The Second World War brought about fundamental changes in the international situation and in India's domestic situation. The economy, especially agriculture, was in crisis. Prolonged colonial oppression led to poverty and ruin of the broad masses. The contradiction between the tendency towards independent development of India and the colonial domination of England sharply aggravated, which caused the rise of a powerful anti-imperialist movement from the summer of 1945. The main sections of the population united in it, and due to historical circumstances, the national bourgeoisie was at the head, whose interests were represented by the Indian National Congress ( INC). Despite his desire to limit speeches to the framework of "non-violent struggle", a protest movement unfolded in the country against sending Indian troops to Indo-China and Indonesia, a campaign to protect the Indian National Army. At the beginning of 1946, this movement seized the army and navy, the state apparatus. It manifested the unity of religious communities, nationalities and political movements. Elections to the Central and Provincial Legislative Assemblies (late 1945-early 1946) proved to be a failed political maneuver for the British to foment a Hindu-Muslim conflict. However, as a result of the policy of opposing religious communities and the unwillingness to give India full independence, 1946 became a time of bloody clashes, and the Muslim League announced the start of a "direct struggle" for Pakistan.
From February to June 1947, the British proposed a new declaration on India and a "Plan for the Transfer of Power to India". After the plan became legally binding as the Indian Independence Act (August 15, 1947), the former colony was replaced by two dominions, the Union of India and Pakistan. Divided along religious lines, they turned out to be sharply hostile from the very beginning. Their disengagement itself took place in an atmosphere of aggravated hostility, cruel persecution and bloody slaughter, which cost almost millions of human lives (only in the Punjab, massacres and pogroms claimed about 500 thousand people). The situation was aggravated by the fact that the principalities (562) were given the right to freedom of choice, as a result of which a number of princes in India (most of them were Muslims) expressed a desire - against the will of the population of the principality, predominantly Hindu - to join Pakistan. This required the armed intervention of the government of the Indian Union. The division caused a multimillion-dollar flow of refugees and an explosion of nationalist and chauvinist sentiments. Their victim was M. K. Gandhi, who was trying to extinguish the passions, and was killed in 1948 by a member of the religious-nationalist group Hindu Mahasabha. It was not an easy task to rebuild the economy of each of the parts of the formerly single organism: rich agricultural areas, which provided cotton and jute for Indian textile enterprises, went to Pakistan. The country did not have enough of its own bread. Industry became dependent on foreign equipment and capital.
1949 passed under the banner of the preparation of constitutional reforms. They were formalized by the Constituent Assembly as the constitution of a new India, which came into force in January 1950. The Republic of India was proclaimed, which at the same time turned out to be a member of the British Commonwealth of Nations, i.e. retained familiar ties with the former metropolis. In the first elections to the central parliament and state legislatures (1951-1952), almost three-quarters of the seats were won by the INC, since then the almost permanent ruling party. Headed the government of J. Nehru (1947-1964).
India developed along the capitalist path. The civilizational foundation here turned out to be fundamentally unfavorable for experiments in the Marxist-socialist spirit, despite the fact that in India there are two influential communist parties, one of which spent many years at the helm of the state of Bengal. On the other hand, the democratic traditions brought to India by the British have grown well into the local structure. In India, the concept of a “socialist model society”, born by J. Nehru, began to be implemented. It included a mixed economy with the priority of the public sector, the democratic unity of a strong center and regions endowed with broad rights, a planned national economy (five-year plans since 1951), and pluralism of social thought.
A general assessment of the transformations of the 1950s and the beginning of the 1990s is the path to compromise, transformations of the social reformist persuasion. Everything in the concept proved to be vital and gave the development of India a sustainable dynamism.
The first major reform was agrarian. Its essence was to eliminate the layer of intermediaries-zamindars and to transfer the land to those who cultivate it. The result of the reform was a reduction in the share of tenants and the transformation of the bulk of the peasants into landowners. With the support of the state, cooperation was developing, designed to reduce the influence of usurers in the country. In the 1960s and 1970s, agrarian reforms were supplemented by a series of advanced agrotechnical methods and techniques associated with the "Green Revolution" and aimed at dramatically improving the agricultural process. Since 1978, India has stopped importing food and has achieved full self-sufficiency. Today, the country is basically coping with the food problem, although at the same time a significant proportion of its population eats extremely poorly.
The economic policy was based on two most important principles: the development of the public sector in industry and the planned management of the national economy. Since the 1970s, direct cooperation with private capital has been developing, and the two sectors are merging. The main directions of the economic policy of all governments of the INC were: a) strengthening state investment in basic industries; b) weakening state regulation of the private sector; c) strengthening the national monetary system and finances, strengthening the national market. On the whole, by the mid-1960s, the volume of industrial production had grown 2.5 times. From 1980 to 1991 economic growth was 5.4% annually. India has become one of the industrial-agrarian countries. At the same time, negative phenomena also manifested themselves in this process: the growth of bureaucracy, the insufficient efficiency of a number of enterprises, the failure to fulfill five-year plans, and the lack of funds for solving acute social problems.
Orientation towards capitalist development was harmoniously combined in republican India with general guidelines in the sphere of political and legal, rooted in the classic Westminster parliamentary-democratic system of power. In accordance with the constitution, the Republic of India is a union that includes 25 states and 6 union territories. Legislative power is vested in the bicameral All-India Parliament, and in the States, in the Legislative Assemblies; executive power is in the hands of the All-Indian Council of Ministers in Delhi and the state governments headed by the chief ministers. Formally, the president is considered the supreme head of the executive power of the country, in fact, power is in the hands of the prime minister.
The political process in the country is based on the competitiveness of parties with complete freedom for party coalitions. English is still considered the common language of India. An attempt to make Hindi such in 1965 could not be carried out, because this was vigorously opposed by a number of southern states, for which Hindi is a stranger. Since most people are illiterate, symbols play an important role in the struggle for voters. For the INC, this is the image of a sacred cow. It is difficult for parties to unite people around an ideological issue, because Society is still divided in many ways.
Election campaigns testified to the stability of the sympathies of the bulk of voters: in the presence of the communist left (since 1964 - two communist parties with approximately equal strength) and the religious-communalist right wing, the main share of votes fell on the center. It was represented, first of all, by the INC, and later by a coalition of opposition groups such as the Janata Party, which was in power in 1977-1979. Except for this short period, all the rest of the years India was headed by the government of the INC, which, after the death Nehru (1964) was led by his daughter Indira Gandhi (1966–1977, 1980–1984), and after her assassination, by her son Rajiv Gandhi (1984–1991). Often there were exacerbations of intra-state political contradictions on a national, religious or other basis, for the solution or repayment of which Delhi usually introduced presidential rule (more than 116 times since independence).
In the mid-1960s, internal instability in the country grew. The position of the INC on social issues is criticized, the peasant movement is intensifying, and right-wing groups in the INC are becoming more active. In an effort to restore the popularity of the Congress, I. Gandhi advocated new reforms: encouraging small-scale production, expanding the public sector, nationalizing large banks and wholesale trade, limiting monopolies, lowering the land maximum, etc. In the 70s, progressive reforms were continued, however, soon appeared the influence of bureaucracy and the decrease in the efficiency of the public sector. Political development was the result of an acute economic depression, the polarization of class forces, the half-heartedness of a progressive economic program, the inability of the government to solve the country's main problems: reducing unemployment, allocating land to the peasants, harmonizing the interests of the state and the strengthened monopoly bourgeoisie. All this shook the authority of the INC and for the first time led to the defeat in 1977 of the conservative parties. In 1980, he regained his position and returned to leadership on a pan-Indian scale.
In the 1980s, the economic development of India slowed down, the negative consequences of protectionism, the monopolization of the domestic market by industrial clans, inflation, the uncompetitiveness of Indian goods, the bureaucratization of the administrative apparatus, and the inefficient work of public sector enterprises were revealed. In 1990, the external debt amounted to 70 billion dollars, the inflow of foreign capital decreased by 59%. Notable successes of the 90s are associated with the implementation since 1991. radical economic program. Its main provisions are the liberalization of policy towards foreign and national capital, the reform of the public sector. The peak of positive trends took place in 1995–1996 – the growth rate of industrial production increased by 12.4%. In the second half of the 1990s, economic rates slowed down, capital stagnation continued, and the problem of low labor productivity and public sector reform was not resolved. Correct economic decisions did not yield results at the micro level, therefore, at the beginning of the 21st century. “economic growth and equity” (investment in the social sphere and infrastructure) is proclaimed as the main goal.
Modern India owns high technologies, is a major manufacturer and exporter of software - 140 of the 500 leading companies in the world satisfy their needs for this through exports from India. The country ranks third in the world in terms of the number of scientific and technical personnel, fifth in terms of agricultural production and GDP. In the mid-1990s, it ranked second in the world in terms of wheat exports and achieved self-sufficiency in basic food products. In 1998 it became a nuclear power. Now the Indian economy is among the 10 fastest growing in the world.
In the 1980s, the old structure of power no longer corresponded to the new alignment of social class forces, flaws in political life (corruption, violations of democracy) became more and more noticeable, the influence of radicalism and populism grew, new political parties received mass support. In 1989, the INC ceded power to coalition governments. This indicates the emergence in the last 10–15 years of a trend (which has not yet ended) of creating a truly multi-party power structure instead of the dominance of one party. In the 1990s, India finally switched to coalitions - in the fall of 1999, the center-right National Democratic Alliance (24 parties) won the majority in parliamentary elections. The transition of parties from confrontational to competitive politics began. The problem of the consolidation of society became actual. The preservation of regional communalism and regionalism hinder the strengthening of patriotism. Recent years have shown a rapid growth in the influence of the Hindu parties.
The development of modern India is significantly influenced by the continuing serious problems. The most important of the internal is religious strife. Despite the partition of 1947, 106 million (11.4% of the population) Muslims live in the republic. A large and influential community is made up of Sikhs (2%) and Buddhists (0.7%). Ethno-regional conflicts are superimposed on long-standing territorial disputes, developing into a bitter separatist and terrorist struggle. Indo-Muslim clashes and the struggle of the Sikh minority, first for political autonomy, and then for their own independent state of Khalistan (separation of the Punjab from India) are practically insoluble problems. The transition to armed struggle of extremist Sikh organizations in the 80s led to the murder of I. Gandhi by them (October 31, 1984), which caused a new wave of violence and victims. Acts of terror continued into the 1990s, despite the attempts of the authorities to find a political solution to the Punjab crisis. The source of political instability for the whole of India remains in the 21st century. problem of Jammu and Kashmir. Separatist groups are seeking to create an independent state here. The problem is complicated by claims to this state from Pakistan, which includes 1/3 of its territory. The mutual intransigence and tough positions of the two countries make the dispute one of the most dangerous border conflicts in the world and have repeatedly brought neighbors to the brink of war (1947, 1965, 1971, 2001). Added to these conflicts are the tensions that arose during the 1980s in the far northwest of India, in Assam and other areas where migrant refugees from Bangladesh create serious instability. Problems are also created by the separatist sentiments of the Tamils ​​in the south and some tribal groups of the Himalayan region. No one knows the exact number of separatist groups (in India they "speak" 179 languages ​​and 544 dialects). Since the end of the 1980s, religious fanaticism and inter-party strife have been strengthened by the evolution of the ideology of nationalism. After the independence of India, hypertrophied national ambitions and separatism already began to appear in the nationalism of individual nations.
Another group of problems, outwardly less acute, but fraught with far-reaching consequences, is demographic. Rapid population growth (nearly doubling since decolonization) threatens the country with catastrophe. Its most severe consequences, above all, famine, were mitigated by the success of the Green Revolution and farming (Punjab). Attempts to solve it at an accelerated pace, with administrative pressure, did not produce results; moreover, they led I. Gandhi to defeat in 1977. Despite the implementation of the birth control program, the population growth is increasing - in the 21st century. India has become a billionth country.
Among the internal is the problem of castes. The state did a lot to eradicate caste inequality: criminal prosecution was introduced for caste-based discrimination, quotas were reserved for representatives of lower castes in universities and state institutions (according to the constitution of 1950 - 27% of places). At the same time, an attempt to extend this manifestation of social justice to intermediate castes (52% of the population) caused mass discontent and the political crisis of 1989-1990. Castes play the same role as in the past - the role of a stabilizing factor. However, the preservative function of the caste and the community is more significant, which clearly opposes the tasks of the country's development. Over time, this function will weaken, and development will take its toll. However, questions remain - will a communal-caste India be able to feed a country in the event of a population explosion, which obviously did not have time to turn into a farmer by that time?
The most complex problems are extreme population density, depletion of natural resources, unemployment, glaring social contrasts, the unresolved agrarian issue (50–55% of farms are degrading), growing water scarcity (80% of the population does not have access to
drinking water), the narrowness of the "middle class" (20 - 25%) with mass poverty, illiteracy of the population (48%), etc.
An essential element of India's foreign policy in the 1950s and 1960s was non-alignment with military blocs and the desire to consolidate young independent states. The country's foreign policy position is largely due to the geopolitical confrontation of forces in Asia, in particular, the confrontation with China and its ally, Pakistan. This led at one time the country, which declared independence, neutrality and non-alignment as the fundamental foundations of the political course, to a close alliance with the USSR. Their cooperation contributed to the strengthening of the state economy of India and the conclusion of important treaties on peace, friendship and cooperation, including the Delhi Declaration of 1986. With the collapse of the USSR, Russia took its place. Since 1995, attention to cooperation with the Republic of Belarus has been growing.
Foreign policy in the 70s-90s pursued four main goals: strengthening the country's security, implementing expansionist ambitions in South Asia (which led to a steady confrontation in the system of regional relations), strengthening influence among the states of the world community (becoming an emerging center of world politics, but without turning into a superpower) and the establishment of optimal external relations to create favorable conditions for the modernization of the economy.
Since the mid-1990s, a new foreign policy course has been implemented - the normalization of relations with large and small countries. In 1995, with the creation of the Indian Ocean Ring Association, India seeks to become one of the regional leaders. After the collapse of the military blocs, the position of non-alignment with them lost its meaning. Therefore, “freedom to make independent decisions” (J. Nehru) acquired special significance. Despite the status of the dominant power in the region with military-political functions, India has repeatedly confirmed its role as a guarantor of political stability. India's peacefulness is well known, and internal stability enviable for the entire developing world. India is not familiar with political upheavals, or with the attempts of the army to play a political role, or with too sharp social conflicts. No one has ever fought for India and no one is fighting for it. This is explained by the fact that there has never been a vacuum of power here, and a state with a stable political course is stable and reliable, has always relied on the usual norms of existence and responded to these norms in its policy.

In June 1947, a final agreement was reached that allowed the British Parliament to pass the Indian Independence Act, which came into force on August 15, 1947. This document set out the principles of the partition, according to which a number of areas were given the opportunity to decide whether to join the Indian Union or Pakistan and declared the right of everyone of these dominions to self-government with the right to secede from the Commonwealth. The suzerainty of the English monarchy over the Indian principalities, as well as the validity of the treaties concluded with them, also ceased. The people of East Bengal and West Punjab opted for Pakistan, while the people of West Bengal and East Punjab voted for joining the Indian Union. Proclamation of Independence Post Independence India

Immediately after gaining independence in India, a government was formed headed by Prime Minister J. Nehru. The country experienced unprecedented clashes between Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. There was a mass migration of Muslims to Pakistan, and Hindus to India. To intercommunal hostility and clashes were added economic and political difficulties caused by partition. Railways, roads and irrigation canal systems were cut off by state borders, industrial enterprises were cut off from sources of raw materials, civil services, police and army, necessary to ensure the normal administration of the country and the security of citizens, were separated. On January 30, 1948, when the disorderly conduct began to subside, Gandhi was assassinated by a Hindu fanatic. Consequences of partition of Jawaharlal Nehru

The rulers of 555 principalities had to decide whether to join India or Pakistan. The peaceful integration of the vast majority of small principalities did not cause complications. But the Muslim Nizam, who was at the head of the richest and most populous principality of Hyderabad, where the Hindus predominated numerically, declared his desire to rule an independent sovereign country. In September 1948, Indian troops entered Hyderabad, and under pressure from the central Indian government, the lower classes signed an agreement on joining the Indian Union. Aftermath of the Partition of the Principality of Hyderabad

A serious situation arose in the north, where the ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, a territory with a predominantly Muslim population, was a Hindu Maharaja. Pakistan exerted economic pressure on the principality to secure its accession. In October 1947, about 5,000 armed Muslims entered Kashmir. The Maharaja, who was in dire need of help, signed a document on the inclusion of the principality in India. India accused the Pakistani side of aggression and referred the issue of Kashmir to the UN Security Council for discussion. The UN decided to recognize as a demarcation line the actual ceasefire line as of January 1, 1949. On November 17, 1956, the Constitution was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of Kashmir, according to which the state of Jammu and Kashmir was declared an integral part of India. Consequences of Partitioning the Disputed Territory of Kashmir

Relations with Pakistan have become a major issue in India's foreign policy. The protracted dispute over Kashmir prevented India from taking a leadership role in the Non-Aligned Movement. When Indian Prime Minister J. Nehru refused to cooperate with the United States in the fight against Soviet expansion, the Americans entered into a military alliance with Pakistan. This forced the Indian leadership to expand contacts with China and the USSR. Indo-Soviet ties became noticeably stronger after the conclusion of a major trade agreement in 1953 and the exchange of visits by the leaders of the two states. The USSR welcomed the Indian policy of non-alignment, which coincided with its strategic line of limiting US influence in the Afro-Asian region. Consequences of partition 1954. Meeting with J. Nehru. On the left I. M. Kharchenko.

January 26, 1950 India was proclaimed a republic. The 1950 constitution reflects the cautious position of the leadership and consolidates the successes achieved during the country's independent development. The relatively simple procedure for amending the constitution on the basis of majority decisions in parliament increased the scope for further reforms. Under J. Nehru, who was also the head of the planning commission, three five-year plans were implemented. The industrial policy was oriented towards the creation of a mixed economy and opened up prospects for cooperation with private capital, although only state ownership was allowed in the leading industries. This rule affected enterprises of the defense industry, ferrous metallurgy, heavy engineering, mining, etc. Development and reform Flag of India Emblem of India

The policy of stimulating the development of industry was combined with a policy of cautious reforms in the agrarian sector. The Planning Commission urged the states to legislate to protect land users' rights, such as capping rents, setting a "ceiling" on individual land holdings, and cooperatively reorganizing the supply chain, and possibly agricultural production in the more distant future. Since 1953, the implementation of a community development program began, which set, in particular, the task of organizing a network of institutions for the dissemination of advanced agricultural experience in the countryside, as well as the creation of cooperative associations and panchayats in the countryside. Development and reform Peasants

The government delayed reaching a compromise on the question of reorganizing the territorial-administrative division on a linguistic basis, and when 14 states were formed in 1956 on the basis of dominant languages, other ethnic communities became dissatisfied. In 1960, serious unrest in the state of Bombay forced the central authorities to meet demands for its division into two new states - Gujarat and Maharashtra. The Sikhs succeeded when in 1965 the Punjab was divided into the state of Punjab, in which the Sikhs were the majority, and the state of Haryana, with a predominantly Hindu population. The ethnic problem arose even more sharply in the northeastern border zone, where some local tribes demanded independence and raised armed uprisings for this purpose. Moderate exchange rate boundaries New administrative-territorial divisions

Compromise with the leading castes seriously limited the government's ability to carry out social transformations in the countryside. The agrarian reform laws that were approved by the states contained significant gaps that allowed, on the one hand, to drive tenants off the land, and on the other, to bypass the provision on the upper limit of the land area. The slow roll-out of change has resulted in chronic shortages of agricultural products, higher food prices and cuts in government subsidies. In the early 1960s, the financial crisis deepened. Economic stagnation, in turn, limited the ability to maneuver for the INC. Moderate exchange rate boundaries Classical model of caste hierarchy

The authority of Nehru in October 1962 was significantly undermined after the invasion of Chinese troops into the territory of the North-Eastern Border Agency and the Ladakh Mountains in Kashmir. In an effort to secure links between the Xinjiang Uyghur and Tibet Autonomous Regions, China tried to force India to relinquish rights to the strategically important Aksai Chin Plain in eastern Ladakh in Kashmir. The armed forces of the People's Republic of China delivered several blows to the Indian army and occupied an area of ​​37.5 thousand square meters. km. By the time China announced the withdrawal of troops from all occupied areas except Aksai Chin, Nehru was forced to turn to the United States for military assistance. The borders of the temperate course of Ladakh on the map of India

Nehru's successor as prime minister, Shastri, was nominated to the post by a group of party leaders called the "syndicate", supported by large landowners and entrepreneurs. In 1965, experts from the World Bank determined the provision of financial assistance to the implementation of a set of economic reforms. During the year and a half of his tenure as prime minister, Shastri made decisions to reorient the main stream of state investment from heavy industry to agriculture; emphasis on intensive farming and land reclamation; incentives through the price system and the allocation of subsidies to village farms that are able to modernize production; increasing the role of private and foreign investment in industry. The economy became especially dependent on financial inflows from abroad when the additional burden of military spending fell on the country during the second war with Pakistan in 1965. Nehru's successors Lal Bahadur Shastri

The losses suffered by the INC in the parliamentary elections in 1967 did not deprive it of a narrow victory at the national level, but led to defeat in 8 states. In the states of Kerala and West Bengal, the INC was ousted from power by a coalition led by the Communist Party of India. In both states, the leftist governments restricted the activities of the police, and there the tenants and the agricultural proletariat launched uprisings against the landlords and factory workers - against the management of enterprises. Revolutionary-minded communists supported armed peasant riots in several states where the CPI operated. In the late 1960s, they organized performances by small peoples in Andhra Pradesh and members of the scheduled tribes and castes in West Bengal, which were suppressed by the army. Nehru's successors Parliament building in India

The country's next prime minister, Indira Gandhi, could no longer rely on the old party leaders and teamed up with a small youth group of socialists and ex-communists. The Prime Minister's decisive actions to nationalize the largest commercial banks linked her name with a new policy focused on helping the poor. The popularity of the prime minister reached its peak in 1971 as a result of victory in the third Indo-Pakistani war. With the emergence of Bangladesh, India found itself in a dominant position in the South Asian region. Moreover, in May 1974 she conducted nuclear tests, which demonstrated the increased military power of the country. Indira Gandhi

In 1971, the government restored the right of Parliament to amend the Constitution, which had been canceled in 1967 by a Supreme Court ruling. The adopted 26th amendment stated that any law must comply with the fundamental articles of the Constitution, based on the principles of social and economic justice. When the amendment was rejected by the Supreme Court in April 1973, the government removed the three oldest judges who had voted against it and appointed one of its members as chairman of the court, who spoke in favor of the amendment. The leaders of all opposition forces, except for the CPI, saw this act as a threat to the establishment of an authoritarian regime. J. Narayan, the oldest follower of Mahatma Gandhi, became the leader of the opposition. Narayan launched a campaign in Gujarat, which led in January 1974 to the resignation of ministers and the dissolution of the state legislature. An equally vigorous campaign was carried out in Bihar. The Political Crisis of Mahatma Gandhi

On June 2, 1975, Gandhi's accusation of "corrupt practices" gave her opponents the opportunity to organize a movement to remove the prime minister. In response, Gandhi imposed a state of emergency in India, resulting in mass arrests of political opponents and widespread censorship. In the March 1977 parliamentary elections, the new Janata Party, which was a bloc of opposition groups, won a landslide victory and repealed the emergency law. However, the Janata government soon became the victim of internal intrigues. Its head, M. Desai, resigned in June 1979, and Gandhi came to power again in the January 1980 parliamentary elections. The political crisis of Morarji Desai

The participation of the electorate in the 1980 elections was reduced to about 55% with an increase in the number of conflicts during the election campaign. In West Bengal, Kerala and Tripura, the KPI won. The central government faced a resurgence of separatist movements in the northeast, with a series of sectarian unrest in Uttar Pradesh. In all cases, to restore order had to resort to military force. In June 1984, after the outbreak of Sikh terrorism in the Punjab, the army stormed the Sikh shrine - the Golden Temple in Amritsar, which led to the death of the Sikh leader Bhindranwale and hundreds of his followers who had taken refuge in the temple. Gandhi's decisive action was greeted with approval in other parts of India, but revolted against the premier by the Sikhs. On October 31, 1984, I. Gandhi was killed by two of her Sikh guards. She was replaced as head of government and as leader of the INC by her son, Rajiv Gandhi, who scheduled parliamentary elections for the end of 1984 and won them a landslide victory. The political crisis of Rajiv Gandhi

In the 1989 elections, the anti-INC(I) parties rallied around former Finance Minister V. P. Singh, who then led a minority government. Singh's government was backed by the Janata Dal Party, founded in 1988, and supported by the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and two communist parties. The coalition collapsed in November 1990, when the BJP left it. Chandra Sekhar's next government resigned four months later as the INC(I) did not approve the draft state budget. Political crisis Coat of arms of the BJP

Rajiv Gandhi was killed by a bomb thrown by a Sri Lankan Tamil terrorist in May 1991. It was an act of revenge for the entry of Indian troops into the north of Sri Lanka in 1987 to counter the Tamil separatists. The new Prime Minister Narasimha Rao carried out in 1992 decisive economic reforms designed to modernize the country's industrial and scientific and technical base. Less successful was the Rao government's efforts to prevent inter-communal clashes that arose after the destruction of a mosque in Uttar Pradesh by orthodox Hindus in December 1992. Narasimha Rao's political crisis

Elections in April-May 1996 led to the distribution of seats in parliament between the three main factions: the INC (136 seats), the BJP (160) and a left-wing coalition called the United Front (111 seats). After the BJP refused to enter the majority government, the new prime minister, H. D. Deve Govda, recruited the INC to participate in it. The basis of the government was made up of representatives of regional and leftist parties. Political crisis Sonia Gandhi, INC leader

In April 1997, the INC refused to support the coalition led by Govda, and the prime minister was forced to resign. He was replaced by Inder Kumar Gujral, appointed by the President and approved by Parliament, who continued his predecessor's course of economic liberalization and growth of economic indicators, but refused to further cut social spending. India's foreign policy dialogue with Pakistan and China has intensified. The resignation of the government of Gujral led to early parliamentary elections in March 1998. A coalition consisting of 18 parties came to power, in which the BDP held a leading position. Political Crisis Trilateral Meeting of Foreign Ministers of China, India and Russia

The main task of the new Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee was to maintain a coalition government led by the BJP. In April 1999 there was a government crisis and the government was forced to resign. The lower house of parliament was dissolved. New parliamentary elections were held in October 1999. Despite the active participation in the election campaign of the Indian National Congress, the National Democratic Alliance, led by the BJP, won the majority in parliament. Vajpayee became Prime Minister again. India's nuclear tests have complicated its relations with most states of the world. In today's unstable environment, the figure of the president remains a factor of stability, who in 1997 for the first time in the history of the country elected a representative of the former caste of "untouchables" Kocheril Raman Narayanan, who previously held the post of vice president under Sh. D. Sharma, who belonged to the Brahmin caste. Political crisis of Atal Bihari Vajpayee

Conclusion After independence, India faced many paths of national development. The effective development of the state was hampered by a number of internal problems: strong social differentiation, the presence of castes and dogmas, the problem of national minorities, the struggle between Hindus and Muslims. But despite the difficulties and obstacles in development, India has managed to reform and strengthen the social, economic and other spheres of society. Now India is a modern, dynamically developing state, actively participating in solving international problems.

After the end of the Second World War, India experienced the rise of the national liberation movement. The British authorities, trying to stay in India, maneuvered, combining methods of brutal suppression with concessions and actions aimed at splitting the Indians.

Under the pretext of protecting the interests of Muslims and other minorities, the authorities established a system of elections to the Central Legislative Assembly in 1946 according to religious curia, which aggravated the conflict between the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Muslim League. The INC program included demands for the independence of the country and the equality of all its citizens, the unity of Hindus, Muslims and adherents of other religions:

The main demand of the Muslim League was the division of India into two states on religious grounds and the creation of the Muslim state of Pakistan "the land of the pure."

The INC and the Muslim League received a majority in their curiae, but in a number of provinces a large number of Muslims supported the program of the Inc. The vast majority of the population spoke out against British domination.

The INC included representatives of various social strata, was very authoritative due to many years of opposition to the colonialists. The most popular leaders of the INC were M. Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru.

In August 1946, a provisional government headed by Nehru was established. The Muslim League refused to enter the government and proclaimed the start of a direct struggle for Pakistan. Already in August, pogroms began in Calcutta in the Hindu quarters, in response, the Muslim quarters of the city flared up. Clashes between Hindus and Muslims, developing into a massacre, spread to other parts of the country.

In February 1947, the British government announced its intention to grant India the rights of a dominion on the condition that it be divided along religious lines into the Indian Union and Pakistan. The principalities themselves decided which of the dominions they entered. The INC and the Muslim League accepted this plan.

A huge number of refugees moved from the Pakistani parts to the Indian regions and vice versa. Hundreds of thousands were killed. M. Gandhi spoke out against inciting religious hatred. He demanded the creation of acceptable conditions for the Muslims who remained in India. This caused attacks, accusations of betraying the interests of the Hindus. In January 1948, M. Gandhi was killed by a member of one of the religious organizations.

On August 14, 1947, the founding of the Dominion of Pakistan was proclaimed. Leader of the Muslim League becomes Prime Minister of Pakistan Liqiat Ali Khan. On August 15, the Indian Union declared its independence. Of the 600 principalities, the vast majority joined India. The first Indian government was headed by J. Nehru.

When dividing the territory, neither economic ties between regions, nor geographical boundaries, nor national composition were taken into account. 90% of all mineral reserves, textile and sugar industries remained on Indian territory. Most of the areas for the production of bread and industrial crops went to Pakistan.

A difficult situation has developed in the principality of Kashmir. It was supposed to become part of the Indian Union, although the majority of the population were Muslims. In autumn 1947, Pakistani troops invaded Kashmir. The Maharaja announced his accession to India, and Indian troops entered Kashmir. But the western part of the principality was occupied by Pakistani troops. The Kashmir issue became a bone of contention between India and Pakistan and one of the main causes of the Indo-Pakistani wars of 1965 and 1971. The result of the 1971 war was the formation of the state of Bangladesh on the site of East Pakistan.

In 1949, India adopted a constitution declaring it a republic. Election victories until the end of the 70s. 20th century won the INC. Its leaders advocated the development of a mixed economy with a strong position of the state in it. Agrarian reform and various social transformations were carried out. The Indian economy, despite all the difficulties, developed quite successfully. Evidence of this was the creation and testing by India at the turn of the 21st century. nuclear weapons.

In foreign policy, India has taken a course of non-participation in blocs, the struggle for peace. Friendly relations were maintained with the USSR. After Nehru's death, the post of prime minister passed to his daughter Indira Gandhi. After the assassination of I. Gandhi in 1984, her son became prime minister Rajiv Gandhi, killed in 1991. These killings are connected with the activation of the nationalist and separatist

movements (Sikhs, Tamils). At the end of the twentieth century. The INC has lost its monopoly on power. Representatives of the Hindu parties came to rule the country (Prime Minister A. Vajpayee). However, the main directions of domestic and foreign policy, as well as the overall successful development of the country, continue.

Ticket number 16.India after World War II

During World War II, India officially sided with the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition, but its politicians behaved differently. The Indian National Congress made claims to the British government: they promised to support England in the war only if the British government officially recognized India's right to self-determination, convene a constituent assembly and form a responsible government (they demanded independent government). The British government did not agree and from 42 to 44 the Indian National Congress was banned. => during these years the Indian National Congress fought on two fronts against both Hitler and the British government. By the end of World War II, England's position softened. The main problem remained the relationship between the Congress and the Muslim League (their divergence point is the sequence of granting independence. The Indian National Congress demanded first to grant independence, and then to draw a territorial demarcation between Muslims and Hindus, the Muslim League, on the contrary, was afraid to remain part of India without the English presence)

In 1944, the congress begins normal political activity. After the end of the Second World War, in June the Viceroy Archibald Wavell provides a plan to grant India independence (actually a protectorate):

1. 1. dominion status
2. 2. Hindu right to their own constitution
3. 3. Giving Indians all seats in the executive council (government), with the exception of the post of viceroy (head of the council) and commander-in-chief (The troops are under the authority of the metropolis)
4. 4. Law of External Relations
5. 5. Separate representation in the council of caste Hindus

Nobody liked this plan. The Indian National Congress demanded that the representation of the caste Hindus be behind it. The Muslim League demanded that it alone provide Muslims, not recognizing the right to represent Muslims for the Indian National Congress. (Further, the new Labor government is trying in every possible way to speed up the granting of independence, and the Indians cannot distribute the sequence of obtaining it)

In 1946 there is a division into various zones in which a vote on the creation of various states should take place. East-west (now Pakistan and Bangladesh) - majority of Muslims and north (Hindustan, Rajputana, Bidar, Bengal) center (Dean) south. It is assumed that the first two zones (west and east) will be united into one state, and the rest - a separate Hindu state. But several problems arise:

• Punjab problem (Half Muslims and half Hindus)
• The Jamma and Kashmir issue
• Hyderabad issue (significantly assimilated by Muslims)

Attlee (Prime Minister of Great Britain, Viceroy of India) cannot resolve these issues. In February 1947, he already issued the 3rd declaration, which speaks of the withdrawal of England no later than 1948.

In March 1947 Attlee was replaced by Mountbatten (the last Viceroy of India). He provides the Mountbatten plan (If Hindus and Muslims do not agree among themselves during 47, he will transfer power to the provinces) => begin to stir, 1947 - the formation of 2 dominions: Pakistan (lasted until 1956) and India (lasted until 1950).

On August 15, 1947, Mountbatten's plan for the independence of India comes into force. The English king continues to be the head of India for 3 years, Jawaharlal Nehru becomes the prime minister.

From 1947 to 1949, 555 principalities (there were 601 in total) joined India, they entered on different grounds. But in general, not the most favorable period for India (+ the period of skirmishes, hostilities between Muslims and Hindus, who wandered around problem areas and did not know where to settle). The princes of problem areas were left with the right to decide the issue of accession on their own Hyderabad issue: the ruler of Hyderabad had to decide whether he would join India or Pakistan, so the Indian troops stood around the perimeter of Hyderabad and asked to decide as soon as possible => the Raja of Hyderabad decided to join India. The Jamma and Kashmir issue: the rajah was a Hindu, and the population were Muslims. Indian troops entered Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan considered this an act of aggression => a war began, which continues to this day.

India - a multi-ethnic country - it was decided that for 15 years the state language, along with Hindi, would be English (it has remained so to this day). In 1950, a constitution was adopted, according to which three groups of states with different legal status were created in India:

1. Former provinces of British India. Governance: State Governor, State Government and Local Bicameral Parliament.
2. former principalities. Governance: the prince became governor and has a unicameral assembly
3. Former commissioner provinces—provinces that had administration—reported directly to the central government. Administration: State Governor or Presidential Commissioner appointed by the government.

Since 1950, India has been declared independent. . The leading political force is the Indian National Congress, which has various currents. The main current was Jawaharlal Nehru(left and centrist wing) - a formally mixed economy (in fact, the dominance of the public sector), a planned economy, agrarian reform. In foreign policy, formal neutrality, in reality, inclination towards the political orientation of the Soviet Union. Right wing - represented by Deputy Prime Minister Patel + influential figure - Congress President Tandon - freedom of enterprise, creation of a modern market, integration into the international capitalist system.

After declaring independence from the Indian National Congress, various parties begin to sprout:

• Peasant Workers' Party
• Congress Socialists => Socialist Party
• Dominated by Jawaharlal Nehru – congress socialism and Gandhian socialism

In the first elections of 1951 The Indian National Congress was opposed by the Jan Sangh (People's Union). The Jan Sangh is an ally of the Communalist Party (traditional Hindu organizations like the Hindu Mahasabha and Rashtriya swayamsevak sanghan) - defended the interests of Hindus . The head is Mukherjee. The program is the building of true nationalism, (the slogan of the Indian National Congress was secularism - the separation of religion from the state), the demand for a change in secularist politics, patronage of the Hindus and ensuring their priority. The Indian National Congress wins the elections (75 seats in parliament).

Nehru's course begins to be implemented:

1. Providing yourself with everything you need, creating an import-substituting industry.
2. The program of the National Congress provided for the creation of ethnolinguistic states. In 1956, a state reorganization law was passed, according to which homogeneous ethnolinguistic communities should exist in 19 states and union territories (which again raised the problem of a single language - it became clear that the introduction of Hindi as the state language was being postponed)
3. In the first term of the Indian National Congress, subcongressional socialism was revealed - the restriction of acquisitive instincts and possessive aspirations
4. It was believed that it was necessary to fight caste restrictions (the abolition of the untouchables)
5. Creation of conditions for the development of backward peoples and tribes
6. Emphasis on statism and the mixed economy

In the second elections of 1957 - again the victory of the Indian National Congress, but with less support from the people (it decreased especially in the regional areas). This election also saw the rise of the Jan Sangh.

In 1959, a group comes out of the congress that is dissatisfied with the course of Nehru - Swatantra (a more right-wing organization), which adjoins the Jan Sangh, they are also going to build true Hindu socialism.

In 1957, the Republican Party was created, which expressed the interests of low-caste and non-caste Indians.

Parties are created on the basis of various sects: Rajputs, Brahmins.

1962 - third election . One can see a significant loss of authority of the Indian National Congress (lost 6 million voters). The right Svatantra and Jan Sangh are getting stronger. A factional struggle is unfolding in the Indian National Congress, if earlier Jawaharlal Nehru represented both leftists and centrists, now only centrists. The left gets its new leader - Mallaviya, the right remains Patel and Desai. => factions within the Indian National Congress oppose the officially nominated congressional candidates. In 1963 Morarji Desai and Patel form a group within the congress called the Syndicate and in 1969 they withdraw from the Indian National Congress.

Jawaharlal Nehru dies in 1964 Lal Bahadur Shastri becomes prime minister– cannot overcome congressional divisions; disintegration continues.

In India, in fact 5 communist parties:

• ・Communist Party
• Marxist Communist Party
• The Central Party of Marxist Intellectuals
• Marxist-Leninist Communist Party
• The Naxalite movement

During this time, the 1964-65 war with Pakistan. The reconciliation of the parties takes place in Tashkent. In 1967, Lal Bahadur Shastri realized that he could not cope with the management of the Indian National Congress and with India => gradually eliminated from long. In 1967, as a result of an internal political struggle, Indira Gandhi came to power in the Indian National Congress.

1967 - fourth election , in which the Indian National Congress loses a significant number of seats in Parliament (19 seats in the House of the People). In 1969, Morarji Desai comes out and a split occurs:

• Indian National Congress with Indira
• Indian National Congress Syndicate (organization) with Desai

At this time, on the one hand, the state is developing in the country. sector and heavy industry, the latest technologies are being created, agrarian reform is underway (due to the redistribution of land between large landowners and the poor), and at the same time, there is wild poverty in the country, 70% of the country are in extreme poverty. All economic successes take place in a smaller part of the population.

Fifth election 1971-72 took place against the backdrop of a strong foreign policy success of India, there was a split in India's traditional adversary - Pakistan (in 1971 Pakistan lost its eastern half and Bangladesh was formed). => The Indian National Congress received an absolute majority and the ability to change the constitution.

Against the backdrop of the success of the Indian National Congress, the opposition forces unite: Swatantra, Jan Sangh, the Indian National Congress Syndicate, the United Socialist Party and the Regional Congress - they are trying to resist the Indian Congress.

1974-75: the situation escalates, the Indian People's Party (agrarian) is formed, which is based on the expression of the interests of the rich sections of the village (dissatisfied with the agrarian reform)

In 1975, a trial was initiated against Indira Gandhi, she was accused of electoral fraud, violation of state laws. Ram is nominated for the post of prime minister. In 1975, a state of emergency was introduced in India, and the Indian National Congress tried to stabilize its social base with the help of emergency measures. A youth movement led by Indira's son, Sanjay Gandhi, a supporter of tough problem-solving methods, is advancing into the political arena => puts forward a program:

1. Elimination of illiteracy (going to the people, education of the masses + along the way explaining to them how good the policy of Indira Gandhi is)
2. The fight against caste (elimination of untouchability) - the rise of lower castes
3. Cancellation of the dowry
4. The fight for the cleanliness of the streets (demolition of old houses and the construction of new ones from which they made a profit)
5. The fight against the birth rate was reduced to the sterilization of the male population.

In January 1977, the state of emergency was lifted, and elections were scheduled for March. A popular front (Jarata front) was created by the Apposition, led by Morarji Desi, whose main task was:

1. Restoration of democratic freedoms (Indira was accused of authoritarianism)
2. Carrying out agrarian reform is not of a social nature, but carrying out a “green revolution” and introducing new technologies to increase productivity.
3. Employment
4. Limiting the public sector and providing more freedom to entrepreneurs (+ there were even privatization projects in the lans of the Popular Front)

Sixth Election 1977 - the first defeat of the Indian National Congress. Jarat is in power at the front, represented by a conglomeration of various parties. They tried to make a party out of the front => May 1977 - Jaratah party, but as soon as they united, they begin to grind. Various parties begin to emerge from the Jarat front => in fact, it is disintegrating. All this leads to destabilization, disruption of control. =>

In the seventh election 1980 Indian National Congress wins again. (Changes have taken place within the congress during this time - there has been a desire to retreat somewhat from the course of Gandhian socialism)

At this time, national oppositional movements are activated in the country:

• Sikhs - announce their desire to create their own state of Khalistan
• Tamils ​​- trying to form an independent state of Tamil Eelam
• Jammu and Kashmir - openly secret military operations are being conducted

Internal struggle leads to serious consequences. Indira Gandhi's guard consisted of Sikhs => October 1984 - they killed Indira.

In the eighth elections 1984 wins Indian National Congress headed by Rajiv Gandhi (he completely changes the political course):

1. Retreats from Gandhian socialism
2. Privatization begins, the share of state property decreases. sectors
3. India is leaning towards the US, Germany and Japan - the internal and external course changes sharply

At the same time, Rajiv Gandhi's government is under attack for corruption, which is drastically undermining the credibility of the Indian National Congress. A group of members comes out of it again in 1988.

The ninth election in 1989 is the second defeat of the congress. The congressional government resigns and the national front (Rashtriya Morcha) comes to power, led by Vishwanath Pratap Singh. => There is no stability, from 1989 to 1991 various political forces continue to flog (from among the right: a pariah is formed on the basis of the Jarat front - Bharatiya Janata Party).

1991 tenth election (between rounds of elections, Rajiv Gandhi is killed) => Compassionate Hindus vote for the Indian National Congress. In India, the new prime minister is Narasimha Rao, in his program:

1. Denationalization
2. Change from an import-substituting economy to a licensed one

1990s - sharp growth and modernization of the economy. Eleventh election 1996 Indian National Congress loses(the problem of privatization, enrichment, the transition to friendship with America is not originally a policy of Congress, there are those who do it better).

In the twelfth elections 1996 winsBharatiya Janata Party. Comes to powerAtal Bihari Vajpayee (serves as Prime Minister for a short time - May 16, 1996 - June 1, 1996 )

+ A new organization appeared - the United Front ( headed by Deve Govda,which since June 1, 1996 served as Prime Minister of India from the United Front (a coalition of 13 centrist and leftist parties). The Government of Deve Govda resigned on April 21, 1997 ) - technocrats, people representing mainly regional interests (focused on settling relations with China). In fact, they pursued the policy that The Indian National Congress in 1991-95, but they did it better and with more certainty - they are following the path of development of capitalism (private enterprises are being sold, privatization is underway). But they lack certainty (either Gandhian socialism or true nationalism) => The result of a parliamentary compromise between the Congress and the United Front, who did not want to hold early general parliamentary elections after the resignation of the government of H.D. Virgin Govda, became the government of I.K. Gujrala (Janata Dal Party - Prime Minister April 21, 1997 - March 19, 1998).

Thirteenth Election 1998 - again the success of the Bharatiya Janata Party. PremierAtal Bihari Vajpayee, in During Vajpayee's premiership, India conducted its first nuclear test at a test site in the state of Rajasthan. (Sharp economic growth, development zones stand out - India stands out among the leading countries) All this cannot but disturb that part of society that is committed to the ideas of Gandhism (the Gandhi family at that time was headed by Italian Sonia Gandijena Rajiba.

Fourteenth Election 2004 - victory Indian National Congress and the problem arises whether to make an Italian prime minister or to act differently. As a result, the Hindu - Manmohan becomes the prime minister Singh.

The end of the Second World War and the first post-war years constituted a whole historical epoch for Asia. The August Revolution in Vietnam won, the liberation of Indonesia began, Burma, Laos, and Cambodia became independent. Revolutionary China was celebrating the success of many years of struggle.
The same period saw the national liberation revolution in India. No longer relying on the hypocritical promises of England, the Indian working class and the Indian peasantry demanded independence and achieved it by revolutionary means. In February 1946, an uprising of Indian military sailors began (almost 20 ships raised red flags).
The British Labor government was to make a declaration granting political independence to India within the framework of the British Commonwealth of Nations.
A special mission sent to India from London proposed the following plan: India will be transformed into a union of autonomous provinces and principalities, and after that it will be entitled to be considered a dominion; provinces, in turn, are divided into Hindu and Muslim - on a religious basis.
This plan had a chain dismemberment of the country: it was assumed that in this way it would be easier to keep it in its former dependence.
After various maneuvers aimed at separating and quarreling among themselves the two main political parties of national liberation - the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League - England succeeded in carrying out a plan for the partition of India. The law of August 15, 1947 created two dominions: India and Pakistan.
Pakistan (111 million people) was made up of two parts separated by 1.5 thousand kilometers from each other. The principality of Kashmir was claimed by both India and Pakistan. Already in October 1947, Pakistani armed detachments occupied part of Kashmir. At the request of the Maharaja of Kashmir, the principality was included in India (1947).
The dismemberment of the country entailed innumerable disasters. Hundreds of thousands of people were forcibly moved from one dominion to another. Economic ties that had been established for centuries were artificially severed. Religious strife became even more fierce.
When the division into two parts of the province of Punjab began, the struggle between the Hindus (and Sikhs), on the one hand, and the Muslims, on the other, resulted in a massacre. About 500 thousand people died and at least 12 million were left homeless. Pogroms and massacres swept over the whole vast country and, as far as the Punjab is concerned, have not stopped until now.
The dismemberment was followed by the creation of the governments of India and Pakistan. The government of India was formed by the Indian National Congress - the party of the national bourgeoisie, landowners, and intellectuals. D. Nehru became the head of the government.
The national independence of India receives its final confirmation in the act of January 26, 1950, by which India is declared a "sovereign and democratic republic." On the same day, the constitution of the Indian Republic was put into effect.
The constitution proclaimed the federal structure of the new state: at the beginning, the states differed in the form of government, but in 1956 a reform was carried out that introduced a new administrative division. Currently, the states have a uniform system of government.
The principalities of India (Hyderabad, Mysore, etc.) were to become part of the republic: the attempts of their feudal overlords to remain aloof were frustrated by the masses.
The equality of citizens is recognized regardless of the caste and religion to which they belong.
The castes we talked about in describing ancient India have not disappeared to this day. This division is especially noticeable in the countryside, where the custom holds on stronger and longer.
The predominance of Brahmins (Brahmins) is undoubtedly in political life: the main cadres of state officials of the highest rank, leaders of political parties and organizations are made up of them.
At least 70 million people of the Indian population are "untouchables": rickshaws, sweepers, messengers, sewers, etc. And although the laws are on their side, the old customs have not yet disappeared.
The Constitution contains a special reference to the provision of the people with the means of subsistence as a task of management, and the protection of the labor of workers and minors.
In this connection the agrarian reform (whose task should be the abolition of feudal landownership and feudal remnants in general) and the country's industrialization policy deserve mention.
The first agrarian reform began to be carried out in 1948, but it was limited in nature, carried out by state governments, and amounted to some alienation (for a fee) of the surplus land of the landowners. The redemption payments were very high (10-15 year annuity), and therefore only the kulaks benefited from the fruits of the reform.
In subsequent years, new measures were taken to redistribute land. However, even after that the situation changed little: the peasants owned the same amount of land (27 percent) as the 2 percent of the big landowners.
The industrialization of the country is carried out on the basis of state plans. Particular attention is paid to the creation of the state sector of the national economy. India has created some of the most important industrial complexes.
In November 1949, the constitution of India came into force. The head of the Indian Republic is the President, who is elected for a term of 5 years. He appoints the prime minister of the government (Council of Ministers). The latter is responsible to Parliament. Parliament is bicameral. One of its chambers is elected by state electors, the other by popular vote. The right to vote is universal and is granted to citizens from the age of 21.
Bearing in mind the separatist aspirations of some states, and even more the inevitability of sharp social clashes, the Indian constitution provides for the right of the president to declare a state of emergency and take emergency measures to curb anti-government actions.