Where in nature is atomic energy released? Nuclear power. Application of nuclear energy in transport

An atom consists of a nucleus surrounded by clouds of particles called electrons(see picture). The nuclei of atoms - the smallest particles from which all substances are composed - contain a significant supply. It is this energy that is released in the form of radiation during the decay of radioactive elements. Radiation is dangerous to life, but nuclear reactions can be used to produce. Radiation is also used in medicine.

Radioactivity

Radioactivity is the property of the nuclei of unstable atoms to emit energy. Most heavy atoms are unstable, but lighter atoms have radioisotopes, i.e. radioactive isotopes. The reason for radioactivity is that atoms tend to become stable (see article " "). There are three types of radioactive radiation: alpha rays, beta rays And gamma rays. They are named after the first three letters of the Greek alphabet. Initially, the nucleus emits alpha or beta rays, and if it is still unstable, the nucleus emits gamma rays as well. In the picture you see three atomic nuclei. They are unstable, and each of them emits one of three types of rays. Beta particles are electrons with very high energy. They arise from the decay of a neutron. Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons. The nucleus of a helium atom has exactly the same composition. Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic radiation that travels at the speed of light.

Alpha particles move slowly, and a layer of matter thicker than a sheet of paper traps them. They are no different from the nuclei of helium atoms. Scientists believe that helium on Earth is a product of natural radioactivity. An alpha particle flies less than 10 cm, and a sheet of thick paper will stop it. A beta particle flies about 1 meter in the air. A sheet of copper 1 millimeter thick can hold it back. The intensity of gamma rays drops by half when passing through a layer of lead of 13 millimeters or a layer of 120 meters.

Radioactive substances are transported in thick-walled lead containers to prevent radiation leakage. Exposure to radiation causes burns, cataracts, and cancer in humans. Radiation levels are measured using Geiger counter. This device makes a clicking noise when it detects radioactive radiation. Having emitted particles, the nucleus acquires a new atomic number and turns into the nucleus of another element. This process is called radioactive decay. If the new element is also unstable, the decay process continues until a stable nucleus is formed. For example, when a plutonium-2 atom (its mass is 242) emits an alpha particle whose relative atomic mass is 4 (2 protons and 2 neutrons), it turns into a uranium atom - 238 (atomic mass 238). Half life- this is the time during which half of all atoms in a sample of a given substance decay. Different ones have different half-lives. The half-life of radium-221 is 30 seconds, while that of uranium is 4.5 billion years.

Nuclear reactions

There are two types of nuclear reactions: nuclear fusion And fission (splitting) of the nucleus. "Synthesis" means "combination"; In nuclear fusion, two nuclei are combined and one is large. Nuclear fusion can only occur at very high temperatures. Fusion releases a huge amount of energy. In nuclear fusion, two nuclei are combined into one large one. In 1992, the COBE satellite discovered a special type of radiation in space, which confirms the theory that it was formed as a result of the so-called big bang. From the term fission it is clear that nuclei split apart, releasing nuclear energy. This is possible when nuclei are bombarded with neutrons and occurs in radioactive substances or in a special device called particle accelerator. The nucleus divides, emitting neutrons and releasing colossal energy.

Nuclear power

The energy released from nuclear reactions can be used to produce electricity and as a power source in nuclear submarines and aircraft carriers. The operation of a nuclear power plant is based on nuclear fission in nuclear reactors. A rod made of a radioactive substance such as uranium is bombarded with neutrons. Uranium nuclei split, emitting energy. This releases new neutrons. This process is called chain reaction. The power plant produces more energy per unit mass of fuel than any other power plant, but safety precautions and disposal of radioactive waste are extremely expensive.

Nuclear weapon

The action of nuclear weapons is based on the fact that the uncontrolled release of a huge amount of nuclear energy leads to a terrible explosion. At the end of World War II, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Hundreds of thousands of people died. Atomic bombs are based on fission reactions, hydrogen - on synthesis reactions. The picture shows the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima.

Radiocarbon method

The radiocarbon method determines the time that has passed since the death of an organism. Living things contain small amounts of carbon-14, a radioactive isotope of carbon. Its half-life is 5,700 years. When an organism dies, carbon-14 reserves in tissues are depleted, the isotope decays, and the amount remaining can be used to determine how long ago the organism died. Thanks to the radiocarbon dating method, you can find out how long ago the eruption occurred. To do this, they use insects and pollen frozen in lava.

How else is radioactivity used?

In industry, radiation is used to determine the thickness of a sheet of paper or plastic (see article ““). By the intensity of beta rays passing through the sheet, even slight heterogeneity in its thickness can be detected. Food products - fruits, meat - are irradiated with gamma rays to keep them fresh. Using radioactivity, doctors trace the path of a substance in the body. For example, to determine how sugar is distributed in a patient's body, a doctor might inject some carbon-14 into the sugar molecules and monitor the emission of the substance as it enters the body. Radiotherapy, that is, irradiating a patient with strictly dosed portions of radiation, kills cancer cells - overgrown cells of the body.

NUCLEAR POWER
Nuclear energy

Nuclear power- this is the energy released as a result of the internal restructuring of atomic nuclei. Nuclear energy can be obtained from nuclear reactions or radioactive decay of nuclei. The main sources of nuclear energy are fission reactions of heavy nuclei and fusion (combination) of light nuclei. The latter process is also called thermonuclear reactions.
The emergence of these two main sources of nuclear energy can be explained by considering the dependence of the specific binding energy of a nucleus on the mass number A (the number of nucleons in the nucleus). The specific binding energy ε shows what average energy must be imparted to an individual nucleon in order for all nucleons to be released from a given nucleus. The specific binding energy is maximum (≈8.7 MeV) for nuclei in the iron region (A = 50 – 60) and decreases sharply when moving to light nuclei consisting of a small number of nucleons, and smoothly when moving to heavy nuclei with
A > 200. Thanks to this dependence of ε on A, the two above-mentioned methods of obtaining nuclear energy arise: 1) by dividing a heavy nucleus into two lighter ones, and
2) due to the combination (synthesis) of two light nuclei and their transformation into one heavier one. In both processes, a transition occurs to nuclei in which the nucleons are more strongly bound, and part of the nuclear binding energy is released.
The first method of producing energy is used in a nuclear reactor and atomic bomb, the second - in the thermonuclear reactor and thermonuclear (hydrogen) bomb under development. Thermonuclear reactions are also a source of energy for stars.
The two methods of energy production discussed are record-breaking in terms of energy per unit mass of fuel. So, with the complete fission of 1 gram of uranium, energy of about 10 11 J is released, i.e.

approximately the same as during the explosion of 20 kg of trinitrotoluene (TNT). Thus, nuclear fuel is 10 7 times more efficient than chemical fuel.

Atomic energy is the energy released during the transformation of atomic nuclei. The source of atomic energy is the internal energy of the atomic nucleus.
A more accurate name for atomic energy is nuclear energy. There are two types of nuclear energy production:
- implementation of a nuclear chain reaction of fission of heavy nuclei;

- implementation of a thermonuclear reaction of fusion of light nuclei.

Myths about nuclear energy Even a child knows about the depletion of natural resources nowadays. Indeed, the reserves of many minerals are rapidly depleting. Uranium reserves are currently assessed as "relatively limited", but this is not that small. For comparison, there is as much uranium as tin and 600 times more than gold. According to preliminary estimates by scientists, the reserves of this radioactive metal should be enough for humanity for the next 500 years. In addition, modern reactors can use thorium as fuel, and its world reserves, in turn, exceed uranium reserves by 3 times.

Nuclear energy has an extremely negative impact on the environment. Representatives of various anti-nuclear campaigns often claim that nuclear energy contains "hidden emissions" of gases that have a negative impact on the environment. But according to all modern information and calculations, nuclear energy, even compared to solar or hydropower, which are considered practically environmentally friendly, contains a fairly low level of carbon.

Wind and wave energy are much less harmful from an environmental point of view. In reality, wind farms are being built or have already been built on key coastal sites, and the construction itself is already definitely polluting the environment. But the construction of wave stations is still experimental, and its impact on the environment is not precisely known, so it is difficult to call them much more environmentally sustainable compared to nuclear energy.

In areas where nuclear reactors are located, the incidence of leukemia is higher. The level of leukemia among children in the vicinity of nuclear power plants is no higher than, for example, in areas near so-called organic farms. The area of ​​spread of this disease can cover both the area around the nuclear power plant and the national park; the degree of danger is absolutely the same.

Nuclear reactors produce too much waste. Nuclear energy actually produces minimal waste, contrary to environmentalists' claims. The earth is not at all filled with radioactive waste. Modern nuclear energy production technologies will make it possible to minimize the share of the total amount of radioactive waste over the next 20-40 years.

Nuclear energy contributes to the proliferation of weapons in the world. An increase in the number of nuclear power plants will lead precisely to a reduction in the proliferation of weapons. Nuclear warheads produce very good quality reactor fuel, and reactor warheads produce about 15% of the world's nuclear fuel. Increasing demand for reactor fuel is expected to "divert" such warheads from potential terrorists.

Terrorists choose nuclear reactors as targets. After the tragedy of September 11, 2001, a number of scientific studies were conducted to determine the likelihood of an attack on nuclear facilities. However, recent British studies have proven that nuclear power plants are quite capable of “withstanding” even a Boeing 767-400 raid. The new generation of nuclear reactors will be designed with increased levels of protection against potential attacks from all existing aircraft, and there are also plans to introduce special safety features that can be activated without human intervention or computer control.

Nuclear energy is very expensive. Controversial statement. According to the British Department of Trade and Industry, the cost of producing electricity from nuclear power plants exceeds only the price of gas, and is 10-20 times less than the energy produced by onshore wind farms. In addition, 10% of the total cost of nuclear energy comes from uranium, and nuclear energy is not as susceptible to constant price fluctuations for fuels such as gas or oil.

Decommissioning a nuclear power plant is very expensive. This statement applies only to nuclear power plants built earlier. Many of the current nuclear reactors were built without the expectation of their subsequent decommissioning. But during the construction of new nuclear power plants this point will already be taken into account. However, the cost of decommissioning a nuclear power plant will be included in the cost of electricity that consumers pay for. Modern reactors are designed to operate for 40 years, and the cost of decommissioning them will be paid over this long period, and therefore will have little impact on the price of electricity.

Nuclear power plant construction takes too long. This is perhaps the most unmotivated of all the statements of anti-nuclear campaigns. The construction of a nuclear power plant takes from 4 to 6 years, which is comparable to the construction time of “traditional” power plants. The modular structure of new nuclear power plants can somewhat speed up the process of constructing nuclear power plants.

University of Management"
Department of Innovation Management
in the discipline: “Concepts of modern natural science”
Presentation on the topic: Nuclear
energy: its essence and
use in technology and
technologies

Presentation plan

Introduction
Nuclear power.
History of the discovery of nuclear energy
Nuclear reactor: history of creation, structure,
basic principles, classification of reactors
Areas of nuclear energy use
Conclusion
Sources used

Introduction

Energy is the most important sector of the national economy,
covering energy resources, generation, transformation,
transmission and use of various types of energy. This is the basis
state economy.
The world is undergoing a process of industrialization, which requires
additional consumption of materials, which increases energy costs.
With population growth, energy consumption for soil cultivation increases,
harvesting, fertilizer production, etc.
Currently, many natural resources are readily available
planets are running out. It takes a long time to extract raw materials
deep or on sea shelves. Limited Worldwide Supplies
oil and gas, it would seem, pose humanity with the prospect of
energy crisis.
However, the use of nuclear energy gives humanity
the opportunity to avoid this, since the results of fundamental
research into the physics of the atomic nucleus makes it possible to avert the threat
energy crisis by using the energy released
in some reactions of atomic nuclei

Nuclear power

Nuclear energy (atomic energy) is energy
contained in atomic nuclei and released
during nuclear reactions. Nuclear power plants,
those generating this energy produce 13–14%
world production of electrical energy. .

History of the discovery of nuclear energy

1895 V.K. Roentgen discovers ionizing radiation (X-rays)
1896 A. Becquerel discovers the phenomena of radioactivity.
1898 M. Sklodowska and P. Curie discover radioactive elements
Po (Polonium) and Ra (Radium).
1913 N. Bohr develops the theory of the structure of atoms and molecules.
1932 J. Chadwick discovers neutrons.
1939 O. Hahn and F. Strassmann study the fission of U nuclei under the influence of
slow neutrons.
December 1942 - First self-sustaining
controlled chain reaction of nuclear fission at the SR-1 reactor (Group
physicists of the University of Chicago, headed by E. Fermi).
December 25, 1946 - The first Soviet reactor F-1 was put into operation
critical state (a group of physicists and engineers led by
I.V. Kurchatova)
1949 - The first Pu production reactor was put into operation
June 27, 1954 - The world's first nuclear power plant went into operation
power plant with an electrical capacity of 5 MW in Obninsk.
By the beginning of the 90s, more than 430 nuclear power plants operated in 27 countries around the world.
power reactors with a total capacity of approx. 340 GW.

History of the creation of a nuclear reactor

Enrico Fermi (1901-1954)
Kurchatov I.V. (1903-1960)
1942 in the USA, under the leadership of E. Fermi, the first
nuclear reactor.
1946 The first Soviet reactor was launched under the leadership
Academician I.V. Kurchatov.

NPP reactor design (simplified)

Essential elements:
Active zone with nuclear fuel and
retarder;
Neutron reflector surrounding
active zone;
Coolant;
Chain reaction control system,
including emergency protection
Radiation protection
Remote control system
The main characteristics of the reactor are
its power output.
Power of 1 MW - 3 1016 divisions
in 1 sec.
Schematic structure of a nuclear power plant
Cross-section of a heterogeneous reactor

Structure of a nuclear reactor

Neutron multiplication factor

Characterizes the rapid growth of the number
neutrons and is equal to the ratio of the number
neutrons in one generation
chain reaction to the number that gave birth to them
neutrons of the previous generation.
k=Si/Si-1
k<1 – Реакция затухает
k=1 – The reaction proceeds stationary
k=1.006 – Controllability limit
reactions
k>1.01 – Explosion (for a reactor at
thermal neutrons energy release
will grow 20,000 times per second).
Typical chain reaction for uranium;

10. The reactor is controlled using rods containing cadmium or boron.

The following types of rods are distinguished (according to the purpose of application):
Compensating rods – compensate for the initial excess
reactivity, extend as fuel burns out; up to 100
things
Control rods - to maintain critical
states at any time, for stopping, starting
reactor; some
Note: The following types of rods are distinguished (according to purpose
applications):
Control and compensating rods are optional
represent different structural elements
registration
Emergency rods - reset by gravity
to the central part of the core; some. Maybe
Additionally, some of the control rods are also reset.

11. Classification of nuclear reactors by neutron spectrum

Thermal neutron reactor (“thermal reactor”)
A fast neutron moderator (water, graphite, beryllium) is required to reach thermal
energies (fractions of eV).
Small neutron losses in the moderator and structural materials =>
natural and slightly enriched uranium can be used as fuel.
Powerful power reactors can use uranium with high
enrichment - up to 10%.
A large reactivity reserve is required.
Fast neutron reactor ("fast reactor")
Uranium carbide UC, PuO2, etc. is used as a moderator and moderation
There are much fewer neutrons (0.1-0.4 MeV).
Only highly enriched uranium can be used as fuel. But
at the same time, the fuel efficiency is 1.5 times greater.
A neutron reflector (238U, 232Th) is required. They return to the active zone
fast neutrons with energies above 0.1 MeV. Neutrons captured by nuclei 238U, 232Th,
are spent on obtaining fissile nuclei 239Pu and 233U.
The choice of construction materials is not limited by the absorption cross section, Reserve
much less reactivity.
Intermediate Neutron Reactor
Fast neutrons are slowed down to an energy of 1-1000 eV before absorption.
High load of nuclear fuel compared to thermal reactors
neutrons
It is impossible to carry out expanded reproduction of nuclear fuel, as in
fast neutron reactor.

12. By fuel placement

Homogeneous reactors - fuel and moderator represent a homogeneous
mixture
Nuclear fuel is located in the reactor core in the form
homogeneous mixture: solutions of uranium salts; suspension of uranium oxides in
light and heavy water; solid moderator impregnated with uranium;
molten salts. Options for homogeneous reactors with
gaseous fuel (gaseous uranium compounds) or suspension
uranium dust in gas.
The heat generated in the core is removed by the coolant (water,
gas, etc.) moving through pipes through the core; or a mixture
fuel with a moderator itself serves as a coolant,
circulating through heat exchangers.
Not widely used (High corrosion of structural
materials in liquid fuel, the complexity of reactor design
solid mixtures, more loading of weakly enriched uranium
fuel, etc.)
Heterogeneous reactors - fuel is placed in the core discretely in
in the form of blocks between which there is a moderator
The main feature is the presence of fuel elements
(TVELs). Fuel rods can have different shapes (rods, plates
etc.), but there is always a clear boundary between fuel,
moderator, coolant, etc.
The vast majority of reactors in use today are
heterogeneous, which is due to their design advantages in terms of
compared to homogeneous reactors.

13. By nature of use

Name
Purpose
Power
Experimental
reactors
Study of various physical quantities,
whose values ​​are necessary for
design and operation of nuclear
reactors.
~103W
Research
reactors
Fluxes of neutrons and γ-quanta created in
active zone, used for
research in the field of nuclear physics,
solid state physics, radiation chemistry,
biology, for testing materials,
designed to work in intensive conditions
neutron fluxes (including nuclear parts
reactors) for the production of isotopes.
<107Вт
Standouts
I'm energy like
usually not
used
Isotope reactors
To produce isotopes used in
nuclear weapons, for example, 239Pu, and in
industry.
~103W
Energy
reactors
To obtain electrical and thermal
energy used in the energy sector, with
water desalination, for power drive
ship installations, etc.
Up to 3-5 109W

14. Assembling a heterogeneous reactor

In a heterogeneous reactor, nuclear fuel is distributed in the active
zone discretely in the form of blocks, between which there is
neutron moderator

15. Heavy water nuclear reactor

Advantages
Smaller absorption cross section
Neutrons => Improved
neutron balance =>
Use as
natural uranium fuel
Possibility of creating
industrial heavy water
reactors for production
tritium and plutonium, as well as
wide range of isotopic
products, including
medical purposes.
Flaws
High cost of deuterium

16. Natural nuclear reactor

In nature, under conditions like
artificial reactor, can
create natural areas
nuclear reactor.
The only known natural
nuclear reactor existed 2 billion
years ago in the Oklo region (Gabon).
Origin: a very rich vein of uranium ores receives water from
surface, which plays the role of a neutron moderator. Random
decay starts a chain reaction. When it is active, the water boils away,
the reaction weakens - self-regulation.
The reaction lasted ~100,000 years. Now this is not possible due to
uranium reserves depleted by natural decay.
Field surveys are being carried out to study migration
isotopes – important for the development of underground disposal techniques
radioactive waste.

17. Areas of use of nuclear energy

Nuclear power plant
Scheme of operation of a nuclear power plant on a double-circuit
pressurized water power reactor (VVER)

18.

In addition to nuclear power plants, nuclear reactors are used:
on nuclear icebreakers
on nuclear submarines;
during the operation of nuclear missiles
engines (in particular on AMS).

19. Nuclear energy in space

space probe
Cassini, created by
project of NASA and ESA,
launched 10/15/1997 for
series of studies
objects of Solar
systems.
Electricity generation
carried out by three
radioisotope
thermoelectric
generators: Cassini
carries 30 kg 238Pu on board,
which, disintegrating,
releases heat
convertible to
electricity

20. Spaceship "Prometheus 1"

NASA is developing a nuclear reactor
able to work in conditions
weightlessness.
The goal is to supply power to space
ship "Prometheus 1" according to the project
search for life on the moons of Jupiter.

21. Bomb. The principle of uncontrolled nuclear reaction.

The only physical need is to obtain critical
masses for k>1.01. No control system development required –
cheaper than nuclear power plants.
The "gun" method
Two uranium ingots of subcritical masses when combined exceed
critical. The degree of enrichment 235U is not less than 80%.
This type of “baby” bomb was dropped on Hiroshima 06/08/45 8:15
(78-240 thousand killed, 140 thousand died within 6 months)

22. Explosive crimping method

A bomb based on plutonium, which, using complex
systems for simultaneous detonation of conventional explosives is compressed to
supercritical size.
A bomb of this type "Fat Man" was dropped on Nagasaki
09/08/45 11:02
(75 thousand killed and wounded).

23. Conclusion

The energy problem is one of the most important problems that
Today humanity has to decide. Such things have already become commonplace
achievements of science and technology as a means of instant communication, fast
transport, space exploration. But all this requires
enormous energy expenditure.
The sharp increase in energy production and consumption has brought forward a new
acute problem of environmental pollution, which represents
serious danger to humanity.
World energy needs in the coming decades
will increase rapidly. No one source of energy
will be able to provide them, so it is necessary to develop all sources
energy and efficient use of energy resources.
At the nearest stage of energy development (the first decades of the 21st century)
Coal energy and nuclear power will remain the most promising
energy with thermal and fast neutron reactors. However, you can
hope that humanity will not stop on the path of progress,
associated with energy consumption in ever-increasing quantities.

The dependence of the binding energy per nucleon on the number of nucleons in the nucleus is shown in the graph.

The energy required to split a nucleus into individual nucleons is called binding energy. The binding energy per nucleon is not the same for different chemical elements and, even, isotopes of the same chemical element. The specific binding energy of a nucleon in a nucleus varies, on average, from 1 MeV for light nuclei (deuterium) to 8.6 MeV for medium-weight nuclei (A≈100). For heavy nuclei (A≈200), the specific binding energy of a nucleon is less than for nuclei of average weight, by approximately 1 MeV, so their transformation into nuclei of average weight (division into 2 parts) is accompanied by the release of energy in an amount of about 1 MeV per nucleon, or about 200 MeV per nucleus. The transformation of light nuclei into heavier nuclei gives an even greater energy gain per nucleon. For example, the reaction between deuterium and tritium

1 D²+ 1 T³→ 2 He 4 + 0 n 1

is accompanied by the release of energy 17.6 MeV, that is, 3.5 MeV per nucleon.

Release of nuclear energy

Exothermic nuclear reactions that release nuclear energy are known.

Typically, a nuclear fission chain reaction of uranium-235 or plutonium nuclei is used to produce nuclear energy. Nuclei fission when a neutron hits them, producing new neutrons and fission fragments. Fission neutrons and fission fragments have high kinetic energy. As a result of collisions of fragments with other atoms, this kinetic energy is quickly converted into heat.

Another way to release nuclear energy is nuclear fusion. In this case, two nuclei of light elements combine into one heavy one. Such processes occur on the Sun.

Many atomic nuclei are unstable. Over time, some of these nuclei spontaneously transform into other nuclei, releasing energy. This phenomenon is called radioactive decay.

Applications of nuclear energy

Fusion energy is used in a hydrogen bomb.

Notes

see also

Links

International agreements

• Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (Vienna, 1986)
• Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (Vienna, 1979)
• Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage
• Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management

Literature

• Clarfield, Gerald H. and William M. Wiecek (1984). Nuclear America: Military and Civilian Nuclear Power in the United States 1940-1980, Harper & Row.
• Cooke, Stephanie (2009). In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age, Black Inc.
• Cravens Gwyneth Power to Save the World: the Truth about Nuclear Energy. - New York: Knopf, 2007. - ISBN 0-307-26656-7
• Elliott, David (2007). Nuclear or Not? Does Nuclear Power Have a Place in a Sustainable Energy Future?, Palgrave.
• Falk, Jim (1982). Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power, Oxford University Press.
• Ferguson, Charles D., (2007). Nuclear Energy: Balancing Benefits and Risks Council on Foreign Relations.
• Herbst, Alan M. and George W. Hopley (2007). Nuclear Energy Now: Why the Time has come for the World’s Most Misunderstood Energy Source, Wiley.
• Schneider, Mycle, Steve Thomas, Antony Froggatt, Doug Koplow (August 2009). The World Nuclear Industry Status Report, German Federal Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Reactor Safety.
• Walker, J. Samuel (1992). Containing the Atom: Nuclear Regulation in a Changing Environment, 1993-1971
• Walker, J. Samuel (2004). Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective, Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Weart, Spencer R. The Rise of Nuclear Fear. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012. ISBN 0-674-05233-1

Nuclear technology
Engineering
Materials
Nuclear power
Nuclear medicine
Nuclear weapon

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• 2010.
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See what “Nuclear energy” is in other dictionaries: NUCLEAR POWER - (atomic energy) internal energy of atomic nuclei released during nuclear transformations (nuclear reactions). nuclear binding energy. mass defect Nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus are firmly held by nuclear forces. To remove a nucleon from a nucleus,... ...

See what “Nuclear energy” is in other dictionaries: Big Encyclopedic Dictionary - (nuclear energy), internal energy at. nucleus, released during nuclear transformations. The energy that must be expended to split a nucleus into its constituent nucleons is called. nuclear binding energy? This is max. energy towards heaven can be released.… …

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See what “Nuclear energy” is in other dictionaries:- (atomic energy), the internal energy of atomic nuclei released during certain nuclear reactions. The use of nuclear energy is based on the implementation of chain reactions of fission of heavy nuclei and thermonuclear fusion reactions of light nuclei (see... ... Modern encyclopedia