Where is the Apennine Peninsula located. Apennine Peninsula: climate. Apennines (mountains) Geographical position of the Apennine Peninsula

26.01.2022

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Almost 4/5 of the surface of the Apennine Peninsula is occupied by mountains and hills, and less than 1/4 of its area falls on the Padana Plain and narrow coastal lowlands.

The basis of the relief is the Apennine mountain system, which crosses the Apennine Peninsula along its entire length and passes to the island of Sicily. The Apennines are one of the youngest mountains on earth. In their length (1500 km) they exceed the Alps, but are much inferior to them in height. Their highest point - Mount Korno reaches only 2914 m above sea level. The peaks of the Apennines do not reach the snow border and are devoid of eternal snows, only on the eastern slopes of Monte Corno the only glacier in the Apennines descends to a height of 2690 m. In the north, the Apennines stretch along the coast of the Gulf of Genoa, limiting the Padan plain from the south. The narrow strip between the mountains and the sea is called the Riviera: French - in the west, Italian - in the east. Within the peninsula, the Apennines deviate to the southeast and retreat quite far from the Tyrrhenian Sea.

The entire region is characterized by the predominance of mountainous terrain. The Frontier Lands are almost everywhere formed by fault lines along which recent subsidences have taken place, shaping the modern outline of the coast. The coastline is relatively little dissected.

One of the most characteristic features of the Apennine Peninsula is the wide development of volcanic and seismic processes, as well as modern land movements, due to the fact that the region is located in the zone of young alpine folding.

A characteristic feature of the geological structure of the peninsula is the wide distribution of volcanic rocks, which are especially common in Tuscany, Lazio, and Campania.

The only vast lowland is the Padan Plain, which occupies most of the Po basin. The rest, insignificant in area, are lowlands stretching along the coasts. The Padana plain gradually decreases from west to east.

Italy, which occupies the entire Italian peninsula, is one of the few European countries where earthquakes often occur. Often they are catastrophic. In the twentieth century More than 150 earthquakes have been registered in the country. The zone of greatest seismic activity occupies Central and Southern Italy. The last strong earthquake occurred in November 1980. It covered a vast territory - 26 thousand square meters. km (from the city of Naples to the city of Potenza).

On the Apennine Peninsula there are volcanoes of different types and in different stages of development. There are both extinct volcanoes (Euganean hills, Alban mountains), and active ones (Vesuvius, Stromboli).

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The Apennine Peninsula is the largest peninsula in Europe, which is located in the south of the continent. It is washed by the waters of the Mediterranean Sea from three sides, and in the North it intersects with the Alpine Range. Italy is mainly located on the peninsula, as well as some autonomous territories dependent on it. The Apennine Peninsula is a typical example of Mediterranean landscapes and climate. Read about these and other features below.

Geographical position

So, first consider where the Apennine Peninsula is located. The well-known "boot" is located in the very south of Europe, in the Mediterranean Sea. In the west it is washed by the Tyrrhenian Sea, in the east by the Adriatic Sea, and in the southeast by the Ionian Sea. The northern part is separated from the mainland by the Padan Plain, immediately followed by the ridge of the Alps. They are the "filter" of most cyclones that pass over the continent. The total area of the peninsula is 149 thousand square kilometers, the maximum length from north to south reaches 1100 km, and from west to east - up to 300 km.

terrain

To a greater extent, the Apennine Peninsula is a mountainous area. Here is the mountain range of the same name, which covers the entire part of the land and literally goes into the sea with its rocks and cliffs. In the north of the peninsula, the Apennines are connected to the Alps. There is no clear boundary between the two mountain ranges, therefore, from a geological point of view, these two massifs are one. It is worth noting that seismic changes are now taking place in Italy, as a result of which small volcanoes erupt - Stromboli, Etna. The mountain ranges here are covered with dense forests, mostly evergreen. In the south, where the climate becomes especially mild and hot, the rarest species of palm trees and ferns are found. Due to the fact that the peninsula is covered by mountains, the coastline is indented here. On the shores of the seas there are countless quiet bays, which are an excellent place for a secluded holiday.

Weather

Now consider what weather conditions the Apennine Peninsula is famous for. The climate here varies from Mediterranean to continental, depending on the latitudinal zonality. In coastal areas, the weather conditions are mild and gentle. Summer is always warm - up to +30 degrees, while there is no rain. In winter, the humidity level rises, and the temperature drops to +8. In the depths of the continent, seasonal differences are much greater. Summers here are very dry and hot - above +30, and winters are cold, frosts often occur and snow falls. The warmest region of the peninsula is the Riviera - the northern resort area, which is located near the border with France. It is protected from the continent by high mountains, so cold air does not penetrate here.

Inland waters

Far from the longest and full-flowing are the internal waters that cover the Apennine Peninsula with their grid. The rivers here are mostly short, narrow, completely unsuitable for navigation. The longest and deepest of them is Po, which stretches as far as 652 km. It occupies more than a quarter of the length of Italy and flows into the Adriatic Sea basin, as a result of which it forms a delta. The Po has many tributaries that feed it. These are Dora Baltea, Ticino, Adda and many others. Some of them dry up in the summer, but at the end of winter and spring they literally overflow with water, flooding all coastal areas. Another important waterway of the peninsula is the Tiber River, on which the historic city of Rome is located. It is 405 kilometers long and, like the Po, has many tributaries that dry up completely in summer.

Vegetation of the region

The Apennine Peninsula is located mainly in a tropical climate, however, due to the vast mountain range, the local flora is very diverse, and its features depend on the particular region. The territories that are located in the depths of the continent, with their landscape, are more reminiscent of continental latitudes. Evergreen oaks, ferns, many other shrubs and trees grow here. At the same time, in especially cool regions, they often shed their foliage for the winter. At the coast, nature changes dramatically. The climate becomes Mediterranean and the plants turn into tropical ones. These are all kinds of palm trees, undersized tropical shrubs, huge citrus plantations. It is worth noting that the southernmost regions of Italy are literally planted with orange trees. Many of them are combined into private fields and are not grown in the wild, but at home, taking into account all the rules. It is also important to know that most of the reserves on the Apennine Peninsula are created artificially. Seismic destructive processes here often destroyed the entire flora, so people themselves sowed vast territories with trees and bushes of various types.

Animals, birds and insects

Considering the fact where the Apennine Peninsula is located, what climatic zone falls on it and what features the local relief has, it is easy to guess what the animal world will be like here. There are extremely few mammals here due to the fact that the natural woodland has been repeatedly exterminated. Among this species, only the mountain goat, chamois, moufflons and rams remained. Small mammals here are also not very diverse - it's just a ferret, a hare, hedgehogs and several types of wild cats. The bird fauna here is represented by a much wider range. In mountain ranges, goshawks, vultures, golden eagles, falcons, eagles and other predatory inhabitants of heavenly heights are often found. Ducks, swans, geese, herons live closer to the water bodies, and, of course, there are seagulls and albatrosses of a wide variety of species near the sea shores. The bird flora in the Alps is considered unique. There are hazel grouses, swifts, white partridges, capercaillie and many others. Insects, despite the fact that the peninsula is located in the tropics, there are few. There are only spiders, centipedes and other arthropods familiar to us.

Political division of the peninsula

Now consider what administrative division the Apennine Peninsula has. The countries that are here are exclusively those territories that belong to Italy, which occupies the bulk of these lands. The state stretches from the southern border of the Alps and ends on the island of Sicily. Within its limits there is a country with a special status - the Vatican. It is also the smallest on the planet. Also in the western part of the peninsula is San Marino. This is another tiny country that has more sacred meaning for the Catholic world than political. In fact, it is a republic of Italy.

Conclusion

The Apennine Peninsula is a unique place on earth. Despite the fact that it lies in the tropical zone, the weather here is incredibly diverse. Most of this mini-continent is covered by mountain ranges. Among the peaks there are active volcanoes that correct the seismic activity of the region. And in those areas that are close to the shores of the seas, the climate is much milder and more stable than in the zone of latitudinal zonality. There is a richer flora and fauna, less sudden temperature changes and higher humidity. That is why the coastal areas of Italy are considered one of the best places for a beach holiday.

Geographical position of the Apennine Peninsula

Almost 4/5 of the surface of the Apennine Peninsula is occupied by mountains and hills, and less than 1/4 of its area falls on the Padana Plain and narrow coastal lowlands.

A characteristic feature of the geological structure of the peninsula is the wide distribution of volcanic rocks, which are especially common in Tuscany, Lazio, and Campania.

Soil formation factors

For the first time, the doctrine of soil formation factors was formulated by V. V. Dokuchaev. He was the first to consider external natural components as dynamic systems, under the combined impact of which soils are formed, and this impact was estimated over time.

Dokuchaev identified 5 factors of soil formation:

1. soil-forming rocks;

2. relief;

3. living organisms;

4. climate;

In addition, Dokuchaev argued that all factors are equivalent and irreplaceable, that is, in the absence of at least one of them, the soil as such is not formed. But at the same time, the directed influence of one or more factors is possible. The combined effect of these factors leads to the formation of a certain soil with specific properties.

The decisive factor in the formation of soils is the parent rock (parent rock), since it determines the initial components of soils: physical, mineral, chemical, etc. Soil-forming rocks affect many factors and processes of soil formation, in particular, the speed of the soil formation process, the level of soil fertility, the nature of irrigated agriculture and drainage measures, and the structure of the soil cover.

The relief plays an indirect role in soil-forming processes. It affects the redistribution of the components of the geographic environment.

The basis of the relief is the Apennine mountain system, which crosses the Apennine Peninsula along its entire length and passes to the island of Sicily. In the north, the Apennines merge with the Maritime Alps. There is no clearly defined border between these two mountain systems, and in tectonic terms, the Northern Apennines are a direct continuation of the Alps. In the west and east, between the mountains and the seashore, there are strips of flat or hilly relief, which are not related in structure to the Apennines.

The mountains in Tuscany, the central Apennines, Campania and Brasilicata are composed of conglomerates, sandstones and limestones, as well as shale and marbles. Further south in Calabria, they are composed of ancient, volcanic, and metamorphic rocks.

In the north, the Apennines stretch along the coast of the Gulf of Genoa, limiting the Padan plain from the south. The narrow strip between the mountains and the sea is called the Riviera: French - in the west, Italian - in the east. Within the peninsula, the Apennines deviate to the southeast and retreat quite far from the Tyrrhenian Sea.

Up to the upper reaches of the Arno, the mountains are called the Northern Apennines. In this part, they are composed of Paleogene, mostly loose rocks and rarely exceed 2000 m. The predominance of clay deposits in the structure of the Northern Apennines creates conditions for the development of landslide phenomena, which are intensified due to the destruction of forests. Many settlements in the Northern Apennines are located in deep tectonic basins. The ancient city of Florence is located in one of these basins.

To the south, the Central Apennines are composed of Mesozoic limestones and break up into high massifs, separated by deep basins and tectonic valleys. In the Northern and Central Apennines, all forms of surface and closed karst are found: funnels, wells, karr fields, cave grottoes.

The slopes of the massifs are mostly steep and bare. The highest parts of the mountains experienced glaciation, and glacial forms are clearly expressed in their relief. The highest peak of the Apennines - Mount Corno Grande in the Gran Sasso d'Italia massif - reaches 2914 m and is a typical carling with a sharply defined peak and steep slopes. The extermination of forests contributed to a very strong development of karst formation processes in the Central Apennines.

In the very south of the Apennines, they come very close to the Tyrrhenian coast and in some places cut off directly to the sea. The activity of the sea surf developed peculiar relief forms in the limestones. Orographically, the Apennines continue on the Calabrian Peninsula under the name of the Calabrian Apennines. But the mountains of Calabria have a different age and a different structure than the rest of the Apennines. This is a dome-shaped massif composed of crystalline rocks, leveled and uplifted by faults. Obviously, it is part of an older structural complex that existed on the site of the Tyrrhenian Sea, and experienced faults and subsidence in the Neogene.

The coastal strips of the Tyrrhenian and Adriatic Seas on the Apennine Peninsula have a different structure and relief. The strip along the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea reaches its greatest width in the north, where, among a low hilly plain, separate crystalline massifs rise - part of the same ancient land as the mountains of Calabria. Further south, ancient and young volcanic formations begin to play an important role in the structure and relief of the Predapennines. There rises a number of extinct volcanoes and stretches plains composed of volcanic rocks and dissected by rivers. On a hilly volcanic plain stands the capital of Italy, Rome. There are many hot springs in the area. Even further south, near Naples, rises the double cone of Vesuvius, one of the most active volcanoes in Europe. The vast areas around Vesuvius are covered with lava that erupted during numerous eruptions, and covered with masses of volcanic ash.

From the side of the Adriatic Sea, at the foot of the Apennines, there is an elevated hilly strip, which is called the Subapennines. In the southern part of the Subapennina, they pass into a karst limestone plateau up to 1000 m high, which stretches from the Gargano peninsula to the Salentina peninsula.

Between the Apennines and the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea, from La Spezia to Salerno, the Anti-Apennines stretch - a special area that includes rolling hills, undulating plateaus and individual mountain ranges. Many lofty landforms, such as the Lepini Mountains in Lazio and the Apuan Alps in northern Tuscany, are composed of limestone and marble. The Apuan Alps (which, despite their name, are not related to the Alps) are known for their quality marble deposits. Volcanic rocks dominate the two parts of the Anti-Apennines. One of them extends from Mount Amiata (1738 m) in southern Tuscany to the mountains of Albani (25 km southeast of Rome). There are many lakes, including Bolsena, Bracciano and Albano, which fill the craters of extinct volcanoes. Another volcanic zone is located around Naples in the neighborhood of Vesuvius and is famous for its exceptionally high soil fertility.

On the southeastern edge of the Apennines is the region of Apulia, which consists of four subdistricts. This is the limestone massif of Gargano, protruding into the Adriatic Sea; the low mountains of Le Murge, another limestone massif separated from the Gargano by the Apulian lowland, or Tavoliere (this is the third subregion), and the low and fairly flat Salentina Peninsula. The Apulian lowland, in the past used only for sheep pasture, is now characterized by intensive agricultural development, despite summer droughts and winter floods. Although both limestone massifs and the Salentina peninsula are almost completely devoid of surface water, they are nevertheless very productive agricultural areas specializing in the cultivation of grapes, olives and almonds.

The eastern slopes of the Apennines adjoin a strip of clay and sandy hills, stretching from Emilia-Romagna through the Marche. Although susceptible to erosion, it is intensively cultivated.

Most of the land in the Apennines is reserved for pastures and forests, but many steep areas are used for wheat crops, vineyards and orchards, especially in densely populated valleys and basins.

Climate also has a significant impact on soil formation, affecting soils both directly and indirectly through biota (through vegetation), since the nature of vegetation depends on climate. The process of soil formation is influenced by the average temperatures of January and July, the annual amount of precipitation, evaporation, and the nature of moisture.

Biota has a great influence on the formation of soil cover. Plants and animals do a great biochemical work, form a special soil-plant system. In the course of interaction in the soil-plant system, a continuous biological cycle of matter occurs. The beginning of the process of soil formation is always associated with the activity of microorganisms. And the leading role in the process of soil formation belongs to higher plants.

The Apennine Peninsula is located within the forest zone of the temperate zone (Padana Plain in the north) and in the subtropical zone (Calabria Peninsula in the south). The sea has a great influence on the formation of the nature features of the peninsula, especially its climate. Even the deepest regions are located no more than 200-220 km. from the sea coast. The nature of the Apennine Peninsula and the diversity of its landscapes are also influenced by the significant elongation of the territory from northwest to southeast and the predominance of hilly mountainous terrain.

Actually, only the climate of peninsular Italy can be called Mediterranean. The climate of the Padana Plain (Western oceanic broad-leaved permanently humid forests), with the same hot summers as on the Apennine Peninsula, but with cold and foggy winters, can be considered transitional from subtropical to temperate. Here, the influence of the warm Ligurian Sea is hindered by the Maritime Alps and the Apennines, while colder air from the Adriatic freely penetrates here. The average temperature in January on the Padan Plain is about 0°, and in July - +23-24°. In autumn, cyclones are actively formed here. In winter, it always snows, often there are frosts up to 10 °. Of the 600 - 1000 mm of annual precipitation, half falls in spring and summer. Heavy, even catastrophic downpours are not uncommon in Northern Italy. Summer rains are often accompanied by thunderstorms and hail.

The climate of the Alps varies with altitude from moderately warm to cold. In the mountains, the snow stays for several months, and on the tops of the mountains it never melts.

The slopes of the Carnic Alps receive the most precipitation - 3000 mm. In the rest of the Alpine regions, an average of 1000 mm falls annually.

The Mediterranean climate is distinctly expressed in the south of the Apennine Peninsula and on the islands. The summer here is dry and hot (the average July temperature is +26°C), the winter is mild and warm (the average January temperature is +8-10°C). In the northern and central parts of the Apennine Peninsula, the average temperatures are different - + 24 ° in July and + 1.4-4 ° in January. Snow on the Apennine Peninsula falls very rarely. From March to October, the sirocco blows in southern Italy - a dry and hot wind from Africa, bringing temperatures up to + 30-35 ° and reddish dust.

The Mediterranean precipitation regime (maximum in winter, minimum in summer) is typical for the entire peninsula.

In the upper part of the Apennines, the climate is cold, and in the closed intermountain valleys it is sharply continental.

The Alps, rising to the north of this region, are an almost insurmountable obstacle to the intrusion of cold air. Only in rare cases, at intervals of several decades, when an unusually severe winter sets in in Western Europe, does cold air masses cross or flow around the Alps, spreading far to the south. At the same time, there are frosts and snow on the entire Apennine Peninsula and even on the island of Sicily.

The climate of the coast of the Ligurian Sea - the Riviera - is especially mild. This narrow coastal strip, pressed to the sea, is protected from the intrusion of cold air masses by mountains from the north. Winter here is usually warmer than in the more southern regions of the Apennine Peninsula (average January temperature is 8 ° C); precipitation is plentiful - up to 3000 mm, their maximum occurs in autumn. Summers are sunny and without rain, the intense heat is moderated by the proximity of the sea. Frosts on the Riviera are very rare, there is almost never snow.

In the northern part of the Apennine Peninsula, the climate is not as mild as on the Riviera. The average January temperature in Florence and Rome is 5 ... 6 ° C, and there are frosts and snowfalls every year. The amount of precipitation in the west exceeds 1000 mm, in the east it is usually not more than 500 mm, and their maximum occurs in autumn and spring, when the polar front passes through these regions. The average July temperature is 24...25 °C. The climate of Calabria is much warmer.

The vegetation of the Apennine Peninsula is diverse. However, dense population, centuries-old human activity have led to the fact that cultural landscapes prevail everywhere in the country, with the exception of the highlands. Once upon a time, forests covered almost the entire Padana Plain and the Apennine Peninsula, but they were rapaciously exterminated for fuel and construction and now occupy only 20% of the territory, mainly in the mountains and on the hills, while the plains are practically treeless.

The rather monotonous landscape of the densely populated and almost entirely cultivated Padana Plain is here and there enlivened by oak, less often by birch or pine groves. In the floodplain By growing poplars, willows, white acacia. Alleys of these trees border roads, banks of canals and rivers.

Evergreen trees and shrubs stretch in a wide strip along the coastal lowlands of the Apennine Peninsula and islands, penetrating far (up to 500-600 m) into the mountains along river valleys. Evergreen holm and cork oaks, pines and alpine pines, mastic trees, palm trees, cacti, and agaves stand out from wild-growing species. Maquis is very characteristic, formed by strawberry, juniper tree, laurel, wild olive, oleander, etc. However, cultivated species predominate here, primarily subtropical ones - citrus fruits, olives, almonds, pomegranates, figs, cork oak groves planted by man. In the mountains, altitudinal zonation is clearly manifested.

Since the Alps and the Apennines are located in different natural zones, the belt of subtropical vegetation is typical only for the foothills of the Apennines. Approximately at an altitude of 500-800 m above sea level. sea in the Apennines, subtropical vegetation is replaced by broad-leaved forests, or rather their small islands left after centuries of deforestation. These are predominantly oak forests, with an admixture of chestnut, hornbeam, ash, and beech. Of the cultivated plants in this zone, mainly Central European fruit trees, vineyards are common, there are crops of rye, oats, potatoes, and fodder crops. Above begins the belt of mixed coniferous-beech forests. Their lower limit in the north, in the Alps, descends to 900 m, and in the south, in the Apennines, it rises to 2000 m.

At an altitude of about 2000 m in the Southern Apennines, the highest forest belt begins - coniferous forests, consisting of various types of pine, European species of spruce, larch, and fir. In the Apennines, relatively large tracts of mountain coniferous forests are found in Calabria and Tuscany.

Above the coniferous forests, subalpine tall grass meadows begin, rhododendron, creeping forms of juniper, pine, etc. appear. Further, they are replaced by alpine meadows. Mountain meadows are used as summer pastures. Above the mountain meadows to the very peaks or glaciers, the slopes are covered with mosses and lichens. In some places, even at the edge of snowfields, primroses and saxifrages bloom in summer. In the Apennines, more often than in the Alps, there are bare slopes - the result of deforestation, erosion and landslides.

Another important factor in soil formation is time, since the soil, like other parts of the geographic envelope, is characterized by evolutionary development.

Here we can add that the Apennine Peninsula is located in the zone of young alpine folding.

Soil cover of the Apennine Peninsula

The soil cover of the Apennine Peninsula is diverse. In the north, in the Alps, mountain-meadow and mountain-forest soils are widespread. The southern foothills of the Alps and most of the Padan Plain are covered with brown forest soils. In the mid-altitude zone of the Alps, they are podzolized and infertile. In coastal areas near the Adriatic Sea, marshy soils are found.

On the low plateaus of the Apennine foothills, humus-carbonate and mountain-forest brown soils predominate. On the lowlands, hills and low mountains of the coasts of the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian Seas, red-colored Mediterranean soils ("terra dew") were formed on limestones, especially suitable for growing fruit trees and grapes. There are soils formed on volcanic rocks. Alluvial soils are common in river valleys.

The soil conditions of Italy are quite conducive to agriculture, although not everywhere in equal measure. The most fertile soils are on the plains and in low hilly areas.

Soil characteristics of the Apennine Peninsula

On the plains of the Apennine Peninsula, soils change from north to south, forming several latitudinal zones: the Padana Plain lies in the zone of Central European brown soils, which also extend onto the slopes of the Alps; to the south, on the plains of the peninsula, brown soils and red soils of the subtropics are common, combined with intrazonal soils on volcanic and limestone rocks and along river valleys. In the mountains, the soil cover forms altitudinal zones.

Brown forest soils cover the southern foot of the Alps and large areas of the Padana Plain, mainly high dry plains. These soils are formed on clastic rocks of various compositions, carried down from the mountains by rivers and glaciers. The parent rocks become progressively thinner as they travel from the foot of the mountains to the Po River and out to the sea. In addition, as the alluvium becomes more and more calcareous towards the east, the brown soils acquire some rendzin properties. They are associated with alluvial soils.

In different parts of the Padan Plain, several varieties of the general type of burozems are observed, and in connection with this, the vegetation changes. At the foot of the Alps, on moraines rich in skeletal materials, rather fertile, but thin soils were formed. On the high plains, with their permeable soils, surface waters go deeper. At a certain depth there is a layer of "ferretto" - impenetrable cemented rubble, on the surface of which water flows down, leaving the entire soil layer dry. This circumstance, as well as the poverty of the vegetation cover associated with it, makes the soils barren, poor in humus and soluble salts. The soils are acidic and have nodules at depth. Such soils have received names in Italy: in Piedmont vaude, in Lombardy brughiere, in Friule magredi. Most of them remain barren wastelands and are used as pastures, which has also been facilitated by deforestation. To the south of the Po River, on high, but less permeable plains, there are zheltozems that do not have ortstein interlayers and contain an insignificant amount of sesquioxides in the lower horizons.

In the direction of the Po River, coarse permeable deposits give way to finer sandy-argillaceous or clayey-limestone fluvioglacial and ancient alluvial materials, and the river valleys are filled with modern alluvium. Thin water-resistant deposits form a strip of moist low plain. In its western part, light loams and sandy loams predominate, on which brown forest gley weakly podzolized soils and bog-podzolic soils are formed. They are usually poor in lime and have an acidic reaction. In the eastern part of the plain, where alluvial deposits along the Po and other rivers are widely developed, the soils become deep, heavy, fine-grained, and contain many colloidal clays. In depth, accumulation of calcium carbonate is sometimes observed. The abundance of groundwater often leads to waterlogging. Along the Po River, on the floodplain terrace, young alluvial soils are common, saturated with salts and having peat masses with the remains of marsh vegetation. The alluvial soils of the Padana Plain are very fertile. There is still no large-scale soil map for the territory of the Padan Plain.

On the Apennine Peninsula, the zonal type of soils are primarily brown soils of subtropical forests and shrubs, common on the plains, hills and foothills, and sometimes high in the mountains - up to 2500 m. Due to the ruggedness of the relief, they are developed fragmentarily, interrupted by mountain, alluvial and intrazonal soils . Brown soils as a special zonal genetic type were identified by S. A. Zakharov and I. P. Gerasimov, who indicated that these soils develop under light, dry-loving low-growing forests and shrubs in a subtropical warm and variable humid climate. As a zonal type, brown soils are also developed in other climatically similar areas of Southern Europe, North Africa, Western Asia, and America. B. B. Polynov considers them Mediterranean analogues of chernozems. Brown soils formed on a wide variety of rocks: crystalline, metamorphic, sedimentary, detrital.

E. S. Michurina, using the example of Crimean brown soils, showed that their parent rocks - deluvium and eluvium - under the influence of karst waters are enriched with carbonates, creating an alkaline or neutral environment. Calcium and alkaline oxides are removed to the underlying layers. Soil formation processes in such an environment are similar in type to chernozem soil formation, soils are saturated with calcium and contain up to 5% humus. At the same time, brown soils contain iron oxides, which impart a brown color to the humus horizon, which distinguishes them from chernozems.

On the soil map of Italy, several types of brown soils are distinguished: red-brown, brown calcareous, brown alkaline and Mediterranean brown. Red-brown soils are formed on pebbles of the middle or lower Pleistocene. The sequence of horizons is A-Bca-Cca-C. Horizons B and C are highly enriched in calcium carbonate in the form of loose or core concretions.

Brown calcareous soils are found only on limestones in the dry areas of Puglia. The sequence of soil horizons ACca C, horizon A of small thickness (less than 25 cm), below it follows the horizon of accumulation of calcium carbonate.

Brown alkaline soils are soils with an ABC profile. Horizons A and B have clay aggregates and accumulations. In the upper horizon B, they are saturated with bases up to 35%.

Mediterranean brown soils are soils with an A-B-C profile. Horizon A sometimes dry, horizon B brown or yellowish with clear clay accumulation. Base saturation above 35%.

Another zonal type of soil characteristic of the Middle-earth is krasnozems. They are distributed in the lowlands, hills and low mountains, ranging from Liguria and coastal Tuscany to Sicily and Sardinia, without penetrating deep into the interior of the peninsula and islands. Formed under the Mediterranean vegetation associations - thickets of oaks and maquis, sometimes under the sub-Mediterranean communities with the participation of deciduous oaks.

On the soil map of Italy, "associations" among the types of red soils are distinguished depending on the nature of the parent rocks and local climatic conditions. The red calcareous soils are found on more or less compact Tertiary limestones and have a sequence of A-C horizons. Horizon A1 is usually less than 40 cm thick and often contains carbonates to the surface. Such soils are noted only in the Sassari region, in Sardinia.

Another association - terra rossa - is formed on calcareous rocks, has an A-B-C profile. Horizon A is rather dark in color, horizon B is clayey (more than 30%) and has a red color due to the content of insoluble iron compounds.

Horizons A and B are devoid of carbonates. Individual horizons of these soils are poorly differentiated, the reaction of the soil is alkaline, and the structure is silty. The problem of the origin of "terra rossa" has long been a lively debate. Some soil scientists considered such soils to be fossil formations, but this is not entirely correct, since a significant part of the soils is formed in the Mediterranean climate at the present time. The largest arrays of "terra rossa" are in Puglia and Gargano, large areas are covered with them in the Central and Southern Apennines.

In relief-favorable, less uneven areas, red Mediterranean soils have deeper profiles, a better preserved horizon A, in places containing a lot of humus. Among the massifs of red soils, lithogenic soils and exposed rocks appear here and there, which impairs the possibilities of agricultural use.

Dark-colored soils are found in the semi-arid regions of Puglia. In the Physical and Geographical Atlas of the World, they are classified as smolnitsa. These soils should be considered as a climatically zonal formation, since the parent rocks and the topographic conditions of their formation can be very different.

Due to the long summer dryness, they have little humus here and are infertile. The soils of the hilly areas are predominantly clayey, their profile is undeveloped, the permeability is poor, the soils can be structural or structureless. The content of organic material ranges from 1.5 to 2.8%, lime - from 5 to 15%, nitrogen - from 0.1-0.2%, phosphorus - about 1-1.2%. Soil improvement should be carried out by deep plowing and fertilization, as well as irrigation.

In addition to zonal soils, intrazonal soils are also widespread on the peninsula. These include soils on volcanic rocks. Around active volcanoes, on their lavas and coarse and fine pyroclastic materials, soil-forming processes are at the most primitive stages. Soil-forming processes occur very slowly on lavas, and much faster on pyroclastic materials. Repeated alternations of humus horizons and volcanic ash are often observed. With strong slopes, soil erosion develops, while on the plains, fertile volcanic soils are widely used for agricultural crops.

On the dune coasts, podzols develop as azonal soils, which are called coastal podzols on the soil map of Italy to distinguish them from the high-altitude zonal alpine podzolic soils that occur on coarser moraines and clastic deposits. On the dunes of the Tyrrhenian coast, which are of considerable age and fixed by vegetation, there are humus podzols and rather deep ferruginous humuses. The soils have an illuvial clay horizon B of red or yellow-brown color. These soils are poor, acidic, and may be poorly drained at depth. With a very strong hydromorphism, the soils turn into psecogley soils, which are found on terraces and Pleistocene dunes. Holocene dunes are also characterized by hydromorphic soils, clayey or clayey-silty, with difficult drainage. They rarely have a surface horizon, often enriched in organic material and acquiring a brown color.

The use of soils of the Apennine Peninsula and their ecological state

The Apennine Peninsula has a variety of minerals, but their deposits are mostly small, dispersed throughout the territory, and often lie inconveniently for development. There are small deposits of iron ore. Its mining has been going on for 2700 years, and now it has been preserved only in Aosta.

Very large reserves of mercury ore - cinnabar, found in Tuscany. In the karst depressions of Puglia, bauxite deposits are being developed, however, at present they are almost exhausted. In Liguria and in Central Italy there are deposits of manganese.

In Tuscany, Umbria, Calabria there are deposits of brown and low-quality coal. Limited oil reserves in the Padana Plain and on the east coast of Central Italy. There are natural gas deposits of the Padana Plain and its underwater continuation - the continental shelf of the Adriatic Sea, as well as natural gas found in the Northern, Central and Southern Apennines.

The bowels of the Apennine Peninsula are rich in building materials - marble, granite, travertine, etc. In Carrara (Tuscany), the famous white Carrara marble is mined, which was used by the ancient Romans to create many sculptures and decoration of buildings.

Most of the land in the Apennines is reserved for pastures and forests, but many steep areas are used for wheat crops, vineyards and orchards, especially in densely populated valleys and basins.

Orchards and vineyards are located in the hilly western part of the Padana Plain, and in the lower reaches of the river. Po - livestock, grain and beet-growing regions.

In the coastal zone of the Apennine Peninsula, brown soils of the subtropics are common, which are very favorable for the cultivation of grapes and other southern crops.

The scourge of the cultivated lands of the Apennine Peninsula is erosion. It is stimulated by the dominance of an elevated or mountainous relief, the predominance of clay or marl soils, and the stormy nature of precipitation. Deforestation and plowing of slopes intensify erosion processes. The plowing of the slopes of the Apennines in Italy was accompanied by such severe erosion that a badland appeared on an area of 230 thousand hectares in the central and southern regions of the country. At the same time, soil-protective afforestation is constrained by a severe shortage of productive land and, therefore, is clearly insufficiently applied.

The European Mediterranean is one of the oldest centers of agriculture on the planet, where the population spontaneously developed anti-erosion practices. Here, for example, special lands, called Mediterranean, are widespread - these are crops planted with tree crops. If on fallows the washout reaches more than 100 t/ha, i.e. acquires catastrophic proportions, then in conditions of mixed polyculture it decreases to 8-10 t/ha.

In the agrolandscapes of the warm belt, which are very dry in summer, the share of irrigated lands increases. But their placement does not always correspond to the most arid conditions, and is often determined by the availability of water reserves and socio-economic reasons. In the most critical situation is Apulia in Italy.

In the Iberian Peninsula, 3 million hectares are irrigated, although 6 million hectares need irrigation. On the Venetian-Padana Plain of Italy, there is one of the largest continuous irrigation arrays in Europe on the waters of the Alpine and Apennine tributaries of the Po River and underground sources of fontanilli. On the basis of gravity canals, an area of intensive commercial rice growing arose. Significant areas of irrigated land are concentrated in Puglia (olive plantations and vineyards), in Tuscany.

Author Irina Bulycheva asked a question in Other about cities and countries

Write the name of the mountains of the Apennine Peninsula and the mountains that protected the peninsula from the north and got the best answer

Answer from Ivan Nezhentsev[active]
the Apennines stretch along the peninsula, in the north the Italian Alps

Answer from Ramzes[guru]
alpiyskie gori

Answer from Vladimir[guru]
Andes.

Answer from Oleg Orlov[newbie]
Where are they now, retired?

Answer from Igor Dementiev[active]
Alps

Answer from Katya gorokhova[newbie]
The Apennine Peninsula is one of the largest peninsulas in Europe, located in the south of the continent and washed by the waters of the Mediterranean Sea. The main part of Italy is located on the peninsula, as well as the Republic of San Marino and the theocratic state of the Vatican. The area of the peninsula is 149 thousand km². The length is about 1100 km, the width is from 130 to 300 km. In the north, the Apennine Peninsula is bounded by the Padana Plain, in the west it is washed by the Tyrrhenian Sea, in the east by the Adriatic Sea, in the south by the Ionian Sea.
The peninsula got its name from the Apennine mountains, stretching along its most part.
A feature of the Apennine Peninsula is high seismicity, modern mountain building and volcanic activity. So the Stromboli volcano has been active continuously throughout the entire historical time and was called the “lighthouse of the Tyrrhenian Sea”, and the volcanoes Etna, Vesuvius and others also erupted repeatedly, which led to mass deaths. Strong earthquakes are not uncommon for the Apennine Peninsula. It is obvious that the threat of a tsunami is constantly hanging over the coastal villages of the Apennines. These processes are due to the global tectonic process of the movement of continental plates, when the African continent collides and moves under the plate on which Europe is located as part of Eurasia. Africa is not only moving north, but also turning "clockwise". Volcanologists expect in the near future a catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius on the coast of the Gulf of Naples with inevitable human casualties.

Answer from Daniil Lantsov[newbie]
Alps

Answer from Natalia Zhukova[newbie]
Alps

Answer from Larisa[active]
the Apennines stretch along the peninsula, in the north the Italian Alps

Answer from Daniil Oleinik[active]
BUT
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b
P
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Answer from Andrey Shishlin[newbie]
what exactly is the Alps or the Andes or the Apennines.

Answer from Roman Ponomarev[newbie]
ALPS

Answer from Dasha Sribna[newbie]
Apennines

Answer from Yopartanets VF[newbie]
Alps

Answer from 3 answers[guru]