitals were opened, peasants were educated on agricultural technology, saturated with agricultural culture. Under Nicholas I, every community grew potatoes. 1842 Decree on "obliged peasants". The landlords could give the peasants personal freedom, and for the use of land, the peasants must perform certain duties.

Political modernization of Alexander I:

1. In the first half of his reign, his secretary Speransky developed a draft constitution. On the basis of which, it is created: the State Duma, the local Duma, as an elected representative body of power. 1810 A state body was approved, which consisted of: state dignitaries, who were supposed to take a legislative initiative before the king. This is the only organ that existed until the revolution of 1917.

Nicholas I (1825-1855). He considered it his task to strengthen the power of the nobles, relying on the army and the bureaucracy (officials), to protect and spy on unreliable people, the II Department of His Own Imperial Majesty Chancellery was created. For the work of this office, the Jardamv corps was created, which was engaged in political investigation.

2.1833 The Code of Laws of the Russian Empire was issued.

3. Financial reform.

4.Industrial revolution (growth of urban population), railway construction.

5. Real education is being introduced (institutions).

Lesson objectives: 1. Repeat, summarize the studied material on the topic "The era of Peter I." Give an assessment of the activities of Peter I. 2. Show the skills and abilities of using ICT in preparation for the lesson, as well as the skills and abilities of conducting active search and research activities, working with sources and literature. 3. Show your creativity, interest in history; development of speech culture of public speaking, development of skills to defend one's convictions, respect the opinions of others, answer questions, and lead a discussion.


Problem questions: What is the role of Peter I in the history of Russia? Can we say that his role in the history of Russia was controversial? What is the role of Peter I in the history of Russia? Can we say that his role in the history of Russia was controversial? Why didn't the name of Peter I win the "Name of Russia" competition? Why didn't the name of Peter I win the "Name of Russia" competition?


Lesson content Repetition, generalization, control of the studied material Repetition, generalization, control of the studied material Protection of creative work (Sagngalieva A.) Protection of creative work (Sagngalieva A.) Solving problematic issues Solving problematic issues


For almost three hundred years now, the figure of Peter I, his transformations have caused controversy among scientists. From the very beginning, two opposite approaches were outlined in the dispute: apologetic (admiration) and critical, which at times converged, but then diverged again. Apparently, a compromise assessment of the activities of Peter I is more realistic.


Childhood. Youth. The beginning of the reign On April 27, 1682, the ten-year-old prince Peter was proclaimed king, but soon he was approved by the 3rd Yemsky Cathedral as the "second king", and John as the "first". Their elder sister, Princess Sophia, became their ruler. Until 1689, Peter and his mother, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina, lived in the village of Preobrazhenskoye near Moscow, coming to Moscow only for official ceremonies. In 1689, Sophia was removed from power and imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent. Until 1694, his mother, Natalya Kirillovna, ruled on behalf of Peter I. In 1696, after the death of John V, Peter became the sovereign king.


Personality of Peter I Characteristic features of Peter were mind, will, energy, breadth of views, purposefulness, curiosity, and incredible capacity for work. Peter, having not received a systematic education in his youth, studied all his life. At the same time, Peter was quick-tempered and cruel, personally involved in torture and executions. The king did not take into account the interests and life of an individual.


The Great Embassy In 1697, the tsar sent a "Great Embassy" to Europe and joined it himself under the name of Peter Mikhailov. In Prussia, the tsar studied artillery and received a certificate of a firearms master. Peter went to England and Holland to study shipbuilding. During his stay in Europe, Peter visited factories, libraries, listened to lectures at universities. In 1698 the tsar hastily returned to Russia.


The First Transformations In 1699 the calendar was reformed. A printing house was set up in Amsterdam to publish secular books in Russian. The first Russian order of St. Apostle Andrew the First-Called was founded. The king ordered to send young men from noble families to study abroad. In 1701, the Navigation School was opened in Moscow.


Transformations in the economy Peter I clearly understood the need to overcome the technical backwardness of Russia and in every possible way contributed to the development of Russian industry and trade, including foreign trade. Many merchants and industrialists enjoyed his patronage, among whom the Demidovs are most famous. Many new plants and factories were built, new branches of industry arose.


Lessons of the Northern War The war began with the defeat of the Russian army near Narva in 1700. However, this lesson went well for Peter: he realized that the reason for the defeat was primarily the backwardness of the Russian army. The construction of metallurgical and weapons factories began, supplying the army with high-quality cannons and small arms. Soon, Peter I managed to win the first victories over the enemy, capture and devastate a significant part of the Baltic. In 1703, at the mouth of the Neva, Peter founded St. Petersburg, the new capital of Russia.


Management Reform In 1711, setting off for the Prut campaign, Peter founded the Senate. Senate. In 1714, the Decree on Single Succession was issued. In 1714, the Decree on Single Succession was issued. From 1717, the creation of central collegiums began. From 1717, the creation of collegiums of central bodies of branch administration, branch administration bodies began. In 1718, the poll tax was introduced in Russia. In 1718, a poll tax was introduced in Russia. In 1720, the General Regulations were issued. In 1720, the General Regulations were issued. Detailed instructions for organizing the work of new institutions. Detailed instructions for organizing the work of new institutions. institutions. In 1721, Russia was proclaimed an empire, and the Senate. In 1721, Russia was proclaimed an empire, and the Senate awarded Peter the titles "Great" and "The Father honored Peter with the titles" Great "and" Father of the Fatherland. fatherland". In 1722, Peter signed the Table of Ranks, which determined In 1722, Peter signed the Table of Ranks, which determined the organization of military and civil service. organization of military and civil service.


Transformations in the field of culture The time of Peter I was a time of active penetration into Russian life of secular European culture. Secular educational institutions began to appear, the first Russian newspaper was founded. Success in the service of Peter made the nobles dependent on education. By a special decree of the tsar, assemblies were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people for Russia. The interior decoration of houses, the way of life, the composition of food, etc., have changed. Gradually, a different system of values, worldview, and aesthetic ideas took shape in the educated environment.


Personal life of the tsar In January 1689, at the insistence of his mother, Peter I married Evdokia Fedorovna Lopukhina. After 10 years, he imprisoned her in a monastery. Subsequently, he became friends with the captive Latvian Marta Skavronskaya (Catherine I). She bore him several children, of whom only daughters Anna and Elizabeth survived. Peter, apparently, was very attached to his second wife and in 1724 crowned her with the imperial crown, intending to bequeath the throne to her. The relationship between the tsar and his son from his first marriage, Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, did not develop, who died under unclear circumstances in the Peter and Paul Fortress during the years of hard work and bad habits undermined the health of the emperor. On January 28, 1725, as a result of illness, Peter I died without leaving a will. He was buried in the Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg.




Results of Peter's reforms 1) The most important result of Peter's reforms was overcoming the crisis of traditionalism by modernizing the country. 2) Russia became a full-fledged participant in international relations, pursuing an active foreign policy. 3) Significantly increased the authority of Russia in the world, and Peter himself became for many a model of the ruler-reformer. 4) At the same time, violence was the main tool for carrying out reforms. 5) Peter's reforms did not rid the country of the previously established system of social relations embodied in serfdom, but, on the contrary, conserved and strengthened its institutions.










2. The result of the reforming activities of Peter I is considered to be 1) overcoming the economic backwardness of Russia from Western countries 2) turning Russia into a strong European power 3) the rapid growth of the Russian economy 4) the beginning of the democratization of political life Correct answer: 2






5. Among the phenomena that prompted Peter I to carry out reforms in Russia, there was no such thing as 1) Russia's economic lagging behind the advanced countries of the West 2) backwardness in the organization and armament of the Russian army 3) the isolation of Russian cultural life from European 4) the promise of European powers to support reforms in Russia with their capital investments Correct answer: 4


6. The reasons for the uprising under the leadership of K. Bulavin cannot be attributed to 1) attempts by the authorities to limit Cossack self-government 2) mass mobilization of peasants to build a fleet 3) increased repression against fugitive peasants 4) dissatisfaction with the dominance of foreigners in the Russian service Correct answer: 4


7. The increase in agricultural productivity under Peter I was associated primarily with 1) the annexation of more fertile lands 2) the strengthening of state coercion of peasants 3) the replacement of the sickle with a Lithuanian scythe during harvesting 4) the provision of assistance to peasants by the state Correct answer: 2


8. As a result of the state and administrative reforms of Peter I in Russia, 1) the absolute power of the monarch increased 2) the foundations of a constitutional monarchy were laid 3) the emperor began to rule together with the Supreme Privy Council 4) the functions of Zemsky Sobors expanded Correct answer: 1