Phonetic processes of the Proto-Slavic era. The relationship between synharmonism and ablaut. See what “Syllabic synharmonism” is in other dictionaries

20.09.2019

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) within one word according to one or more phonetic characteristics, such as row, rise (openness) or rounding. The phenomenon is characteristic mainly of agglutinative languages. Synharmonicity in series and rounding is characteristic of the vocalism of most Turkic languages. In the Western languages of the Finno-Ugric group, the law of vowel harmony operates according to the order of sound formation (front or back). The Tibetan language is characterized by synharmonic ascent. To one degree or another, the phenomenon of synharmonism is present in many languages of the world (Akan, Igbo, Bezhta, Takelma, Sranan-Tongo, Saramaccan, Lingala, Sesotho, Northern Sotho, etc.).

The relationship between synharmonism and umlaut

Synharmonism is primarily understood as the similarity of the subsequent vowel to the previous one. (progressive synharmonism). Regressive synharmonism is called umlaut.

The relationship between synharmonism and ablaut

Ablaut differs from synharmonism by the absence or optionality of positional conditionality. At the same time, the simultaneous existence of synharmonism and ablaut is possible.

The withering away of synharmonism

Progressive synharmonism (manifesting partially or completely) has disappeared in Estonian and some other Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic languages, in some Turkic (literary Uzbek, Uyghur, Krymchak, Urum, Balkan dialects of Turkish, Salar, Saryg-Yugur) and Japanese. This process could be accompanied by a loss of phonemic importance of the series category.

Umlaut partially or completely disappeared as a positionally determined change and actually turned into a secondary ablaut, for example, in Germanic (English) goose"goose" - geese), Yakut (presence of doublets like Khatyn//Katun"woman").

synharmonism- a, m. gr. syn together + harmonia consonance. In linguistics, the palatality of vowel sounds in a word is similar to the root vowel, which is characteristic of some languages. BAS 1. Synharmonism is characteristic of Turkic languages. Krysin 1998. Lex. SIS 1937:… … Historical Dictionary Gallicisms of the Russian language

- (from the Greek syn together and harmonia consonance) uniform in the composition of vowels (sometimes consonants) design of a word as a morphological unit. Primarily characteristic of agglutinative (see Agglutination) languages... Big encyclopedic Dictionary

SYNHARMONISM, synharmonism, pl. no, husband (from Greek syn together and harmonia consonance) (Ling.). In some, preferably in Turkic languages, the likening of vowel sounds in a word to the root vowel. Ushakov's explanatory dictionary. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

Synharmonism- (from the Greek σύν together and ἁρμονία consonance) a morphological phenomenon consisting in a uniform vocal (sometimes consonantal) design of a word as a morphological unit. In languages with synharmonicity, an independent element is distinguished in the structure of the word... Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary

synharmonism- (ancient Greek σύν âtogether + άρμονια connection, consonance) A phenomenon observed mainly in the Turkic languages, Finno-Ugric, consisting in the fact that the vowel of the root of which l. words is determined by the nature of subsequent vowels in the affixes of the same word. For example:… … Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal

- (from the Greek sýn together and harmonía consonance), uniform in the composition of vowels (sometimes consonants) design of a word as a morphological unit. Primarily characteristic of agglutinative (see Agglutination) languages. * * * SYNHARMONISM SYNHARMONISM (from... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

- (from the Greek sýn together and harmonía consonance) a uniform design of the root and affixes, consisting in the alignment of the vowels (sometimes consonants) of a word according to any sign of the sound of the row (timbre S.), roundness (flat S.) or rise... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

M. The palatality of vowel sounds in a word is similar to the root vowel, characteristic of some languages (in linguistics). Ephraim's explanatory dictionary. T. F. Efremova. 2000... Modern explanatory dictionary of the Russian language by Efremova

Tatar alphabet

A a F f N n U y

Ә ә җ ң Ү ү ъ

B b Z z O o F f Y y

B in I and Ө ө X x ь

G g Y j P p I h E e

D d K k R r C c Yu u

E e L l S s H h I

Yo e M m T t Sh w

SOUNDS

1.1. Sounds denoted by additional letters of the Tatar alphabet

[ә] [ө] [ү] [җ] [ң] [һ]

[ә] = [æ] – this sound can otherwise be designated as [’’a], that is, a very soft [a]. It is close to the Russian ['a] in the words 'sit', 'look', 'row'. When pronouncing [''a], lower the tip of your tongue to your lower teeth and you will get the sound [æ].

Ani – mother

әti – dad

When pronouncing [ә], the most common error is one that appears due to the influence of graphics: when reading, the letter itself is confused with the Russian “e”. It should be immediately noted that there is no relationship between them. Moreover, the sounds [e] and [ә] often replace themselves in similar positions and influence the meaning of the word. For example: ishetә – ishette; kiterte – kiterte, etc.

[ө] = [ә:°] – this vowel sound presents the greatest difficulty for the Russian-speaking reader. The closest version of the Tatar [ө] can be found in the words “maple”, “honey”, “Peter”. But in the Tatar language [ө] is short, and Russian [’о] is found only under stress. Try to pronounce these Russian words as briefly as possible and with great pronunciation, and you will be close to the desired sound.

[ү] = [ü] – soft and more rounded [’у]. A sound close to it is found in the Russian words “bale”, “ditch”, “lute”.

үрдәк – duck

үrnәk sample

[җ] – this sound is also often found in English language, and in borrowings from English in Russian it is expressed by the letter combination j: “jumper”, “Jack”. Tatar borrowings are also formalized: jilyan - җilyan, Jalil - Җәlil. The sound [zh] in Russian is always hard, but forming a soft version from it is usually not difficult for a Russian-speaking reader. It should be noted that hard [zh] is also uncharacteristic for the Tatar language, as [’zh] is for Russian. Therefore, as a rule, mixing of these sounds does not occur.

җavap is the answer

han – soul

[ң] is a nasal sound produced by a small tongue. The sound combination [ng] in the word “gong” when pronounced through the nose can be considered the closest in the Russian language.

yana – new

ң – right

[һ] = [һ] – pharyngeal sound. It is formed in the pharynx and is pronounced with aspiration. In Russian, the closest sound can be considered [x] in the words robe, chill, if pronounced without a guttural sound. It must be remembered that Tatar [һ] is of more posterior, pharyngeal origin.

Khava – air

һәykәl – monument

1.2. Sounds denoted by the same letters of the Tatar and Russian alphabet

The complexities of the sound system of the Tatar language are not limited to specific Tatar letters. In addition, there is a discrepancy in the common letters for the Tatar and Russian alphabets.

[a] [o] [s] [e] [c] [g] [k]

a – in the Tatar language this letter denotes a more posterior, wider and somewhat rounded sound [аү]. When pronouncing it in the word pencil, try to create as much space in your mouth as possible

Tatar word its translation Russian word

rank number

card old man

bar available

chana sani

barn palace

shoe shoe

[o], [s], [e]

o, e, y – these vowel letters of the Tatar alphabet are characterized by brevity compared to Russian ones.

Since in the Russian language there is no meaningful contrast of vowels by length, for a Russian-speaking reader at first this will seem unimportant. But it is not difficult to get used to this phenomenon. It is important to pay attention to this from the very beginning of training, until the use of these sounds becomes the norm.

court national dish

turn the boron

devil cheese

Kyrys is strict

son become

gel always

berenche first

serle secret

в – this letter in the Tatar language serves to designate two sounds: [в] and [w]. The second sound is in the English language, and in borrowings it is conveyed in two ways: William - William. The same is true with regional borrowings from the Tatar language: avyl - aul, karavyl - guard. In the Tatar language itself, this sound can be denoted by the letter y: sorau [soraw] - soravy [sorawy].

it's time

Savyt dishes

bosau calf

avyl village

g - this letter also denotes two sounds. These are quite different sounds. This sound, formed with the help of a small tongue, is familiar to Russian-speaking readers: it is produced when a person burrs and does not pronounce [r].

hag crow

Kagan Kagan

komgan kumgan

gyna only

k – similar to the letter g, denotes two sounds [k] and [қ]. The sound [k] is a voiceless pair [ғ].

hag crow

tank frog

balyk fish

karak thief

PHONETIC REGULARITIES

Now you practically know the pronunciation of all Tatar letters (there are a few more peculiar aspects of the Tatar sound system, but they are initial stage are not of fundamental importance). You also need to know the fundamental laws of Tatar phonetics. They exist in any language, and you need to constantly remember them during your first lessons. In the Tatar language, the three basic rules of practical phonetics are:

– law of synharmonism;

– the rule of striving for an open syllable;

– clear pronunciation of the last syllable.

Law of synharmonism

Word formation

One of the features of the Tatar language is the simplicity of modifying certain words. This is clearly seen in the formation of plurals:

Әni – Әnilәr; Ana – Analar
(singular) - (plural); (singular) - (plural)
mother - mothers; mom - moms

Remember:

Әni = Ana = Mom
synonyms

As can be seen from the examples, the difference between the two plural forms: ...lar and ...lәр lies in just one letter. And this is connected with the so-called “law of synharmonism,” according to which “hard vowel sounds will be accompanied by hard sounds,” and “soft sounds will be accompanied by soft sounds.”

Synharmonic rule:

“Hard vowel sounds are accompanied by hard sounds;
soft vowel sounds - soft"

It is noteworthy that softness or hardness is reflected in consonant sounds. So, if there is a hard vowel in a particular word, then the consonant sound, as a rule, is pronounced firmly:
bar = [bar] = go.

If the vowel is soft, then the consonant sound will be read softly:
bәr = [byar] = throw, throw.

The “Rule of Synharmonism” makes language learning easier because it corresponds to the human subconscious. And indeed, if a word is pronounced using soft sounds, then one involuntarily wants to continue it in the same soft manner:

әbi - әbilәr
(singular) - (plural)
grandmother - grandmothers
If the word is pronounced firmly, then its continuation is asked firmly:
babay – babaylar
(singular) - (plural)
grandfather - grandfathers

In order to better understand the “rule of synharmonism”, we suggest that you familiarize yourself with the table in which all vowel sounds are distributed into two groups: “hard” and “soft”.

Table of paired vowel sounds according to the principle: “hard” - “soft”

For words whose roots contain both hard and soft vowels (elga, kitap), we focus on the last vowel.

As in many other languages, there are certain kinds of exceptions in the Tatar language. Relatively of this rule the exception concerns those words that were borrowed from the Russian language. For example, if you form the plural from the word museum, then the softness of the word will be determined by the first vowel: museumlar.

I would like to pay special attention to how words are formed and modified in the Tatar language. If in Russian the change of words, as a rule, occurs by adding prefixes, suffixes and changing endings, then in Tatar this process is mainly carried out by adding suffixes to the root of the word.
Simply put, we are talking about the “train principle”, where:

"Locomotive" is the root of the word,
and the chain of “cars” are suffixes,
and the “gaps” between them are clearly visible.

Such a characteristic was once given to the Tatar language by the famous scientist A. Reformatsky, and it truly reflects reality.
Let's take, for example, a word like suz - “word”. If it is necessary to change the number of this word, then the already mentioned form -lar/-lәр is added to it. IN in this case: sүзләр – “words”. If you need to indicate belonging to someone, then an “attractive pronoun” is added: сүзләрң – “your words”. If there is a need to mark the location, then another fragment is added - the combined preposition “-da/-dә”, meaning “in”: ззләрңдә – “in your words”. In this case, the formula will look like this: сүзләрңдә = сүз + …ләр + …ең + …дә

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IN THE BASHKIR AND TATAR LANGUAGES"

The Bashkir language, like many Turkic languages, is characterized by the law of synharmonism. Synharmonism is a phonetic phenomenon characterized by the fact that the vowel of the first syllable determines the nature of the vowels of subsequent syllables. In accordance with this law of synharmonism, Bashkir vowels are divided into two groups. Vowels a, o, y, s are back vowels. In the Bashkir language, these vowels are designated by the term “kalyn”, which literally means “thick”. Vowels ө, ә, ү, e(e), and belong to the front vowels (in Bashkir “n әҙek” - thin). Almost all vowels (except And) have synharmonic parallels: A- ә, o-ө, u-ү, ы – e(e). .

In a word, vowel sounds come in only one row: either front or back. The nature of the vowel is fundamentally preserved in subsequent syllables when other affixes are added to the word.

Almost all affixes and particles have two variants: hard and soft. If the root of a word contains only hard vowels, then affixes and particles with a hard vowel are added. If a word contains only soft vowels, then affixes and particles of only the soft vowel are added. For example:

bala – balalar – balalarga

Asәay – Asәayem – Asәayemden

In compound words consisting of two or more roots, the hardness/softness of the affixes depends on the nature of the vowel of the last root.

Aғiҙelden һыуы омшаҡ. – The water of Agidel is soft.

Aғiҙel = Aҡ (white) + iҙel (river)

Bilbauymdy bir ale. - Give me my belt.

Bilbau = bil (waist) + bau (rope)

The Bashkir language also has labial synharmonism. After labial vowels root oh in case affixes (possessive and accusative cases) must follow O or ө :

If behind a labial syllable with oh, ө there are syllables with y, ү, then in such cases harmony ceases:

Some linguists believe that there is no labial harmony in the Tatar language. To find out, I studied the colloquial speech of the Tatars of our city. In the Tatar language, labial synharmonism is preserved only in oral speech. Labial vowels in the first syllable O ,ө vowels located in the second (and partially in the third) syllable are robbed s , e. All these sounds are pronounced briefly:

This type of harmony is not displayed in writing.

In the Bashkir language there is also an adaptation of consonants to a number of vowels. Depending on the combination with back or front vowels, each consonant sound has a hard or soft pronunciation. In words with back vowels (kalyn) consonants are pronounced firmly in words with front vowels (nәҙek) – soft:

ҡul (hand) – kүl (lake)

toҙ (salt) – toҙ (straight)

there (drip) – tәm (taste)

Some words borrowed from the Russian language also obey the law of synharmonism:

The only exceptions to the law of synharmonism are complex words of the Bashkir language itself or borrowed from Arabic, Persian, Russian, Western European and other languages. For example:; Bilbau- belt; G ө lna ҙ - lit. flower+weasel; kitap- book; dictation, academy , maths, physics etc.

Law of synharmonism

Word formation

One of the features of the Tatar language is the simplicity of modifying certain words. This is clearly seen in the formation of plurals:

Әni – Әnilәr; Ana – Analar
(singular) - (plural); (singular) - (plural)
mother - mothers; mom - moms

Әni = Ana = Mom
synonyms

If the vowel is soft, then the consonant sound will be read softly:
bәr = [byar] = throw, throw.

Әbi = Grandmother
Babai = Grandfather
Әni + Әti + Әbi + Babay + Min = Family, Gailә

Table of paired vowel sounds according to the principle: “hard” - “soft”

For words whose roots contain both hard and soft vowels (elga, kitap), we focus on the last vowel.

Exercise. Form plurals according to the rule you learned:
elga - elgal...; su - su...; ash - ...; өй -…; cache - cache...; kurshe -…

Elga = River
Su = Water
Ash = Food, Food
Keshe = Person
Kurshe = Neighbor

As in many other languages, there are certain kinds of exceptions in the Tatar language. Regarding this rule, the exception concerns those words that were borrowed from the Russian language. For example, if you form the plural from the word museum, then the softness of the word will be determined by the first vowel: museumlar.

Such a characteristic was once given to the Tatar language by the famous scientist A. Reformatsky, and it truly reflects reality.
Let's take, for example, a word like suz - “word”. If it is necessary to change the number of this word, then the already mentioned form -lar/-lәр is added to it. In this case: sүзләр – “words”. If you need to indicate belonging to someone, then an “attractive pronoun” is added: сүзләрң – “your words”. If there is a need to mark the location, then another fragment is added - the combined preposition “-da/-dә”, meaning “in”: ззләрңдә – “in your words”. In this case, the formula will look like this: сүзләрңдә = сүз + …ләр + …ең + …дә

A little about the verb

When learning most languages, special attention should be paid to verbs, because, as already mentioned, they are the “basic structure” of almost all languages of the world.
Verbs, as a rule, begin to be studied with their “ indeterminate form"(in linguistics referred to as the "infinitive"). However, in this case, we propose to start studying verbs with a form that is usually called the “action name” or, in other words, the “verbal name”.
This choice is far from accidental - this form of the verb is extremely close to the root of the word. In the Tatar language, the imperative form of a verb is also its root. Consequently, knowing it and having studied the rules by which this or that form of the verb is formed, it will be possible to learn how to operate with them without much difficulty.
The form of the “name of action” looks quite simple in the Tatar language - the ending “-у” or “-ү” is added to the root of the word (the imperative form of the verb) (depending, as you probably already guessed, on the law of “synharmonism”).

www.tatartel.com

Russian Arborist

§1. Original sound system

The Russian language belongs to the group of Slavic languages, which together form one of the branches of the Indo-European language family. The Indo-European proto-language was divided into branches (Proto-Germanic, Proto-Roman, Proto-Slavic, Proto-Baltic, etc.) at the turn of the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e. This division consisted in the fact that the Indo-European heritage began to develop in each family according to special laws inherent only to it.

The Proto-Slavic language, starting from the 10th century, began to be divided into three groups - eastern, southern and western, each of which was divided into separate Slavic languages: East Slavic, or Old Russian, which broke up in the XIV-XV centuries into Little Russian, Belarusian and Great Russian; South Slavic (Serbian, Slovenian, Croatian, Bulgarian, Macedonian) and Western Slavic (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Kashubian, Upper and Lower Sorbian, Polabian); each of which is divided into dialects that could potentially become separate languages, however, this is unlikely to happen due to the fact that literary languages displace dialects and lead to their extinction

Thus, the history of the sounds of the Russian language must begin with the Indo-European heritage. The Proto-Slavic dialect inherited the following system of phonemes from the Indo-European proto-language

1.1. Vowel phonemes:

1. 2. Diphthongs and diphthong combinations:

*ei, *oi, *ai, *eu, *ou, *au; *en, *em, *on, *om, *an, *am, *in, *im, *er, *el, *or, *ol, *ar, *al.

1.3. Consonant phonemes:

a) eight sonorant phonemes: four non-syllabic and four syllabic:

b) sixteen stops:

H >, h >, h >, h >, w >, h >, w >, wh >.

c) one fricative phoneme - spirant (from Latin s piro ‘I blow’).

1.4. Syllable structure: syllables could be either open or closed, that is, ending in both syllabic and non-syllabic sounds. Most vowels were only syllabic, and most consonants were only non-syllabic. However, sonorant consonants, due to their high sonority, depending on their position in the word, could be either syllabic or non-syllabic; the highest vowels (*i, *u) could also be either syllabic or non-syllabic, depending on position; in diphthongs the second sound was always non-syllabic.

1.5. Alternating sounds.

In the Indo-European proto-language there were four stages of alternation:

a) main stage: ĕ / ŏ – tĕ t / t ŏ t;

b) main extended stage: ē / ō / ǝ (seam primum) – t ē t / t ō t / tǝ t;

c) reduction stage: ĭ / ŭ – t ĭ t / t ŭ t;

d) zero stage: ø – tøt.

(Note: Schwa indogermnicum primum represented the degree of reduction of the long vowels ā, ē, ō in the pre-stressed syllable; for example: I.-e. * st ā ti / * st ə j ŏ n> prosl. * stati / * stoj ǫ.(See: Bernstein 1, 147).

The alternations at the main stage in Proto-Slavic were transformed as follows: I.-E. ĕ / ŏ > prosl. e / o (n e sti – n O sit).

The alternations at the stage of extension in Proto-Slavic were transformed as follows: I.-e. ē / ō / ǝ > prosl. ě / a / ŏ.

Sometimes, under the influence of neighboring sounds, alternation ō / ǝ could look like: a / y or a / u. See for example: kv A With / sour prasl. b / ъ.

The extension of alternations at the stage of reduction in Indo-European led to the emergence of long vowel alternations: ĭ / ŭ > ī / ū . In Proto-Slavic this alternation was transformed as follows: ī / ū > i / y .

“As a result, the following series of alternations [ĕ : ŏ: ь: ъ: ě : ā : ī : ȳ] was formed in Proto-Slavic” (Bernstein 2, 35).

With the loss of longitude and brevity, this series will take the following form:

e / o / b / b / a / i / s.

Within one morpheme, the entire series of alternations practically does not occur; only individual links of this series are used for word-formation purposes. Here is a relatively complete set of alternations within one root:

The alternation of vowels within the root (the so-called internal inflection, German Ablaut) in I.-E. language had a distinctive meaning, traces of which have survived to the present day. So, e-vocalization characterizes verb stems, O-vocalization - nominal bases: order – will, weave (ъ / s fundamentally * tŭ k — / t ū k- expresses the meaning of one-time - multiple actions: poke - poke > poke - poke.

Vowels ĕ / ŏ on the main stage with sonants i And u formed diphthongs: ĕ i And ŏ u; the same vowels at the stage of reduction before the sonants i And u moved to the zero level, and the sonants became short vowels: ĭ i > øĭ, ŏ u > øŭ . This is how the series of alternations arose: 1) ĕ i / ŏ i / ĭ , 2) ĕ u / ŏ u / ŭ. In the Proto-Slavic language these series were transformed as follows: 1) ei / oi / b, 2) e u / ou / ъ. With the onset of the law of ascending sonority, diphthongs underwent monophthongization (see §14).

As part of diphthong combinations, these vowels alternated as follows:

In the Proto-Slavic language this system of alternations collapsed, leaving more or less noticeable traces, which will be visible in the formation of individual words; at the same time, the destruction of this system led to the obscuring and further severing of family ties between words, to the de-etymologization of individual words.

The phonetic system inherited from the Indo-European proto-language has undergone significant transformations. Chronologically, these transformations can be divided into two groups: transformations of the early Proto-Slavic language and transformations of the late Proto-Slavic language. All types of transformations are marked with a § sign with a number: §1…§ n; the same symbols are used in dictionary entries to refer to the corresponding section of the introductory entry.

First, let's look at the transformations of sounds in the early Proto-Slavic period.

§2. Dephonologization of the quantitative feature of vowels

In the Indo-European proto-language, the quantitative feature of vowels was semantically distinctive, or phonological. In the early Proto-Slavic language the sign of longitude - brevity ceases to be phonologically significant. In this case, phonemes that differed quantitatively begin to differ qualitatively, and some phonemes that differed qualitatively, on the contrary, coincide (the letters with which a given sound is designated in the Cyrillic alphabet are indicated in brackets):

*ă and *ŏ > o (o); compare: Russian axis- lat. ăxis, but Russian house- lat. dŏmus;

*ā and *ō > a (a); compare: Russian mother- lat. mater, but Russian gift- lat. dōnŏ‘I give’;

*ĕ > e (e); compare: Russian sky- lat. nĕbula'fog';

*ē > ě (e); compare: st. Sam, Dr.Rus. seed, Russian seed- lat. sēmĕn;

*ĭ > ь (ь); compare: st. bribe, other Russian bribe, Russian bribe- Gothic mĭzdo'pay';

*ī > i (and, i); compare: Russian three- lat. triginta ‘30’;

*ŭ > ъ (ъ); compare: st. Makh, other Russian. mx, Russian moss- lat. mŭscŭs'moss';

*ū > ы(ы); compare: Russian smoke- lat. fumus‘smoke’, Russian son- lit. sunus.

In some other Indo-European languages, the transformation of quantitative vowel differences into qualitative ones also occurred, but the results of this transformation were significantly different from the results in the Proto-Slavic language. For example, in common Germanic *ā and *ō coincided in, and *ă and *ŏ coincided in, that is, the process was opposite to the Proto-Slavic.

The loss of longitude-shortness as a distinctive feature and qualitative changes in vowels led to the transformation of ancient alternations:

*ĕ / *ē > e/e: v.-sl. podgreb© – podgreb";

*ŏ / *ō > o / a: v.-sl. probod© – probada";

*ŭ / *ū > ъ/ы: v.-sl. poke© – poke“;

*ĭ / *ī > ь / и: v.-sl. mр© – σmira«;

*ē / *ō > e/a: st-sl. sedati – garden.

§3. Conversion of non-syllabic consonants

*i̥ > j (in Cyrillic it was denoted by the sign ¶ in combination with other letters as part of the so-called ligatures: у = ju , ÿ = ja, ¬ = je, ª = ję, « = jo; sometimes it was not indicated in any way, for example: and = jь); in other i.e. in non-syllabic languages *i̥ also changed into j, only in some cases in ancient Greek. passed into the affricate ζ; compare: v.-sl. yoke (v (in) in all I.-E. languages.

§4. Centum-satem phenomena

The Indo-European proto-language was characterized by the presence of soft back-lingual stop phonemes and. IN large group i.-e. languages, these phonemes were preserved in their quality, and in another group I.-e. languages there was a transformation of the stops of the back linguals into fricative consonants. Languages in which velar stops are preserved are called in Latin centum: These are the Italic, Celtic, Germanic branches, as well as the Greek language. The same ones in which * k changed into fricative consonants, called the Avestan word satə m: these are Indian, Iranian, Baltic, Slavic branches, Armenian and Albanian languages.

Compare: lat. centum‘one hundred’ - st.-sl. soto, Greek δέκα ‘ten’ - v.-sl. ten, lat. pictura‘drawing’ - v.-sl. write; Greek γιγνώσκω - Old-Sl. nobility, lat. granum‘grain’ - v.-sl. no good.

§5. Transition *s > *ch

Phoneme * s in position after phonemes *r, *u, *k, *i, and also after diphthongs *oi, *ai, *ou, *au and not before plosive consonants it turned into a phoneme * сh. Let's compare: st. makh, Russian. moss- lat. mŭscŭs'moss'; st. σho - lit. ausis.

§6. Vocalization of syllabic sonorants

In the Indo-European proto-language, sonorant sounds, due to their high sonority, acted as syllable-forming sounds. In most Indo-European languages, sonorants lost their syllabification, but the results of this loss varied from language to language.

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2.3.3. Analysis of disyllabic words of the Azerbaijani language from the point of view of the law of synharmonism

Speaking about the phonetic structure of a word in the Azerbaijani language, one cannot help but touch upon the important and widespread law of synharmonism in the Azerbaijani language.

Synharmonism is one of the most important phonetic phenomena that plays a large role in the organization of words. Synharmonism is characteristic of agglutinative languages, which are the Turkic languages, including the Azerbaijani language.

The essence of synharmonism lies in the fact that each word form of a language of this type contains segmental elements (vocal and consonantal) of one specific series, which are opposed in the language system of another series. For example, the two series are front and back vowels. In this case, the word may contain vowels of the same class (59, 41).

The correlation of vowels according to a certain characteristic, in this case according to a series, is phonologically significant; it is no coincidence that synharmonism is often called “vowel harmony.” However, as a result of accommodation processes in the sound stream, the implementation of synharmonicity is such that the quality of the vowels also determines the quality of the consonants in the word. Many Russian linguists defended a broad understanding of synharmonism, emphasizing Russian origin the very term “synharmonism”, for example, A.A. Reformatsky (85, 191-193). So, for example, a “back row” word will contain consonants of deeper formation, and a “front row” word will contain their semi-soft allophones. This applies to all consonants of the language, although these two classes of allophones are most clearly perceived in the velar and uvular consonants and in the lateral consonant [l], which is noted by a number of linguists. Thus, synharmonism is a rather complex phenomenon that determines the entire phonetic appearance of the language - its vocalism, consonantism and features of the syllabic structure, as well as “a phenomenon that also covers units of other tiers of the linguistic structure (morpheme, lexeme), and, moreover, a very important phenomenon for structural and typological understanding of agglutinating languages" (85, 192).

The above gives the most general idea about one of the types of synharmonicism - “palatal”, “labial” synharmonicism is also known (contrasting the vowels of the labialized and non-labialized series and, accordingly, rounded and unrounded allophones of consonants, often combined with the palatal, for example, in Azerbaijani. In the word of the synharmonic Azerbaijani language, synharmonic is organized primarily a root that determines the vocalization of affixes, which in this language are represented in at least two morphonematic variants corresponding to the contrasted classes of phonemes. The choice of variant is determined by the vowelization of the root. In this case, the phonological essence of the vowels of the initial root syllable and non-initial affixal syllables, with their phonetic similarity from the standpoint of different phonological ones. directions are determined differently.

The law of synharmonism refers to the unity of the sound composition of a word from a physiological-acoustic point of view (115.210). There are two types of synharmonism in the Azerbaijani language: 1 ) vowel harmony and 2) harmony of vowels and consonants. Vowel harmony is based on two principles: 1) from the point of view of place of education And 2) from the point of view of the participation of the lips. The harmony of vowels at the place of formation occurs on the basis of their hardness-softness and manifests itself in two forms: 1) harmony of hard (non-front) vowels And 2) harmony of soft (front) vowels. Both the harmony of hard vowels and the harmony of soft vowels, depending on the participation of the lips, appears in two forms: 1.1) harmony of unrubbed solids vowels, 2) harmony of unrounded soft vowels And 2.1) harmony of rounded hard vowels, 2) harmony of rounded vowels soft vowels.

A special place in the Azerbaijani language is occupied by palatal synharmonism, the essence of which is that the word, as noted above, in all its forms should consist either only of soft sounds (front vowels and soft consonants) or only of hard sounds(non-front vowels and hard consonants). “From a purely phonetic point of view, synharmonism consists in the fact that each word ... can contain either only front vowels and palatalized consonants, or only back vowels and velarized consonants,” wrote N.S. Trubetskoy on this occasion (102, 312).

In the flow of speech, the layering of phases of two sounds on top of each other is a universal anthropophonic phenomenon characteristic of all languages. It occurs according to the phonetic law formulated by N.V. Krushevsky as follows: “When pronouncing a group of two sounds, a tendency is noticed in the work of the organs to bring closer (if possible) the places of origin of both sounds” (52, 32-33). But in each language this law operates in its own way: if in the Russian language the sign of hardness-softness characterizes consonants as a differential one, then in the Azerbaijani language this sign is distinctive for vowels. This leads to the fact that in the Russian language, consonants according to this characteristic influence vowels, in the Azerbaijani language, on the contrary, vowels influence consonants, i.e. if in the Russian language, non-front vowels under the influence of soft consonants become front, and front vowels under the influence hard consonants - non-front, then in the Azerbaijani language consonants under the influence of hard (i.e. non-front) vowels are pronounced firmly, and under the influence of soft (i.e. front) vowels - “softened”. Thus, as a result of the harmony of vowels and consonants in the Azerbaijani language, in the flow of speech, either only a hard series or only a soft series of sounds is used as part of a word. Therefore, due to the difference in the interactions of vowels and consonants according to the above-mentioned characteristic in two languages of different systems, which are Russian and Azerbaijani, depending on the hardness-softness of consonants and the row of vowels in the Russian language, only a syllable of the type GHS has 8 options: GHS, SG’ WITH, WITH’ HS, WITH’ G’ WITH, GHS’, SG’ WITH’, WITH’ GS’, WITH’ G’ WITH', while in the Azerbaijani language, depending on the row of vowels, there are only 2 options: GHS And WITH’ G’ WITH' (4, 45).

Analysis of 10,044 disyllabic words of the Azerbaijani language from the point of view of their observance of the law of synharmonicity allowed us to come to the following conclusions.

Two-syllable words in which the law of synharmonicity is observed both signs of vowels.

I.1.Harmony of unrounded hard vowels:

1) A – A = 1060 words: maraq, cavan, qazan;

2) A – I = 722 words: canlı, mahnı, satış;

3) I – A = 157 words: sısqa, qıyqac, pırtlaq;

4) I – I = 236 words: qırış, sıyıq, pıç-pıç.

I.2.Harmony of rounded hard vowels.

1) O – O = 120 words: folklor, sonor, kos-kos;

2) O – U = 300 words: donmuş, forslu, corpus;

3) U – U = 268 words: buynuz, quyruq, duruş;

4) U – O = 37 words: tumov, buxov, kurort.

II.1.Harmony of unrounded soft vowels:

1) Ə – Ə = 711 words: sərçə, kəvər, xəstə;

2) Ə – İ = 699 words: qəlib, səsli, təhsil;

3) Ə – E = 13 words: xətkeş, təsbeh, qəzet;

4) E – E = 101 words: dekret, beret, brezent;

5) E – Ə = 113 words: meşə, qeyrət, yemək.

6) E – İ = 279 words: steril, yetim, telli;

7) İ – İ = 493 words: içki, dişi, fikir;

8) İ – Ə = 305 words: dilçək, xislət, nimçə;

9) İ – E = 80 words: disket, printer, sweater.

II.2.Harmony of rounded soft vowels.

1) Ö – Ü = 106 words: görüş, könül, bölgü;

2) Ö – Ö = 13 words: kösöv, dördgöz, gömgöy:

3) Ü – Ü = 236 söz: zümrüd, tülkü, küçük;

4) Ü – Ö = 6 words: üz-göz, müsyö, bütöb.

Violation of vowel harmony in disyllabic words of the Azerbaijani language revealed several cases:

I. Violation of vowel harmony only on the basis of rounded-unrounded while maintaining harmony on the basis of hardness and softness: :

I.1. A series of unrounded and rounded hard vowels:

1) A – U = 124 words: casus, yakut, kayut;

2) A – O = 162 words: sambo, mason, çayxor.

3) I – U = 1 word: qır-qur;

4) I – O = 2 words: qırdon, cırtqoz.

I.2. A row of rounded and unblown solid vowels:

1) O – A = 490 words: doxsan, boya, yortqan;

2) O – I = 2 words: bozqır, qol-qıç;

3) U – A = 282 words: tundra, sual, duman;

4) U – I = 2 words: rumın, taqım.

II.1. A series of unrounded and rounded soft vowels:

1) Ə – Ü = 16 words: ət-süd, şəngül, kərkük;

2) Ə – Ö = 6 words: əks-qöbs, bədöv, təkgöz;

3) E – Ü = 10 words: revyü, etüd, velür, şey-şüy;

4) E – Ö = 3 words: yer-göy, gendöş, beşgöz;

5) İ – Ü= 9 words: bircür, şil-küt, qipür;

6) İ – Ö=5 words: bizövq, likör, cingöz.

II.2. A series of rounded and unrounded soft vowels:

1) Ö – Ə = 259 words: böcək, növbə, hörmət;

2) Ö – E = 4 words: mövqe, ögey, dörd-beş, zövceyn;

3) Ö – İ = 8 words: dövri, lösit, qövsi;

4) Ü – Ə = 227 words: ürək, qüllə, bükmək;

5) Ü – E = 18 words: süjet, püre, rüşeym, flüqel, güney;

6) Ü – İ = 45 words: mürid, cüzi, ülvi, qütbi, gülçin.

II. Violation of vowel harmony only on the basis of hardness-softness while maintaining harmony on the basis of rounded-unrounded:

I. A series of unrounded hard and soft vowels:

1) A – İ = 302 words: katib, sahil, xain, maki;

2) A – Ə = 85 words: namə, qarət, yafəz;

3) A – E = 134 words: kansler, qaz-neft, maket;

4) I – E = 2 words: vımpel, şeblet;

5) I – Ə = 1 word: xişkəs.

6) I – İ = no examples.

2. A series of unrounded soft and hard vowels:

1) Ə – A = 327 words: həyat, bərpa, kənar;

2) Ə – I = no examples.

3) E – A = 275 words: mehman, reklam, şeytan, freqat, metal;

4) E – I = no examples.

5) İ – A = 360 words: bina, nigah, misra, ziyan, gilas;

6) İ – I = 2 words: dikbığ, ilıq.

3. A series of rounded hard and soft vowels:

1) O – Ü = 4 words: zor-güc, noktürn, xoşüz, xoşgün;

2) O – Ö = 5 words: od-köz, soy-kök, boz-göy, kor-göz, şorgöz;

3) U – Ü = 1 word: buntürk;

4) U – Ö = no examples.

4. Row oruinedX softX and hard vowels:

1) Ö – U = 7 words: mövzu, mövcud, mövhum, mövlud, mövzun;

2) Ö – O = 2 words: göyot, dördyol;

3) Ü – O = 4 words: flüor, dzü-do, güc-xoş, güc-zor;

4) Ü – U = 72 words: süqut, vücud, hüquq, nüfuz, şüur.

In a number of words, violation of the law of vowel harmony occurs according to both vowel characteristics:

I. Unrounded hard – rounded soft vowels:

1) A – Ö = 10 words: markör, yan-yön, amyöb, acgöz, baş-qöz;

2) A – Ü = 19 words: pratürk, mal-mülk, yağ-süd, labüd, jalüz;

3) I – Ö = no examples.

4) I – Ü = no examples.

2. Unrounded soft vowels – rounded hard vowels:

1) Ə – U = 114 words: cəsur, məlum, əruz, məktub, səlcuq;

2) Ə – O = 13 words: bərk-boş, əl-qol, sərxoş, həndbol, dəmrov;

3) E – U = 29 words: berkut, zeytun, şeypur, retuş, ekskurs;

4) E – O = 12 words: depo, veto, beton, despot;

5) İ – U = 35 words: simurq, tribun, iyul, virus, disput;

6) İ – O = 128 words: milord, milyon, bizon, sinod.

3. Rounded hard – unrounded soft vowels:

1) O – Ə = 12 words: xoşsəs, xoşbəxt, dolbənd;

2) O – E = 96 words: foye, broker, obyekt, order, phonem;

3) O – İ = 116 words: bromid, tropik, forint, plotin, polis;

4) U – Ə = 12 words: ruhən, surət, busə, kuzə;

5) U – E = 48 words: bunker, dublet, zummer, rulet, dudkeş;

6) U – İ = 80 words: munis, kulis, budin, qusli, util.

4. Rounded soft – unrounded hard vowels:

1) Ö – A = 20 words: sövda, böhtan, göz-qaş, növraq, röya;

2) Ö – I = no examples.

3) Ü – A = 89 words: kübar, güzar, zülal, büsat, dükan;

4) Ü – I = no examples.

As can be seen, compliance with the law of synharmonism on both grounds occurs in 21 possible cases and in 5955 disyllabic words, or in 59.3% of all disyllabic words of the Azerbaijani language.

Violation of vowel harmony has the following options:

1) words with violation of labial harmony while maintaining palatal harmony: 20 possible cases and occurrence in 1675 words, which is 16.65% of all disyllabic words.

2) words with violation of palatal harmony while maintaining labial harmony : 16 cases out of 20 possible and occurrence in 1583 words, which is 15.75% of all disyllabic words. No examples on I – İ, Ə – I, E – I, U – Ö.

3) words with violation of both palatal and labial harmony: 16 cases out of 20 possible and occurrence in 833 words, which is 8.3% of all disyllabic words. No examples for: I – Ö, I – Ü, Ö –I, Ü – I.

In the overwhelming majority of disyllabic words of the Azerbaijani language, the law of palatal synharmonism is observed: 7630 out of 10044 disyllabic words, or almost 76%, are constructed in compliance with this law, which corresponds to the data obtained by other specialists: for example, according to the calculations of R.S. Mamedov, only 18593 words out of 59744 words available in the “Spelling Dictionary of the Azerbaijani Language” (Baku, 1975), i.e. only a third of the lexical composition of the Azerbaijani language represents a deviation from this law (63,105). It should be especially noted that in many cases, vowel harmony is violated according to one criterion, and violations according to two characteristics amount to a little more than 8%. Words with violations of the law of synharmonism in the vast majority of cases are borrowings or complex formations.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The Azerbaijani language is characterized by the law of synharmonism, which includes two types of harmony: palatal and labial harmony.

2. Both types of harmony, as a phonetic law, permeate the sound structure of the Azerbaijani word, determine the choice of vowels of non-first syllables depending on the vowel of the first syllable of the word:

3. In the Azerbaijani language, the law of synharmonism is generally observed: out of 10,044 disyllabic words in SL, 7,060 or 76% are constructed in accordance with this law.

4. In many cases, vowel harmony in SL is violated according to one criterion, and violations according to two characteristics amount to a little more than 8%.

5. Words with violations of synharmonicity in SL are overwhelmingly borrowings or complex formations.

"LAW OF SYNHARMONISM

IN THE BASHKIR AND TATAR LANGUAGES"

The Bashkir language, like many Turkic languages, is characterized by the law of synharmonism. Synharmonism is a phonetic phenomenon characterized by the fact that the vowel of the first syllable determines the nature of the vowels of subsequent syllables. In accordance with this law of synharmonism, Bashkir vowels are divided into two groups. Vowelsa, o, y, s are back vowels. In the Bashkir language these vowels are designated by the term “kalyn", which literally means "thick". Vowelsө, ә, ү, e(e), and belong to the front vowels (in Bashkir"nәҙек" - thin).Almost all vowels (exceptAnd ) have synharmonic parallels:A- ә, o-ө, u-ү, ы – e(e). .

In a word, vowel sounds come in only one row: either front or back.The nature of the vowel is fundamentally preserved in subsequent syllables when other affixes are added to the word.

Almost all affixes and particles have two variants: hard and soft.If the root of a word contains only hard vowels, then affixes and particles with a hard vowel are added.If the word is only softcuesvowels, then affixes and particles of only the soft vowel are added. For example:

bala – balalar – balalarga

Asәay – Asәayem – Asәayemden

In compound words consisting of two or more roots, the hardness/softness of the affixes depends on the nature of the vowel of the last root.

Aғiҙelden һыуы омшаҡ. – The water of Agidel is soft.

Aғiҙel = Aҡ (white) + iҙel (river)

Bilbauymdy bir ale. - Give me my belt.

Bilbau = bil (waist) + bau (rope)

The Bashkir language also has labial synharmonism. After labial vowels rootoh in case affixes (in the possessive and accusative cases) must followO or ө :

G ө l – g ө ld ө ң,

T O rm O PC O rm O PC O ң

If behind a labial syllable withoh, ө there are syllables withy, ү, then in such cases harmony ceases:

os әү – өсә ү ҙе

kol үө – kolөү e

Some linguists believe that there is no labial harmony in the Tatar language. To find out, I studied the colloquial speech of the Tatars of our city. In the Tatar language, labial synharmonism is preserved only in oral speech.Labial vowels in the first syllableO ,ө vowels located in the second (and partially in the third) syllable are robbeds , e . All these sounds are pronounced briefly:

Sol s [Sol O ] - oats

core s [qor O ] - dry, dry

solg e [With ө lg ө ] - towel

tong e [T ө ng ө ] - night

This type of harmony is not displayed in writing.

In the Bashkir language there is also an adaptation of consonants to a number of vowels. Depending on the combination with back or front vowels, each consonant sound has a hard or soft pronunciation. In words with back vowels(kalyn) consonants are pronounced firmly in words with front vowels(nәҙek) – soft:

ҡul (hand) – kүl (lake)

toҙ (salt) – toҙ (straight)

there (drip) – tәm (taste )

Some words borrowed from the Russian language also obey the law of synharmonism:

cabbage – kabeҫtә

arc - arc

log – burәnә

The only exceptions to the law of synharmonism are complex words of the Bashkir language itself or borrowed from Arabic, Persian, Russian, Western European and other languages. For example:;Bilbau - belt;G ө lna ҙ - lit. flower+weasel;kitap - book; dictation, academy , maths, physics etc.

Thus, in both the Bashkir and Tatar languages there is a law of synharmonism. Both languages have their own characteristics. This is especially noticeable in the spelling of these languages. Knowing the law of synharmonism, students who study the Bashkir state and Tatar languages will be able to more easily master the spelling of these languages.

Most phonetic changes in the Proto-Slavic language were caused by two laws: open syllable law(it was said about him and law of syllabic synharmony.

To understand what the second law is, it is necessary to make a theoretical digression.

Vowels are divided into sounds front, middle and back row depending on which part of the tongue (front, middle or back) is raised during their articulation (pronunciation). In relation to the Proto-Slavic and Old Russian languages they talk about vowels front and non-front row.

The law of syllabic synharmonism was as follows: the consonant and vowel in a syllable tended to come closer in timbre, in the zone of their articulation (either front or non-front). This means, for example, that before front vowels: [i] (и), [e] (є), [ę] (ѧ), [ĕ] (ь), [ě] (ѣ) – a syllable could only contain soft or semi-soft consonants. Why? The fact is that the softness of consonants is achieved by additionally raising the tongue to the hard palate, i.e. their articulation is “shifted” in front area of the oral cavity. A hard consonants were combined with non-front vowels: [a], [o], [s], [ǫ] (ѫ), [ŏ] (ъ), [u] (у). There was no need for additional articulation in the anterior zone.

Let's look at examples.

In a word gift there were two syllables: yes-r. The first consisted of a hard consonant and a non-front vowel. The same was observed in the second syllable.

In a word maiden(virgin) two syllables: girls. The first consisted of a semi-soft consonant (something between hard and soft; it turned into absolutely soft, as in modern Russian, later) and a front vowel. The second syllable is a combination of a hard consonant and a front vowel.

In a word bowl two syllables: bowl. In both syllables, the consonants were absolutely soft, and the sound [a] was different from its version in the word gift in that it was pronounced a little differently, it was “shifted” to the front row under the influence of soft consonants. A similar change is observed in modern Russian: compare the sound [a] in the same word gift and, for example, in the first syllable of the word nanny. In the second case, it is, so to speak, “softer”, and the tongue rises a little more.

As a result of the action of the law of syllabic synharmony in the Proto-Slavic language, sounds within a syllable were transformed: hard consonants softened if combined with front vowels, and under the influence of soft consonants, vowels could move from the non-front row to the front.

In the Old Russian language, all sibilant consonants and [ts] were always soft.

Hard palate in Latin - palatum, from here softening of consonants is called in linguistics palatalization.

Perhaps one of the most famous and striking results of the law of syllabic synharmonism is the palatalization of back-lingual consonants [g], [k], [x]. In syllables with front vowels, their articulation has “moved forward” so much that these consonants not only softened, but turned into other sounds. This led to the appearance of numerous alternations in the Russian language.

More details about the palatalization of the back tongue will be discussed in.

Literature:

Galinskaya E. A. Historical phonetics of the Russian language. – M., 2009.

Borkovsky V.I., Kuznetsov P.S. Historical grammar of the Russian language. - M., 1963.

Rosenthal D. E. Modern Russian language. – M., 2017.

Illustration: V. M. Vasnetsov “Guslars” (1899).