Historical consciousness and its levels. Historical knowledge and historical consciousness

In modern Russian literature, historical consciousness quite often means “a body of knowledge accumulated by science and spontaneously emerging ideas, all kinds of symbols, customs and other phenomena of the spiritual sphere in which society reproduces, realizes, that is, remembers its past.” With this approach, historical consciousness, firstly, is identified with historical memory. Secondly, historical consciousness is considered only as a supra-individual reality, that is, in this definition the personal aspect is eliminated. Historical memory, reflecting the past, is integral part historical consciousness, in which ideas about society are integrated into the unity of its past, present and future. Historical consciousness along with cultural archetypes, it is the “connector” of times and generations. Historical consciousness can be both mass (group) and individual. Mass historical consciousness is a way of rational reproduction and assessment by society of the movement of society in time. Individual historical consciousness is the result, on the one hand, of familiarization with knowledge about the past, and, on the other, of understanding the past and generating a sense of involvement with it. Therefore, individual historical consciousness also acts as a form of meaningfully transformed past as “co-knowledge” and “event”. Since historical consciousness is comprehension, we can distinguish two types of it: goal-rational and value-rational. The first type of consciousness is dominated by an orientation towards a specific historical result, towards understanding the course of historical events, their causes and consequences. Purposeful rational historical consciousness is not only always concrete, it is also theoretical. Value-rational consciousness, on the contrary, is focused not on a specific result, but directly on the value behind it. Such consciousness is more ethical than theoretical. It is dominated not by questions - why, for what purpose, but - what is the meaning, who is to blame. Since group goals at the individual level act as value-rational, value-rational individual historical consciousness is characterized by a significant degree of conformity in relation to mass historical consciousness. Therefore, the value-rational consciousness is largely subject to influence from the outside; it is more susceptible to transformation and manipulation. A person with such consciousness is able to easily change his views in favor of others, without experiencing any particular inconvenience or doubt. If we proceed from the method of comprehension and the peculiarities of fixing ideas about the movement of society in time, then historical consciousness can take the form of myth, chronicle or science. Distinctive feature mythical consciousness is the syncretism of historical ideas. In them, thinking merges with affectivity. In the mythical consciousness there are simultaneously two layers of historical time - sacred and current. In sacred time, events occur that involve “knowledge-faith.” In such knowledge, for example, there is often a “legend of a golden age” (in the past or future) as the ideal of human existence. A historical myth is an emotionally charged idea of ​​historical reality, a fictional image that replaces this reality in the mind. Historical myths are created by the collective imagination or imposed on the mass historical consciousness from the outside, while forming a certain historical perception of the world, socially conformal in given conditions and designed to form the desired patterns of social behavior. Entering into the structure of cultural archetypes, myths activate historical consciousness during periods of disappointment and collapse of illusions, alarmism and frustration. Modern journalism provides many examples of the activation of mythologized consciousness: having become disillusioned with Soviet history, are looking for moral consolation and inspiration in the historical past of Russia. Unlike the mythical, chronicle consciousness is largely focused on fixation real events of the past. However, in such consciousness there is no idea of ​​cause-and-effect relationships in history. These connections in the chronicle consciousness are replaced by a presentation of historical events in chronological sequence, secured by providentialist ideas and moral maxims. Hence the interpretation of history through the prism of divine providence, the dichotomy of good and evil, God and the devil, virtues and vices, plans and intrigues. Just as the mythical, chronicle consciousness forms, like the mythical, historical reality corresponding to the ideal of its time, the Past was depicted not as it was, but as it should have been. The development of society's need for self-awareness and a deep understanding of the logic of the historical process led to the formation of history as a science of the past, which had a huge impact on strengthening the reflexive principle in historical consciousness. It refers primarily to real facts history, the “earthly” roots of certain events and processes, trying to comprehend cause-and-effect relationships and find out the essence of historical phenomena. An achievement of scientific consciousness was historicism, which requires considering historical phenomena in development, in connection with other historical events, taking into account the specific conditions of a certain stage of social development. Scientific historical consciousness has a specialized character; its source and carrier is the scientific ethnos. Therefore, in the mass historical consciousness, its scientific component is intricately intertwined with artistic fiction and historical myths. In addition, if scientific consciousness is focused on the search for truth, then mass consciousness is primarily occupied with the search for historical “truth” as a result of an emotional and value-based attitude to reality. In the historical consciousness inherent in a particular sociocultural environment, one can also identify its dominant and temporary forms. So, for example, dominant forms include monumental or antiquarian, statist or liberal, imperial or provincial historical consciousness. Temporary forms - critical or apologetic, tolerant or rigorist. Various social groups in society have capital various kinds, including symbolic ones, that is, they have the ability to introduce and cultivate stable principles of perception of historical reality, consistent with their own structures, transforming inner world people, including their historical consciousness. In this case, as a rule, it is not the dominant, but its temporary forms that change, capable of carrying out a complete inversion: becoming, for example, from apologetic to critical, and then in a modified form - again apologetic. Transformation of historical consciousness usually occurs in conditions of crisis social system, when changing political regimes, with a sharp change in the course of social development, when in a situation of “revaluation of social significant values"The rewriting of history begins."

Historical consciousness, its essence, forms and functions.

In the course of studying history, historical consciousness is formed. Historical consciousness is one of the important aspects public consciousness. Historical consciousness in science is understood as the totality of ideas of society as a whole and its social groups individually, about their past and the past of all humanity.

Each national and social community has a certain range of historical ideas about its origin, major events in its history, figures of the past, about the relationship of its history with the history of other peoples and everything human society. Such ideas are expressed primarily in all kinds of historical traditions, tales, legends, fairy tales, which form an integral part of the spiritual life of every people as one of the ways of their self-expression and self-affirmation. Thanks to this, this community of people recognizes itself as a people on the basis of knowledge of its past, on the basis of knowledge of its place in the world historical process. Thus, history is organically woven into public consciousness. All its elements, which together make up the consciousness of society (views, ideas, political and legal consciousness, morality, religion, art, science), have their own history. They can be understood and cognized only on the basis of a historical approach that considers each phenomenon from the point of view of the specific conditions and circumstances of its occurrence, the conditions of development. Thus, an inextricable connection and continuity of the past and present is obtained.

By mastering the experience of their ancestors in the field of work, political and social relations, subsequent generations learn to analyze the past and evaluate the present, and make decisions for self-realization. Through understanding historical experience, an understanding of the present is gained.

Like any other forms of social consciousness, historical consciousness has a complex structure. Four levels can be distinguished.

The first (lowest) level of historical consciousness is formed in the same ways as everyday consciousness, based on the accumulation of immediate life experience when a person observes some events throughout his life, or even takes part in them. The broad masses of the population, as carriers of everyday consciousness at the lowest level of historical consciousness, are not able to bring it into the system, to evaluate it from the point of view of the entire course of the historical process. Most often it appears in vague, emotionally charged memories, often incomplete, inaccurate, and subjective. Thus, an ordinary soldier who participated in the Great Patriotic War could not imagine the full scale of this event and assess it. This can only be done by historians based on a generalization of the entire set of facts and events. However, in the minds of ordinary soldiers, the entire mass ordinary people The main conclusion was: “we won.”

The next stage of historical consciousness can be formed under the influence of fiction, cinema, radio, television, theater, painting, and under the influence of acquaintance with historical monuments. At this level, historical consciousness also has not yet transformed into systematic knowledge. The ideas that form it are still fragmentary, chaotic, and not chronologically ordered. They, as a rule, are distinguished by their brightness, great emotionality, and the impressions of what they saw or heard sometimes last a lifetime. For example, a picture of I.E. makes an impression on a person about Ivan the Terrible. Repin "Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan." And although many essential moments of the historical process remain, so to speak, behind the scenes, the reader (viewer) judges the era precisely by this work of art.

The third stage of historical consciousness is formed on the basis of historical knowledge itself, acquired in history lessons at school, where students first receive ideas about the past in a systematized form. Unfortunately, by the end of school, students have little memory of where they started.

It is possible to expand knowledge of history at an amateur level, but this kind of personal interest does not manifest itself so often, and there are few suitable popular books on Russian history. A deep study of national history contributes to the education of youth in the spirit of citizenship and patriotism.

At the fourth (highest) stage, the formation of historical consciousness occurs on the basis of a comprehensive theoretical understanding of the past, at the level of identifying trends in historical development. Based on the knowledge about the past accumulated by history, generalized historical experience, a scientific worldview is formed, attempts are made to obtain a more or less clear understanding of the nature and driving forces development of human society, its periodization, sense of history, typology, models of social development. At this level of historical consciousness, attempts are made to explain the human past in all its inconsistency and complexity, both at the concrete historical and at the theoretical levels.

Thus, historical knowledge as an element of social consciousness, constituting the spiritual side of the historical process, must be perceived systematically, in all its stages and levels, since without systematic approach the idea of ​​historical consciousness will be incomplete.

The importance of forming historical consciousness, preserving historical memory in modern conditions is very large. First of all, it ensures that a certain community of people understands the fact that they constitute a single people, united by a common historical destiny, traditions, culture, language, and a common psychological traits. At the most diverse stages of their development, tribes, peoples, nations sought to preserve the memory of their past in a variety of forms: from oral traditions and heroic epic, when there was no writing yet, before all kinds of written narratives, works of art, scientific works, monuments visual arts. This contributed to the self-affirmation of this community of people as a people.

The centuries-old history of mankind and the history of the 20th century, among other things, testify that national-historical consciousness is a defensive factor that ensures the self-preservation of the people. If it is destroyed, then this people will be left not only without a past, without its historical roots, but also without a future.

In the course of studying history, historical consciousness is formed. Historical consciousness is one of the important aspects of social consciousness. Historical consciousness in science is understood as the totality of ideas of society as a whole and its social groups separately, about its past and the past of all humanity.

Each national and social community has a certain range of historical ideas about its origin, the most important events in its history, figures of the past, the relationship of its history with the history of other peoples and the entire human society. Such ideas are expressed primarily in all kinds of historical traditions, tales, legends, fairy tales, which form an integral part of the spiritual life of every people as one of the ways of their self-expression and self-affirmation. Thanks to this, this community of people recognizes itself as a people on the basis of knowledge of its past, on the basis of knowledge of its place in the world historical process. Thus, history is organically woven into public consciousness. All its elements, which together make up the consciousness of society (views, ideas, political and legal consciousness, morality, religion, art, science), have their own history. They can be understood and cognized only on the basis of a historical approach that considers each phenomenon from the point of view of the specific conditions and circumstances of its occurrence, the conditions of development. That is why reference to the past is constantly contained in discussions on the cardinal problems of our time; modern social theories and ideological systems are developed on the basis of assessments of the past. Thus, an inextricable connection and continuity of the past and present is obtained.

Learning from the experience of their ancestors in the field labor activity, political, social relations, subsequent generations learn to analyze the past and evaluate the present, make decisions for self-realization, i.e. “What can I?”, “What can’t I?”, “What can I hope for?” Through understanding historical experience, an understanding of the present is gained.

Like any other forms of social consciousness, historical consciousness has a complex structure. Four levels can be distinguished.

The first (lowest) level of historical consciousness is formed in the same ways as everyday consciousness, based on the accumulation of direct life experience, when a person observes certain events throughout his life, or even takes part in them. The broad masses of the population, as carriers of everyday consciousness at the lowest level of historical consciousness, are not able to bring it into the system, to evaluate it from the point of view of the entire course of the historical process. Most often it appears in vague, emotionally charged memories, often incomplete, inaccurate, and subjective. Thus, an ordinary soldier who participated in the Great Patriotic War could not imagine the full scale of this event and assess it. This can only be done by historians based on a generalization of the entire set of facts and events. However, in the minds of ordinary soldiers, the entire mass of ordinary people, the main conclusion emerged: “we won.”

The next stage of historical consciousness can be formed under the influence of fiction; cinema, radio, television, theater, painting, influenced by acquaintance with historical monuments. At this level, historical consciousness also has not yet transformed into systematic knowledge. The ideas that form it are still fragmentary, chaotic, and not chronologically ordered. They, as a rule, are distinguished by their brightness, great emotionality, and the impressions of what they saw or heard sometimes last a lifetime. Such impressions are explained by the power of the talent of a great artist, who, mastering the word and brush, has a huge emotional impact on a person. This places great responsibility on the writer, playwright, director, and artist for the historical accuracy and truthfulness of his creations. State activities and the image of Peter I broad masses The population is often based not on academic research and monographs, but on the impressive novel by A. Tolstoy and the films based on it. Unforgettable impression The picture of I.E. makes a impression on a person about Ivan the Terrible. Repin "Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan." And although many essential moments of the historical process remain, so to speak, behind the scenes, the reader (viewer) judges the era precisely by this work of art. At this level of historical consciousness, objective reality is especially often expressed in myths, legends, and even anecdotes about Peter I, Catherine II, A.V. Suvorov, etc. These forms folk art have, as a rule, the self-affirming irony of the Russian national character.

The third stage of historical consciousness is formed on the basis of historical knowledge itself, acquired in history lessons at school, where students first receive ideas about the past in a systematized form. Unfortunately, the study of Russian history at school drags on for several years, and as a result, when students complete the course of Russian history, they have little memory of where they started. Moreover, for most people, the study of history at the school level ends. In universities, history is studied by a very small group of citizens relative to the entire population of the country, and then, as a rule, in small volumes.

It is possible to expand knowledge of history at an amateur level, but this kind of personal interest does not manifest itself so often, and there are few suitable popular books on Russian history. That's why general ideas about national history should be embedded in high school. In this regard, serious attention should be paid to both the preparation of a highly qualified history teacher and the quality of school textbooks.

A deep study of national history contributes to the education of youth in the spirit of citizenship and patriotism. The famous French historian Marc Ferro wrote about this in his book “How history is told to children in different countries of the world” (Moscow, 1992) after studying the experience of teaching history in schools in Africa, Australia, the Middle East, Germany, Japan, the USA, China, Poland, USSR and other countries.

At the fourth (highest) stage, the formation of historical consciousness occurs on the basis of a comprehensive theoretical understanding of the past, at the level of identifying trends in historical development. Based on the knowledge about the past accumulated by history, generalized historical experience, a scientific worldview is formed, attempts are made to obtain a more or less clear understanding of the nature and driving forces of the development of human society, its periodization, the meaning of history, typology, and models of social development.

At this level of historical consciousness, attempts are made to explain the human past in all its inconsistency and complexity, both at the concrete historical and at the theoretical levels. The formation of historical consciousness at the theoretical level helps to think in historical categories, to see society in dialectical development, in change, to comprehend the historical process in dynamics, in the chronological relationship of times. The bearer of this level of historical consciousness is historical science. Having systematized scientific knowledge history of society, historical science can identify leading trends in social development and formulate some forecasts.

Thus, historical knowledge as an element of social consciousness, constituting the spiritual side of the historical process, must be perceived systematically, in all its stages and levels, since without a systematic approach the idea of ​​historical consciousness will be incomplete.

The importance of forming historical consciousness and preserving historical memory in modern conditions is very great. First of all, it ensures that a certain community of people understands the fact that they constitute a single people, united by a common historical destiny, traditions, culture, language, and common psychological traits. At the most diverse stages of their development, tribes, peoples, nations sought to preserve the memory of their past in a variety of forms: from oral traditions and heroic epics, when there was no written language, to all kinds of written narratives, works of art, scientific works, monuments of fine art . This contributed to the self-affirmation of this community of people as a people.

The centuries-old history of mankind and the history of the 20th century, among other things, testify that national-historical consciousness is a defensive factor that ensures the self-preservation of the people. If it is destroyed, then this people will be left not only without a past, without its historical roots, but also without a future. This is a fact long established by historical experience. Therefore, in the clash of civilizations, states, and ideologies, the opposing sides pay a lot of attention to discrediting the history of the other side, literally fighting for the minds and souls of people. Moreover, one can observe the development and improvement of such forms of struggle from primitive in ancient times to refined and sophisticated ones at the end of the 20th century.

Thus, the Icelandic sagas depict an invincible hero who is terrible in battle, nothing can intimidate him, but he can only die from his own spear. The hero's enemies took advantage of this. They demanded that the spear be given to them. Otherwise, they threatened to sing songs disgracing him and his relatives. The hero chose to give up the spear and die, but did not want to listen to songs that dishonored him.

Based on images of the past and historical events, the selection and formation of socially significant norms, moral values ​​gradually take place, traditions and customs, a way of thinking and behavior inherent in a given people are formed. Without such integrating qualities, a people turns into a “population”. Coming from the past, protected in the historical memory of the people, these moral principles have their own significance for the present and the future.

Thus, the present is closely intertwined with the future. Therefore, history must be handled with care and caution. It is enough to discredit the past to cast doubt on the present: is this how we lived and live? Is that what we did and are doing? Gradually, the usual way of life begins to collapse, bringing confusion and anxiety into the consciousness and souls of people, depriving them of faith and hope, and devastating them spiritually.

Lecture notes

Educational materials

V. EDUCATIONAL AND METHODOLOGICAL SUPPORT OF DISCIPLINE

IV. FINAL CONTROL FORM

The course of study ends with an examination in accordance with the volume requirements. The final control (EXAMINATION) is carried out in the form of answers to questions systematized in tickets.

1) Belyukov D.A. National history: tutorial. – Velikiye Luki, 2010. – 276 p.

2) Nekrasova, M.B. Domestic history: textbook. manual for bachelors / M.B. Nekrasova. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Yurayt, 2012. - 378 p.

1) Fortunatov V.V. Domestic history in diagrams and comments. – St. Petersburg Peter, 2009. - 224 p.

2) History of Russia from ancient times to the present day: textbook / Klimenok N. L. et al. - M.: “Prospect”, 2008. - 464 P.

3) Kuznetsov Yu. N. Domestic history. Textbook - M.: Dashkov i K, 2009. - 816 pp.

Section 1. Introduction to Russian history

1. Subject of history.

1. Subject of history.

Term "story"(from the Greek historia - a story about the past, about what has been learned) is usually considered in two meanings:

Firstly, as a process of development of nature and humanity,

Secondly, as a system of sciences that study the past of nature and society.

History studies the entire set of facts that characterize the life of society both in the past and in the present. Subject history is the study of human society as a single contradictory process. Historical science includes general (world) history, within the framework of which the origin of man is studied (his ethnogenesis), as well as the history of individual countries, peoples and civilizations (domestic history) from ancient times to the present day. This takes into account its division into the history of primitive society, ancient, medieval, modern and contemporary.

Story– a diversified science, it is composed of a number of independent branches of historical knowledge, namely: the history of economic, political, social, civil, military, state and law, religion, etc. Historical sciences include ethnography (studies the life and culture of peoples), archeology (studies the history of the origin of peoples based on material sources of antiquity - tools, household utensils, jewelry, etc., as well as entire complexes - settlements, burial grounds, treasures), etc.

Historical science is based on a number of fundamental principles:

1. Respect for all peoples and cultures without exception, recognition of the significance of all eras and societies, the desire to understand the internal motives and laws of their functioning (it is necessary to remember the specifics of each phenomenon, which determines the civilizational approach);

2. Caution in approaching the factors of transformation of the world and society (history is intended to show how fragile the balance of social forces, the relationship between man and nature is, how difficult it is to restore them).

3. Consideration of a person as a part of a social organism, a complex social system (a person must take a place at the center of historical research and historical narration, because it is he who implements the laws of history, gives meaning to things, thinks and makes mistakes under the influence of his own and others’ ideas);

4. The intrinsic value of the individual and freedom of thought (history is populated by unique individuals, who must be recognized as having the right to free will, thereby history is recognized as having the right to chance, alternativeness, and historians have the right to reflect on unrealized possibilities);

5. The principle of proportionality and involvement (study of everyday life - the history of everyday life, the history of one’s family, one’s city, one’s land, included in the context of a larger history);

6. The principle of unity (understanding of the synchronicity of events, the interaction of history with geographical space, man and environment).

The complexity of the historical development of mankind and the diversity of worldview positions of scientists have led to the development of a wide range of philosophical approaches to history, among which the following are distinguished:

1. Religious (theological, providential): explanation of the origin of humanity, its development by divine will (V.S. Solovyov E.N. Trubetskoy and others);

2. Natural science (naturalistic):

Geographical determinism - climate, soil and state of the earth's surface are the decisive factors that determine the nature of historical development (C. Montesquieu);

Demographic – population growth is of decisive importance in history, which leads to misery and poverty, to disease and hunger, wars and revolutions (T. Malthus);

Ethnogenetic – the decisive factor in history is the development of ethnic groups (L.N. Gumilyov);

3. Socio-economic (formational): K. Marx, F. Engels, V.I. Lenin and historians of the Soviet period Human society in the process of its development goes through a number of stages (formations): primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist. Formations differ from each other in the method of material production, features of the socio-political organization of society;

4. cultural-historical (cultural-civilizational):

Priority development of the spiritual sphere, culture, recognition of the unity of history, its progress, faith in the rational nature of the historical process (G. Vico, I. G. Herder, G. F. G. Hegel);

The concept of closed (local) civilizations (N.Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee, etc.);

A kind of mistrust rational knowledge, doubts about his ability to solve the problems of history (N.A. Berdyaev, K. Jaspers, etc.)

According to the breadth of the object of study, history can be divided into the following groups:

History of the world as a whole;

History of a continent, region (history of Europe, African studies, Balkan studies);

People (Chinese studies, Japanese studies);

Groups of peoples (Slavic studies).

Russian history– a scientific discipline that studies the process of development of our Fatherland, its multinational people, the formation of the main state and public institutions.

1. Essence, forms and functions of historical consciousness.

In modern domestic literature under historical consciousness imply a body of knowledge accumulated by science and spontaneously arising ideas, all kinds of symbols, customs and other phenomena of the spiritual sphere, in which society reproduces, realizes, i.e. remembers his past.

Historical consciousness can be mass and individual. Mass historical consciousness is a way of rational reproduction and assessment by society of the movement of society in time. Individual historical consciousness is the result, on the one hand, of familiarization with knowledge about the past, and on the other, of understanding the past and generating a sense of involvement with it.

There are two types of historical consciousness: goal-rational and value-rational. The first type of consciousness is dominated by an orientation towards a specific historical result, towards understanding the course of historical events, their causes and consequences. It is not only always concrete, but also theoretical. Value-rational consciousness, on the contrary, is focused not on a specific result, but on the value behind it.

Historical consciousness can take the form of myth, chronicle or science.

Historical myth- this is an emotionally charged idea of ​​​​historical reality, a fictional image that replaces reality in the mind. Historical myths are created by the collective imagination or imposed on the mass historical consciousness from the outside, while forming a certain historical perception of the world, socially conformal in given conditions and recognized to form the desired patterns of social behavior.

Chronic consciousness focused on recording real events of the past. At the same time, in such consciousness there is no idea of ​​cause-and-effect relationships, which are replaced by a presentation of historical events in chronological sequence, held together by certain ideas and moral maxims.

Scientific consciousness is based on historicism, which requires considering phenomena in development, in connection with other events, taking into account the specific conditions of a certain stage of social development. Scientific historical consciousness has a specialized character, its source and carrier is the scientific community.

The transformation of historical consciousness usually occurs in conditions of crisis of the social system, with a change of political regimes, with a sharp change in the course of development, when in a situation of “revaluation of socially significant values” the “rewriting of history” begins.

Society as a whole is interested in forming a consistent view of its past and its connection with the present and future. Holistic historical consciousness performs the function of social stability, uniting different generations and social groups on the basis of awareness of the commonality of their historical destiny.

The educational function of historical consciousness is associated with the dominant ideology in society. Normative historical knowledge, reflecting the “generally accepted” or official point of view on the past, is, as a rule, sanctioned by the state and acts as an integral part of civic and patriotic education.

The function of historical consciousness as one of the regulators of social behavior increases at turning points in social development. IN crisis situation In an effort to comprehend the meaning of current events, people turn to their past.

1. Methodology and methods of studying history.

Methodology includes a number of scientific principles: the principle of historicism, the principle of objectivity, the principle of the social approach, the principle of alternativeness.

In addition to general methodological principles, specific research methods are also used in historical knowledge:

General scientific;

Actually historical;

Special (borrowed from other sciences).

Method– is a way of studying historical patterns through their specific manifestations – historical facts, a way of extracting new knowledge from facts.

TO general scientific methods Research includes historical, logical and classification methods. Historical method allows us to reproduce the development process with its general, special and uniquely individual features. Boolean method connected with the historical, it generalizes the entire process in the theoretical form of laws. Both of these methods complement each other, since the historical method has its own cognitive limits, having exhausted which it is possible to draw conclusions and generalizations using logical method. Classification As a method, it makes it possible to highlight the general and special in phenomena, facilitates the collection of material, systematizes knowledge, promotes theoretical generalizations, and the identification of new laws.

Actually historical methods Research can be divided into two groups:

1. Methods based on various options research of processes in time: chronological, chronological-problematic, synchronistic, periodization method.

2. Methods based on identifying the patterns of the historical process: comparative-historical, retrospective (method of historical modeling), structural-systemic.

The essence chronological method consists in the fact that phenomena are presented in temporal (chronological) order. Chronological-problematic method provides for the study and research of Russian history by periods (topics) or eras, and within them - by problems. Taking into account the problem-chronological method, there is a study and research of any one aspect of the life and activities of the state in its consistent development.

Synchronistic method allows you to establish connections and relationships between phenomena and processes occurring at the same time in different places Russia and its regions. Periodization method makes it possible to identify changes quality features in development and establish periods of these qualitative changes.

Comparative historical method aims to establish general trends inherent in similar processes, determine changes that have occurred, and identify ways of social development. Retrospective method allows you to restore the process according to its typical properties identified and show the patterns of its development. Structural-systemic method establishes the unity of events and phenomena in socio-historical development, on the basis of which qualitatively different social, economic, political, cultural systems of social order are distinguished within a certain chronological framework.

Special methods: mathematical methods process analysis, statistical method, sociological research and social psychology. Special meaning for the analysis of historical situations they have the method of sociological research and the method of social psychology, since the masses (people) have a direct influence on the course of historical development.

The following methodological principles form the basis for studying the course of Russian history:

1. National history is an integral part world history. This approach is based on philosophical categories general and special. The use of these categories makes it possible to show the features of the development of Russia as a multinational, multi-confessional state, which has traditions that have developed over many centuries and its own principles of life.

2. Combination of a civilizational approach with formational characteristics. Russia is a civilizational region, the unique development of which is determined by natural-climatic, geopolitical, confessional (religious), sociopolitical and other factors.

1. Concept and classification of historical source.

Historical sources serve as the basis for historical knowledge. Accordingly, the most important stage in the structure of historical research is the formation of its source base.

The most important task researcher - establish maximum amount sources. At the same time, the number of sources does not indicate the real historical role events.

The huge number and inexhaustible information capabilities of sources have created a need for their systematization and classification.

Until recently, in source studies, within the framework of this approach, there was a division of all sources into seven types: written, material, ethnographic, oral, linguistic (folklore), phonological documents and film and photo documents. This classification took into account, on the one hand, the most common features, characteristic of certain sources (origin, content, form), and on the other hand, objects of study of certain branches of historical science. This classification is rather arbitrary. Its individual types can be combined.

It seems legitimate to divide historical sources into four types:

Real;

Written;

Fine (fine-graphic and fine-art);

Phonics.

The presence of sources of information does not in itself guarantee an objective reconstruction of the past. This requires correct reading and interpretation of the sources. Here, such disciplines as source studies, hermeneutics, paleography, etc. come to the aid of the researcher.

The successes of historical science are directly related to the expansion of the range of sources introduced into scientific circulation, increasing their information output, new reading and bringing the most important of them to mass consciousness, as well as improving methods of processing, storing, analyzing and transmitting information.

1. Domestic historiography in the past and present.

Historiography of Russia is a description of Russian history and historical literature. This is part of historical science as a whole, its branch that studies the totality of studies devoted to a specific era or topic.

Scientific coverage of Russian history begins in the 18th century. The first scientific work on the history of Russia belonged to V.N. Tatishchev, the greatest historian of the era of Peter I. In his major work “Russian History from the Most Ancient Times”, for the first time a diagram of Russian history was given, consisting of several stages.

M.V. Lomonosov is the author of a number of works on Russian history (“A Brief Russian Chronicler with Genealogy”, “Ancient Russian history"), in which he initiated the struggle against the Norman theory of education ancient Russian state. He proved the antiquity of the Rus tribe, which preceded the calling of Rurik, and showed the originality of Slavic settlements in Eastern Europe.

The first major work on history Russian state belonged to N.M. Karamzin, a prominent historian, writer and publicist. At the end of 1803, he offered Alexander I his services to write full history Russia. N.M. Karamzin was officially entrusted with writing the history of Russia. He devoted his entire subsequent life mainly to the creation of the “History of the Russian State” (12 volumes). The central idea of ​​labor: autocratic rule - best form statehood for Russia. The historian put forward the idea that “...Russia was founded by victories and unity of command, perished from discord and was saved by a wise autocracy.”

S.M. Soloviev is the author of a kind of encyclopedia of Russian history, a multi-volume major work “History of Russia from Ancient Times.” The principle of this study is historicism. He does not divide the history of Russia into periods, but connects them, examines the development of Russia and Western Europe in unity. The pattern of development of the country is reduced to three defining conditions: “the nature of the country”, “the nature of the tribe”, “the course of external events”.

The prominent Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky adhered to the positivist “theory of facts.” He identified “three main forces that build human society”: the human personality, human society, and the nature of the country. The historian considered the engine of the historical process to be “ mental work and moral achievement." In the development of Russia, he recognized the enormous role of the state (political factor), attached great importance the process of colonization (natural factor), trade (economic factor). In the “Course of Russian History” V.O. Klyuchevsky gave a periodization of the country’s past. It is based on geographical, economic and social signs, which, in his opinion, determined the content of historical periods.

V.O. Klyuchevsky influenced the formation historical views both bourgeois historians (P.N. Milyukov, M.M. Bogoslovsky, A.A. Kizevetter) and Marxist historians (M.N. Pokrovsky, Yu.V. Gauthier, S.V. Bakhrushin).

In Soviet historiography, periodization was based on a formational approach, according to which in Russian history the following were distinguished:

Primitive communal system (until the 9th century); feudalism (9th – mid-19th century);

Capitalism (second half of the 19th century - 1917);

Socialism (since 1917).

Within these formational periods, stages were identified that revealed the process of origin and development of a socio-economic formation. So, feudal period divided into three stages:

- “early feudalism” ( Kievan Rus);

- “developed feudalism” ( feudal fragmentation and the formation of the Russian centralized state);

- “late feudalism” (“ new period Russian history", the decomposition and crisis of feudal-serf relations).

The period of capitalism fell into two stages: “pre-monopoly capitalism” and “imperialism”.

In Soviet history, the stages of “war communism”, “new economic policy”, “building the foundations of socialism”, “complete and final victory of socialism” and “development of socialism on its own basis” were distinguished.

In the post-perestroika period, in connection with the transition to a pluralistic interpretation of national history, there was a reassessment of both its individual events and entire periods and stages. A periodization of national history has appeared from the point of view of the alternativeness of its historical development, considered in the context of world history. Some historians propose to distinguish two periods in Russian history: from Ancient Rus' to imperial Russia (9th–18th centuries); the rise and fall of the Russian Empire (19th–20th centuries).

Many historians Russian statehood There are ten periods:

Ancient Rus' (9th–12th centuries);

The period of independent feudal states of Ancient Rus' (XII-XV centuries);

Russian (Moscow) state (XV–XVII centuries);

Russian empire the period of absolutism (XVIII - mid-XIX centuries);

Russian Empire during the period of transition to the bourgeois monarchy (mid-nineteenth – early twentieth century);

Russia during the period of the bourgeois-democratic republic (February - October 1917);

The period of formation of Soviet statehood (1918–1920);

Transition period and the NEP period (1921–1930);

The period of state-party socialism (1930 – early 1960s);

The period of crisis of socialism (1960–1990s).

This periodization is due to several factors. The main one is the socio-economic structure (level of economic and technical development, forms of ownership) and the factor state development. This periodization, like any other, is conditional, but it allows us to systematize the training course to a certain extent and consider the main stages of the formation of statehood in Russia.

Behind last years the works of B.A. Rybakov, B.D. Grekov, S.D. Bakhrushev, M.N. Tikhomirov, M.P. Pokrovsky, A.N. Sakharov, Yu.N. Afanasyev and others were published. Studying the history of Russia in in the context of the world historical process, it is necessary to take into account that the traditional idea of ​​\u200b\u200babroad after the collapse of the USSR has changed radically. Historical reality has introduced such concepts as “near abroad” and “far abroad” into scientific circulation.

Questions for self-control

1. What does history study?
2. Why is history called a diversified science?
3. Name the basic principles of historical science.
4. Describe philosophical approaches to understanding the historical past.
5. Describe historical consciousness.
6. Reveal the features of specific methods for studying history.
7. Why is it necessary for a researcher to use a wide source base? What classifications of historical sources do you know?
8. Reveal the main stages in the development of Russian historiography.

In the course of studying history, historical consciousness is formed. Historical consciousness is one of the important aspects of social consciousness. Historical consciousness in science is understood as the totality of ideas of society as a whole and its social groups separately, about its past and the past of all humanity.

Like any other forms of social consciousness, historical consciousness has a complex structure. Four levels can be distinguished.

The first (lowest) level of historical consciousness is formed in the same ways as everyday consciousness, based on the accumulation of direct life experience, when a person observes certain events throughout his life, or even takes part in them. The broad masses of the population, as carriers of everyday consciousness at the lowest level of historical consciousness, are not able to bring it into the system, to evaluate it from the point of view of the entire course of the historical process. Most often it appears in vague, emotionally charged memories, often incomplete, inaccurate, and subjective. So, who participated in the Great Patriotic War an ordinary soldier could not imagine the full scale of this event and give it an assessment. This can only be done by historians based on a generalization of the entire set of facts and events. However, in the minds of ordinary soldiers, the entire mass of ordinary people, the main conclusion emerged: “we won.”

The next stage of historical consciousness can be formed under the influence fiction; cinema, radio, television, theater, painting, influenced by acquaintance with historical monuments. At this level, historical consciousness also has not yet transformed into systematic knowledge. The ideas that form it are still fragmentary, chaotic, and not chronologically ordered. They, as a rule, are distinguished by their brightness, great emotionality, and the impressions of what they saw or heard sometimes last a lifetime. Such impressions are explained by the power of the talent of a great artist, who, mastering the word and brush, has a huge emotional impact on a person. This places great responsibility on the writer, playwright, director, and artist for the historical accuracy and truthfulness of his creations. State activities and the image of Peter I among the broad masses of the population are often formed not from academic studies and monographs, but from the impressive novel by A. Tolstoy and the films made based on it. The picture of I.E. makes an unforgettable impression on a person about Ivan the Terrible. Repin "Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan." And although many essential moments of the historical process remain, so to speak, behind the scenes, the reader (viewer) judges the era precisely by this work of art. At this level of historical consciousness, objective reality is especially often expressed in myths, legends, and even anecdotes about Peter I, Catherine II, A.V. Suvorov, etc. These forms of folk art, as a rule, have the self-affirming irony of the Russian national character.

The third stage of historical consciousness is formed on the basis of historical knowledge itself, acquired in history lessons at school, where students first receive ideas about the past in a systematized form. Unfortunately, the study of Russian history at school drags on for several years, and as a result, when students complete the course of Russian history, they have little memory of where they started. Moreover, for most people, studying history is school level and ends. In universities, history is studied by a very small group of citizens relative to the entire population of the country, and then, as a rule, in small volumes.

It is possible to expand knowledge of history at an amateur level, but this kind of personal interest does not manifest itself so often, and there are few suitable popular books on Russian history. Therefore, general ideas about Russian history should be developed in secondary school. In this regard, serious attention should be paid to both the preparation of a highly qualified history teacher and the quality of school textbooks.

A deep study of national history contributes to the education of youth in the spirit of citizenship and patriotism. The famous French historian Marc Ferro wrote about this in his book “How history is told to children in different countries of the world” (Moscow, 1992) after studying the experience of teaching history in schools in Africa, Australia, the Middle East, Germany, Japan, the USA, China, Poland, USSR and other countries.

At the fourth (highest) stage, the formation of historical consciousness occurs on the basis of a comprehensive theoretical understanding of the past, at the level of identifying trends in historical development. Based on the knowledge about the past accumulated by history, generalized historical experience, a scientific worldview is formed, attempts are made to obtain a more or less clear understanding of the nature and driving forces of the development of human society, its periodization, the meaning of history, typology, and models of social development.

At this level of historical consciousness, attempts are made to explain the human past in all its inconsistency and complexity, both at the concrete historical and at the theoretical levels. The formation of historical consciousness at the theoretical level helps to think in historical categories, to see society in dialectical development, in change, to comprehend the historical process in dynamics, in the chronological relationship of times. The bearer of this level of historical consciousness is historical science. Possessing systematized scientific knowledge of the history of society, historical science can determine the leading trends in social development and formulate some forecasts.

Thus, historical knowledge as an element of social consciousness, constituting the spiritual side of the historical process, must be perceived systematically, in all its stages and levels, since without a systematic approach the idea of ​​historical consciousness will be incomplete.