III. Implementation of reforms by Selim III and Mahmud II

20.09.2019

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Reforms of Selim III

The end of the 18th century made it even more difficult political life Ottoman Empire. Ideas french revolution penetrated the Balkans and the Greek islands of the Aegean Sea and gave additional impetus to the liberation struggle of the conquered peoples. The emerging bourgeoisie stood at the head of spontaneous peasant uprisings, which gave them organization.

At the same time, fierce feudal unrest flared up in the country, covering vast areas of the empire. So, for example, Vidimsky Pasha Osman Pazvand-oglu, having started with robberies and plunder of Serbia and Wallachia, disobeyed the Sultan and even began minting coins in his own name. Ali Pasha settled in Ioannina, subjugating Epirus, Southern Albania and part of the Seas to his power. Pasha of Skutari (northern Albania) and Pasha of Bosnia, heads of districts (ayans) of Rushchuk, Seree and others also turned into semi-independent rulers. In Kurdistan, Iraq, Syria, Palestine, and even more so in Arabia, Egypt and the Maghreb, the power of the Sultan was illusory.

The sultans and viziers could not understand the real reasons for the collapse of the state. But they clearly felt the external manifestations of the crisis: the devastation of the treasury, military defeats, Janissary uprisings, arbitrariness of pashas and ayans, bribery, the fall of entire regions, liberation movements oppressed peoples. For this reason, the most far-sighted of Turkish statesmen, trying to preserve the foundations of Turkish feudal rule, began to look for ways to centralize and strengthen central power.

At the end of the 18th century. A reform plan arose, aimed primarily at overcoming the fragmentation of the Ottoman Empire. These reforms boiled down mainly to measures of a military-technical nature, to strengthening the army and administration

and finance. This was a belated attempt by the ruling class to save the collapsing empire. The reforms were associated with the name of those who entered in 1789. to the throne of the Sultan Selima III. However, the personal role of Selim PI was small. In fact, several dignitaries acted in his name. In 1792-1796 gᴦ. decrees of the Sultan were published on the confiscation of timars and zeamets from those captives who do not fulfill their military obligations to the state, on the establishment of a separate treasury to finance new institutions, on the opening of a military engineering school, on transformations in the fleet and on the creation of a new corps of regular troops, trained and disciplined in a European way.

The set of activities of Selim PI, as well as the regular army he created, intended to later replace the army of the Janissaries, were called ʼʼNizam-i-Jadidʼʼ ( new system). These armed forces, although small in number, differed favorably from the Janissaries in their discipline and military training. With the help of foreign instructors, a significant military fleet was rebuilt, numbering end of the XVIII V. 23 battleships and a number of smaller ships. Selim PI also tried to reform civil administration: he subordinated the activities of the Grand Vizier to the control of the unofficial “council of twelve,” composed of people close to the Sultan, and established permanent embassies abroad.

At the same time, the Sultan’s social support was narrow and unreliable. The Sultan's supporters - educated metropolitan nobles and a small part of provincial feudal lords - were few in number and indecisive. The overwhelming majority of secular and, especially, spiritual feudal lords actively opposed the reforms, seeing in them an attack on ancient privileges. For this reason, the Sultan was unable to carry out any significant economic reforms. Economic, material base The central government was not only not strengthened, but, on the contrary, weakened by the unsuccessful fight against opponents of reforms. The Janissaries were especially concerned, fearing that their corps would be liquidated and replaced by Nizam-i-Jadid troops. And the Janissaries were not only a military unit, but also a privileged class group.

Selim PI did not have the opportunity to rely on the bourgeoisie. The Turkish national bourgeoisie was simply not yet formed. For the more socially and economically developed foreign bourgeoisie (in particular, the Greek and Slavic), although it was interested in ensuring order and security, Turkish domination itself was unacceptable.

Reforms have placed a heavy burden on masses, and above all on the peasantry. The introduction of new heavy taxes and levies exacerbated the discontent of the masses.

As a result, Selim PI found himself faced with insurmountable obstacles. In addition, foreign policy complications arose, further weakening supporters of the reforms.

Reforms of Selim III - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Selim III Reforms" 2017, 2018.

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The first attempts at reforms were made by the Ottomans back in mid-17th century centuries. During the period of the Grand Vizier Mahmed Köprülü, the government tried to strengthen the structure of the army and the state both by restoring combat capability timariotes, and due to the reduction of waqf lands. The results of the first reforms were not long-lasting.

At the end of the 18th century. The state, having been defeated in wars with the Russian Empire, begins the second round of reforms. Reformers wanted to stop the collapse of the Empire and strengthen the state, as well as create conditions for economic development. The second round of reforms can be divided into two stages:

– reforms of Selim III and Mahmud II (1791-1839);

– Tanzimat (1839 – 1871/1876).

At the first stage (1791-1839), the reform of the state was carried out by Sultans Selim III (1789-1807) and Mahmud II (1808-1839). In 1791, Selim III instructed his subjects to provide written proposals on reforming the state. A total of 17 were received; according to other sources, 22 memos on reforms. Based on these proposals, it was decided to begin reforms. Sometimes historians reduce them only to military reform. Indeed, military reform was the most important, but not the only goal of the reformers. Selim III's reforms were called "Nizam-i Jadid", which means "new system". The first decree (1792) did not completely abolish the military-feudal system, but only took away lands from those fiefs who refused to carry military service. In addition, it was planned to create a new infantry corps trained by the French and improve the navy. To solve the assigned problems, it was planned to reorganize the state apparatus, streamline finances, and build manufacturing-type enterprises serving the needs of the army. The “new system” did not affect the foundations of the existing system; it was only supposed to update and strengthen it. The government sought to achieve real control over the provinces. Selim III issued a special decree defining the procedure for appointing governors and their duties. Miller A.F. believes that the main goal of the reformers was the creation of a feudal-absolutist state. It seems to us that the term “absolutism” in relation to Ottoman Turkey can only be used with reservations. After all, in classic version European absolutism destroyed existing class institutions, medieval liberties and freedoms. That is, the rights and privileges of cities and classes, which never existed in the despotic states of Asia. Of course, the reformers considered strengthening statehood their the most important task. However, Porto during the times of Selim III and Mahmud II can hardly be considered an absolutist power, because some of its outskirts had not been subordinate to the central government for a long time. Only during the time of Selim III did Turkey have to wage a war with France (1798-1802) in order not to lose Egypt, and also engage in the suppression of the liberation movement in the Balkan provinces of Greece, Serbia and Montenegro.

Reforms of Selim III under favorable conditions could lead to progress in economics and military affairs. However, the situation in the country was difficult; the government did not have support among the people. The reforms were primarily beneficial to the state. As a result of the reforms, the peasantry of Porta received only one thing - an increase in taxes. The cities of the Empire remained adherents of traditional principles: artisans were downtrodden, merchants relied only on themselves. The most enterprising of them belonged to non-Turkish nationalities; they did not care about strengthening Turkish statehood. The reforms were opposed Janissaries. The fact is that the regular units created by the Sultan compared favorably with janissary discipline, military training. In the future, they were supposed to replace the Janissary corps. The major beys of Anatolia, Rumelia and other regions opposed the centralization plans of the Sultan.

Reforms were hampered by unfavorable external conditions: Napoleon's invasion of Egypt (1798) and the war with Russia (1806). Napoleon Bonaparte initially stated that the purpose of his campaign was to restore order in Egypt. He intends to punish the Mamluk beys for disobedience to the Sultan. Selim III declared war on France and sent the Albanian officer Muhammad Ali to Egypt. In 1805, Muhammad Ali was proclaimed ruler of the North African province. And although the Sultan, saving face, awarded him the title of pasha, Türkiye lost power over Egypt.

In 1806, the French provoked a conflict between the Porte and Russia. Another Russian-Turkish war began (1806-1812). It ended in victory for Russia. According to the Treaty of Bucharest, Russia received Bessarabia and a number of regions of Transcaucasia. Russia's right to the patronage of Moldova and Wallachia was confirmed. The Porte pledged to grant autonomy to Serbia. In 1810, Abkhazia voluntarily became part of Russia. These events, as well as performances janissary, led to the suspension of reforms. Therefore, it is difficult to determine the extent of their impact on the socio-economic situation in the country.

In 1807 ulema And Janissaries a rebellion was organized that put an end to both the reforms and the reign of Selim III. The Sultan was overthrown and then killed. The new Sultan Mustafa IV became a hostage janissary And ulema. A year later (1808), Mustafa Pasha Bayraktar, who headed the society of “Rushuk friends,” resumed reforms. The reformers managed to place Mahmud II on the throne. However, a new Janissary rebellion thwarted these plans, throwing Turkey back to the Middle Ages. Mahmud II survived due to the fact that he was the last descendant of the Ottoman family. It is interesting that two associates of Bayraktar, Ahmed Efendi and Ramiz Efendi, fled to Russia in 1809 and became political emigrants.

Mahmud II (1808-1839) did not immediately continue the reforms. The fate of Selim III became a deterrent for the young ruler. Only in 1812 did the Sultan decide to make changes. The impetus was the successes of the Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali. Muhammad Ali managed not only to strengthen his power in Egypt, organize a strong army, but also to put an end to the Mamluks (Egyptian Janissaries). In the first years of his reign, Mahmud II acted using traditional eastern methods: he physically destroyed the separatist-minded rulers of individual regions.

In 1822-1826. a favorable environment has been created for the continuation of reforms. Janissaries failed to suppress the uprising in Greece; Asia Minor and Rumelian rulers refused to obey the Sultan and did not participate in suppressing the uprising. Mahmud II turned to the Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali for help. He already helped the Porte in Arabia (1811-1818), when the state was defeated during the war Wahhabis. In 1824, Egyptian troops landed on Crete and Morea, where they brutally dealt with the rebel Greeks. However, the Egyptian Pasha behaved independently. The Sultan understood that to preserve the state it was necessary to rely on own strength. He turned to the clergy for help and received their support in creating a regular army. This caused another riot janissary. In June 1826, the rebels Janissaries were surrounded in Istanbul by new regular troops and shot from cannons. Mahmud II said that he was copying the reprisal of Peter I against the rebel archers. As a result of these actions of the Sultan, tens of thousands janissary died, their corpses were thrown into the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara. After the defeat of the Janissary corps, resistance to reforms was weakened. The Sultan was able to continue the reforms he had begun. The goal remained the same - strengthening the Empire.

In 1826, Mahmud II issued a decree on the creation of a regular army. However, its implementation was suspended by serious foreign policy problems in Turkey. In 1827, an Anglo-French-Russian agreement was signed providing for the autonomy of Greece, and in the same year the combined fleet of the three powers destroyed the Egyptian fleet in the Bay of Navarino. Russo-Turkish War 1828-1829 ended in the complete defeat of Turkey. The Treaty of Adrianople (1829) obliged the Porte to grant autonomy to Serbia and Greece. Russia retained the right to participate in the fate of Moldova and Wallachia. Mahmud II's position was critical. In 1830, Türkiye lost Algeria, it became a French colony. In 1833, with the help of Russia, the “Egyptian crisis” was overcome. By agreement with the Sultan, Muhammad Ali retained power over Egypt, Syria with Palestine and Cilicia, but he withdrew his troops from Anatolia and formally recognized the suzerainty of the Sultan. It was necessary to speed up the implementation of reforms.

Only eight years after the defeat of the Janissary corps was the military-feudal system eliminated (1834). Timara And Ziamets were attached to the state fund. Approximately 60% of the former horsemen lost their lands. Some of the landowners (30%) managed to turn their holdings into land property, that is, into chiftliks. However, this did not lead to the development of capitalism in the Turkish countryside, since the lands of the former peasants were cultivated by sharecroppers. Lease conditions became increasingly strict. In the same year, the country was divided territorially into regions and districts. But administrative reform was carried out only in those areas where the Sultan was supported by the Turkish bey And pasha. The reform did not apply to Egypt with its possessions in the Arab countries of Asia.

In 1836, the customs system was unified and the state monopoly on the purchase of wheat and wool was abolished. In 1836-1837 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was created; decrees were issued regulating the appearance of officials and the Turkish elite.

According to one contemporary, “colorful oriental clothes gave way to European dark caftans, narrow trousers, the turban was replaced by a fez, and the size of the beard decreased. The younger generation of high Turkish society began chattering in French, burbling and simpering; patent leather boots took the place of yellow shoes; The bare feet of rich women are dressed in thin, well-stretched stockings, and even some waists seem to be already being compressed by corsets. The European crews were separated on recumbent springs.”

The reforms of Mahmud II were a continuation of the reforms of Selim III. Objectively, they contributed to the development of market relations, but did not affect the traditional socio-political basis of the Empire and maintained the dominance of the Turks over the conquered peoples. It should be noted that if, compared to Europe, the reformers were late, then in the Porte itself the reforms and especially their pro-Western orientation aroused the indignation of devout Muslims. Mahmud II was known among the ulema as an “atheist.”

Reforms of Sultan Selim III

The weakened Sultan's government became dependent on the Europeans. The last resort to save the empire from complete collapse was the speedy implementation of reforms.

This responsibility was assumed by Sultan Selim III (1789-1807), who had just ascended the Turkish throne. First of all, to preserve the military power of the state, military reforms began to be carried out: artillery and new troops were formed, which were created in a European manner, the fleet was rebuilt, and a military engineering school was opened in Istanbul.

The discontent of the Janissaries necessitated the formation of new troops. The Janissaries supported conservative groups who were against reform. In 1805 they rebelled.

The riot began in the European part of Istanbul and gradually spread to the entire city. As a result of the Janissary uprising in 1807, Selim III lost his throne and was executed. All reforms were canceled and their supporters were punished. Reform efforts ended in failure.

The ruler of Rumelia, Mustafa Pasha Bayraktar, decided to continue the reforms begun in the Ottoman Empire. He achieved the overthrow of Sultan Mustafa, who was conservative and hated everything new, from the throne, and placed the young Mahmud II on the throne. Mustafa Bayraktar himself took the position of vizier and began to carry out reforms. He began to implement a policy of non-violent submission of the feudal lords to the Sultan's government, trying to create a peaceful alliance among the major rulers of the Porte (Turkish government). To do this, he invites noble and wealthy feudal lords to the capital, introduces them to members of the government and calls on them to jointly discuss reform plans and approve alliance agreements. These plans of Bayraktar were not realized. The Janissaries rebelled again, killed Bayraktar, and all his reform plans were forgotten.

The reason for the failure of these reforms was superficial changes in society, for example, the creation of troops on the European model, while preserving imperial remnants. The reforms themselves were progressive and useful. But Selim III and his supporters did not want the complete destruction of the feudal-sultanic order of the Ottoman Empire. They hoped to preserve the old system by keeping the conquered peoples under the yoke and disregarding their political, economic, cultural and religious traditions. This led to a strengthening of the national liberation movement, and peoples began to leave the empire one after another. At the same time, the position of the Turks in Anatolia worsened, which the Turkish Sultan was unable to improve.

Questions and tasks

1. Name and show on the map the territories that the Ottoman Turks captured by the 16th century.

ascended the throne after Abdul Hamid I in 1789 and reigned until 1807, son of Mustafa III, twenty-eighth Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. Selim III became the last and most consistent of a series of “traditionalist” reformers who, from the beginning of the 17th century. tried to save the crumbling Ottoman Empire by reviving its traditional institutions.

Selim received western education and considered a radical transformation of Ottoman society necessary. He conducted secret correspondence with the King of France, Louis XVI, whom he considered an example of an enlightened monarch. But from the moment of his accession to the throne until 1792, Selim could not seriously engage in reforms within the country because of the bloody war with Russia and Austria, which he inherited from Abdul Hamid I. Only after the conclusion of the Peace of Yassy (1792), which put an end to This war, the Sultan was able to devote himself entirely to internal affairs.

To protect himself from constant military rebellions, Selim created a military corps, armed, organized and trained according to last word European military art. To finance this corps, the Sultan established a new treasury, the funds of which were entirely separated from those usually used for the needs of the old institutions. The Treasury and Military Corps were called " New order"("Nazami Jedid").

The creation of new military formations to solve new problems while maintaining old structures was a common practice in the Ottoman Empire. This reform failed because the old military establishment was strong enough to remove Selim from power (1807).

After his removal, Selim continued to live in the palace under his successor Mustafa IV (reigned 1807–1808). When the army led by Bayraktar Mustafa Pasha entered Istanbul from Edirne (Adrianople) in order to return the throne to Selim, Mustafa killed Selim. As a result cousin Selima Mahmud, who miraculously escaped death, ascended the Ottoman throne in 1808 under the name of Mahmud II.

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Reforms of Selim III

The end of the 18th century further complicated the political life of the Ottoman Empire. The ideas of the French Revolution penetrated the Balkans and the Greek islands of the Aegean Sea and gave additional impetus to the liberation struggle of the conquered peoples. The emerging bourgeoisie stood at the head of spontaneous peasant uprisings, which gave them organization.

At the same time, fierce feudal unrest flared up in the country, engulfing vast areas of the empire. So, for example, Vidim Pasha Osman Pazvand-oglu, having started with robberies and plunder of Serbia and Wallachia, disobeyed the Sultan and even began minting coins in his own name. Ali Pasha settled in Ioannina, subjugating Epirus, Southern Albania and part of the Moray to his power. Pasha of Scutari (northern Albania) and Pasha of Bosnia, heads of districts (ayans) of Rushchuk, Seree and others also turned into semi-independent rulers. In Kurdistan, Iraq, Syria, Palestine, and even more so in Arabia, Egypt and the Maghreb, the power of the Sultan was illusory.

The sultans and viziers could not understand the real reasons for the collapse of the state. But they clearly felt the external manifestations of the crisis: the devastation of the treasury, military defeats, Janissary uprisings, arbitrariness of pashas and ayans, bribery, the fall of entire regions, liberation movements of oppressed peoples. Therefore, the most far-sighted of the Turkish statesmen, trying to preserve the foundations of Turkish feudal rule, began to look for ways to centralize and strengthen central power.

At the end of the 18th century. A plan of reforms emerged, aimed primarily at overcoming the fragmentation of the Ottoman Empire. These reforms boiled down mainly to measures of a military-technical nature, to strengthening the army, administration and finances.

This was a belated attempt by the ruling class to save the collapsing empire. The reforms were associated with the name of the Sultan who ascended the throne in 1789 Selima III.

However, the personal role of Selim PI was small. In fact, several dignitaries acted in his name. In 1792--1796 gg. decrees of the Sultan were published on the confiscation of timars and zeamets from those captives who do not fulfill their military obligations to the state, on the establishment of a separate treasury to finance new institutions, on the opening of a military engineering school, on transformations in the fleet and on the creation of a new corps of regular troops, trained and disciplined in a European way.

The totality of Selim PI’s measures, as well as the regular army he created, intended to later replace the army of the Janissaries, were called “Nizam-i-Jadid” (new system). These armed forces, although small in number, differed favorably from the Janissaries in their discipline and military training. With the help of foreign instructors, a significant navy was rebuilt, numbering by the end of the 18th century. 23 battleships and a number of smaller ships.

Selim PI also tried to reform civil administration: he subordinated the activities of the Grand Vizier to the control of the unofficial “council of twelve”, composed of people close to the Sultan, and established permanent embassies abroad.

However, the Sultan's social support was narrow and unreliable. The Sultan's supporters - educated metropolitan nobles and a small part of provincial feudal lords - were few in number and indecisive. The overwhelming majority of secular and, especially, spiritual feudal lords actively opposed the reforms, seeing in them an attack on ancient privileges. Therefore, the Sultan was unable to carry out any significant reforms in the economic field. The economic and material base of the central government was not only not strengthened, but, on the contrary, weakened by the unsuccessful struggle against opponents of reforms. The Janissaries were especially concerned, fearing that their corps would be liquidated and replaced by Nizam-i-Jadid troops. And the Janissaries were not only a military unit, but also a privileged class group.

The reforms placed a heavy burden on the masses, and above all on the peasantry. The introduction of new heavy taxes and levies exacerbated the discontent of the masses.

As a result, Selim PI found himself faced with insurmountable obstacles. In addition, foreign policy complications arose, further weakening supporters of the reforms.

Invasion of French troops into Egypt. Overthrow of Selim III. Greek revolt and its consequences

In July 1798, an event occurred that was of great importance for the Ottoman Empire: a French army led by Napoleon Bonaparte landed in its richest province - Egypt. Initially, the French managed to defeat the Mamluk troops and establish their power in the country. But soon uprisings and guerrilla warfare began, and it turned out that the French army was actually chained to Egypt.

Selim's position at first was wait-and-see, especially since Bonaparte demagogically stated that the purpose of his invasion of Egypt was to punish the Mamluk beys for disobedience to the Sultan. But at the end of 1798, when the large scale of the anti-French movement was determined, he declared war on France and sent a detachment of troops led by an Albanian commander named Muhammad Ali to help the Mamluks and Egyptians. Napoleon advanced to meet the Turkish troops, but was unable to advance beyond the fortress of Akka (Palestine) and retreated back to Egypt.

With difficulty, French troops fought off the Mamluks, Turks and their English allies. In 1801, Egypt was occupied by the British, but this time they failed to gain a foothold there, just as Selim’s attempts to regain his power in the country were unsuccessful. In 1805, a new uprising took place in Cairo, as a result of which Muhammad Ali was proclaimed ruler of the country. And although the Sultan, maintaining prestige, awarded him the title of pasha, Türkiye actually lost its power over Egypt.

The backwardness and internal weakness of Turkey made it easier for the Western European powers, who sought to exploit

Porto for its own purposes, including their anti-Russian policy. In 1806, Napoleon's ambassador Sebastiani, with threats and promises, incited Porto to conflict with Russia and provoked the Russian-Turkish war.

In the winter of 1806--1807. The Russian army entered Moldavia and Wallachia, and when in the spring of 1807 Turkish army came out to meet the Russians, a coup took place in Istanbul. According to ancient customs, the army was led by the Grand Vizier, and most of the ministers went with him. Opponents of the reforms took advantage of this, having long been waiting for the right moment to settle scores with Selim II. Under the secret leadership of the Deputy Grand Vizier (border-kam-pasha) and Sheikh ul-Islam a conspiracy was hatched. The garrison of the Bosphorus ports rebelled. The Janissaries remaining in Istanbul joined him and Selim III was overthrown from the throne. The new Sultan Mustafa IV was an obedient executor of the will of the Janissaries and Ulema. Subsequently (July 8, 1808), supporters of the reforms tried to take revenge. They committed new revolution, placing Sultan Mahmud II on the throne. However, in November 1808, as a result of a new Janissary rebellion, they were killed. Mahmud II survived only because he turned out to be the last descendant of Osman, but he had to curtail his reform activities for a long 20 years.

England tried to take advantage of this unstable situation. In March 1807, seven thousand troops landed in Alexandria, but Muhammad Ali defeated the British and expelled them from Egypt. Nevertheless, in 1809, England managed to impose a treaty on the Sultan, according to which it received confirmation of previous capitulations and the Sultan’s obligation to keep the Dardanelles and Bosporus closed to all foreign warships.

As already mentioned, England, France and Austria, fearing that the formation of independent Slavic states in the Balkans would benefit Russia, they covered up their own aggressive plans with the formulas of “inviolability of the Ottoman Empire” and “preservation of the status quo.” In fact, none of the powers respected these principles. Yes, it was impossible.

The Russian government's policy towards the Ottoman Empire was ambivalent.

On the one hand, on the initiative of Metternich, the doctrine of the Holy Alliance on the protection of legitimate (legitimate) monarchs from revolutionary attempts was extended to the empire - in in this case from the national liberation movements of the Greeks and Slavs. Both Alexander I and Nicholas I more than once came out with condemnation of these “rebels,” contrary to the sympathies that existed in Russia for the oppressed Slavic peoples and Orthodox Greece.

On the other hand, Russia's real interests required support for national liberation movements against the Turks, in order to strengthen Russian positions in the Balkans as a counterbalance to the growing influence of Western powers.

In 1821, a Greek uprising broke out. Covering the Morea and the islands of the Aegean Sea, it resulted in a nationwide struggle for independence. The driving forces of this struggle were the Greek peasantry and the urban trading bourgeoisie, which reached a relatively high level development. In 1822, the Greek national government was formed.

Sultan Mahmud II could not suppress the uprising on his own. The Asia Minor and Rumelian feudal lords refused to obey and give their troops, and he was forced to turn to the Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali for help.

In previous years, Muhammad Ali carried out a number of reforms in Egypt: he slaughtered the Mamluks (1811) and instead created a regular army on the European model, introduced a monopoly foreign trade, having eliminated all capitulations on the lands under his control, streamlined finances, etc.

In 1811, Muhammad Ali, at the request of the Sultan, sent his army to Arabia and by 1818, during a brutal war, he defeated the Wahhabi state. At the same time, he pursued his own goals: to establish his dominance over Arabia with its sacred cities, as well as to strengthen himself on the trade and strategic routes of the Red Sea coast.

Muhammad Ali also conquered Upper Egypt and Eastern Sudan. By the beginning of the 1820s, he had a significant regular army, far superior to the forces of the Sultan, and already dreamed of forming an independent Arab empire. Therefore, he willingly accepted the Porte’s offer to participate in the suppression of the Greek uprising, in exchange for the transfer of Syria and Fr. Crete (Candia).

In 1824, Muhammad Ali equipped a significant army and navy under the command of Ibrahim Pasha. Egyptian troops landed on Crete and Moray and carried out a brutal massacre of the Greeks. By the spring of 1826, almost all of Morea was captured by Egyptian troops and the Sultan, it seemed, could celebrate victory.

However, the Sultan's hopes of suppressing the Greek uprising and keeping Greece in the empire did not come true. In 1826, an Anglo-Russian protocol was signed in St. Petersburg demanding that the Porte cease hostilities against the Greeks, and on July 6, 1827, an Anglo-Franco-Russian agreement was signed in London, stipulating that Greece should gain autonomy. Each of the powers hoped, under the guise of helping the Greeks, to ensure their political and economic interests in the areas liberated from Turkish domination.

While Ibrahim Pasha with the Egyptian troops continued to betray Greece to fire and sword and in June 1827 took the last stronghold of Greek resistance - Athens, the combined squadrons of the three powers destroyed the Egyptian fleet in the Bay of Navarino (in October 1827). In the spring of 1828, Russia, trying to make the most of the favorable situation, declared war on Turkey, and France landed troops in Morea in the fall of the same year.

Russian-Turkish War 1828--1829 ended in the complete defeat of the Turkish troops. In Asia, General Paskevich advanced far into Turkey, taking the Erzurum fortress. In Europe, General Dibich, having broken through with an army of 20 thousand into the Balkans, captured Adrianople and found himself just a few marches from Istanbul. Panic gripped the capital. Ambassadors of European powers actively contributed to the conclusion of peace with Russia in order to prevent Russian troops from entering Istanbul.

On September 14, 1829, peace was signed in Adrianople. At this time, the tsarist government considered the destruction of the Ottoman Empire untimely, but preferred to ensure Russia's predominant influence on the politics of the Porte. Therefore, the Treaty of Adrianople only slightly changed the Russian-Turkish border that existed before the war. Parts of Georgia and Armenia liberated from Turkish rule, as well as the northeastern coast of the Black Sea, were finally assigned to Russia. The most important were not the territorial, but the political articles of the treaty.

The Porte pledged to grant autonomy to Serbia and Greece (Greece was recognized as an independent kingdom). The special position of Moldova and Wallachia was also confirmed, with Russia retaining the right to participate in developing the status of these principalities and to patronize their rulers. ottoman empire sultan administration

The Porta, in addition, pledged not to interfere with the merchant shipping of Russia and other states in the Black Sea and the straits. An indemnity was imposed on Turkey, until payment of which the occupation of the Danube fortresses by Russian troops was maintained.

The most important consequence of these events was the intensification of the struggle for the “Ottoman inheritance.”

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III. Implementation of reforms by Selim III and Mahmud II

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