Essays on the topic: monuments elevate the spirit of the people. N.M. Karamzin About love for the fatherland and people's pride. Questions to prepare

31.12.2020

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Performance characteristics of a student trainee from the place of work, practice - example, sample

Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766—1826)

Love for the fatherland can be physical, moral And political.

A person loves the place of his birth and upbringing. This attachment is common to all people and nations, is a matter of nature and should be called physical. The homeland is dear to the heart not for its local beauty, not for its clear sky, not for its pleasant climate, but for its captivating memories surrounding, so to speak, the morning and the cradle of humanity. There is nothing sweeter in the world than life: it is the first happiness - and the beginning of all well-being has some special charm for our imagination. This is how tender lovers and friends illuminate the first day of their love and friendship.<...>

Every plant has more strength in its climate: the law of nature does not change for humans. “I’m not saying that the natural beauties and benefits of the fatherland do not have any influence on the general love for it: some lands, enriched by nature, can be all the nicer to their inhabitants; I’m only saying that these beauties and benefits are not the main basis for people’s physical attachment to their fatherland: for then it would not be common.

With whom we grew up and live, we get used to them. Their soul is conformed to ours; becomes some of her mirror; serves as the object or means of our moral pleasures and appeals to objects of inclination for the heart. This love for fellow citizens, or for the people with whom we grew up, were brought up and live, is the second, or moral, love for the fatherland, just as general as the first, local or physical, but acting stronger in some years: for time affirms habit. It is necessary to see two fellow countrymen who find each other in a foreign land: with what pleasure they embrace and rush to pour out their souls in sincere conversations! They see each other for the first time, but they are already familiar and friendly, confirming their personal connection with some common ties of the fatherland! It seems to them that, even speaking in a foreign language, they understand each other better than others: for in the character of people of the same land there is always some similarity, and the inhabitants of one state always form, so to speak, an electrical circuit, conveying to them one impression through the most distant rings or links<...>

But physical and moral attachment to the fatherland, the action of human nature and properties do not yet constitute that great virtue for which the Greeks and Romans were famous. Patriotism is love for the good and glory of the fatherland and the desire to contribute to them in all respects. It requires reasoning - and therefore not all people have it.

The best philosophy is that which bases a person's positions on his happiness. She will tell us that we must love the benefits of the fatherland; for our own is inseparable from it; that his enlightenment surrounds us ourselves with many pleasures in life; that his silence and virtues serve as a shield for family pleasures; that his glory is our glory; and if it is offensive for a person to be called the son of a despised father, then it is no less offensive for a citizen to be called the son of a despised fatherland. Thus, love for our own good produces in us love for the fatherland, and personal pride produces national pride, which serves as the support of patriotism. So the Greeks and Romans considered themselves the first peoples, and all others - barbarians; So the English, who in modern times are more famous for their patriotism than others, dream about themselves more than others.

I don’t dare think that we don’t have many patriots in Russia; but it seems to me that we are unnecessary humble in thoughts about one’s national dignity, and humility in politics is harmful. He who does not respect himself will, without a doubt, be respected by others.

I’m not saying that love for the fatherland should blind us and convince us that we are better than everyone and in everything; but a Russian must at least know his worth. Let us agree that some peoples are generally more enlightened than we are: for the circumstances were happier for them; but let us also feel all the blessings of fate in the reasoning of the Russian people; Let us stand boldly along with others, say our name clearly and repeat it with noble pride.

We do not need to resort to fables and inventions, like the Greeks and Romans, in order to exalt our origin: glory was the cradle of the Russian people, and victory was the herald of their existence. The Roman Empire learned that there were Slavs, because they came and defeated its legions. Byzantine historians speak of our ancestors as wonderful people, to whom nothing could resist and who differed from other northern peoples not only in their courage, but also in some kind of knightly good nature. Our heroes in the ninth and tenth centuries played and amused themselves with the horror of the then new capital of the world: they only had to appear under the walls of Constantinople 1 to take tribute from the Greek kings. In the first century, the Russians, always excellent in courage, were not inferior to other European peoples in education, having a close religious connection with Tsar City, which shared with us the fruits of learning; and during the time of Yaroslav 2 many Greek books were translated into Slavic. It is to the credit of the strong Russian character that Constantinople could never assume political influence over our fatherland. The princes loved the intelligence and knowledge of the Greeks, but were always ready to punish them with weapons for the slightest signs of insolence.

The division of Russia into many possessions and the disagreement of the princes prepared the triumph of Genghis Khan’s descendants and our long-term disasters. Great people and great nations are subject to the blows of fate, but even in misfortune they reveal their greatness. So Russia, tormented by a fierce enemy, perished with glory; entire cities preferred certain extermination to the shame of slavery. Residents of Vladimir, Chernigov, Kyiv sacrificed themselves to national pride and thereby saved the name of Russians from vilification. The historian, tired of these unfortunate times, like a terrible barren desert, rests on the graves and finds joy in mourning the death of many worthy sons of the fatherland.

But what people in Europe can boast of a better fate? Which of them has not been in prison several times? At least our conquerors terrified the east and west. Tamerlane 3, sitting on the throne of Samarkand, imagined himself as the king of the world.

And what people broke their chains so gloriously? So gloriously did he take revenge on his ferocious enemies? It was only necessary for a decisive, courageous sovereign to be on the throne: the people's strength and courage, after some lull, announced their awakening with thunder and lightning.

The time of impostors again presents a sad picture of rebellion: but soon love for the fatherland inflames hearts - citizens, farmers demand a military leader, and Pozharsky 4, marked by glorious wounds, rises from his sick bed. Virtuous Minin 5 serves as an example; and whoever cannot give his life to his fatherland gives it everything he has... The ancient and modern histories of peoples do not present us with anything more touching than this general, heroic patriotism. During the reign of Alexander 6, the Russian heart is allowed to wish that some worthy monument erected in Nizhny Novgorod (where the first voice of love for the fatherland was heard) would renew in our memory the glorious era of Russian history. Such monuments elevate the spirit of the people. A modest monarch would not forbid us to say in the inscription that this monument was built in his happy time.

Peter the Great 7, connecting us with Europe and showing us the benefits of enlightenment, he did not humiliate the national pride of the Russians for long. We looked, so to speak, at Europe, and with one glance we appropriated for ourselves the fruits of its long-term labors. As soon as the great sovereign told the soldiers how to wield the new weapon, they took it and flew to fight the first European army. The generals appeared, now students, tomorrow examples for teachers. Soon others could and should learn from us; we showed how the Swedes, Turks, and finally the French were beaten. These glorious republicans, who talk even better than they fight, and so often talk about their terrible bayonets, fled in Italy from the first swing of the Russian bayonets. Knowing that we are braver than many, we don’t know who is braver than us. Courage is a great quality of the soul; the people distinguished by him should be proud of themselves.

We were more successful in the art of war than in others, because we were more concerned with it as the most necessary for the establishment of our state existence; however, we cannot boast of laurels alone. Our civil institutions in their wisdom are equal to the institutions of other states, which have been enlightened for several centuries. Our humanity, the tone of society, the taste in life surprise foreigners who come to Russia with a false concept of a people who at the beginning of the eighth century were considered barbaric.

Envious Russians say that we have only the highest degree recurrence; but isn’t it a sign of the excellent education of the soul?<...>

In the sciences, we still stand behind others, for this reason - and only for this reason - that we are less engaged in them than others and that the scientific state does not have such a vast scope in our country, as, for example, in Germany, England, etc.<...>The successes of our literature (which requires less learning, but, I dare say, even more intelligence than the so-called sciences themselves) prove the great ability of the Russians. How long have we known what a syllable is in poetry and prose? and in some parts we can already be on par with foreigners. As early as the sixth century, Montagne philosophized and wrote among the French: is it surprising that they generally write better than us? Isn’t it wonderful, on the contrary, that some of our works can stand alongside their best, both in the painting of thoughts and in the shades of style? Let us only be fair, dear fellow citizens, and feel the value of our own. We will never be smart with someone else's mind and famous with someone else's glory: French and English authors can do without our praise; but the Russians need at least the attention of the Russians. The disposition of my soul, thank God! completely contrary to the satirical and abusive spirit; but I dare to reproach many of our reading lovers who, knowing better than the inhabitants of Paris all the works of French literature, do not even want to look at a Russian book. Is this what they want for foreigners to notify them of Russian talents? Let them read the French and German critical journals, which do justice to our talents, judging by some translations *.<...>Some apologize with their poor knowledge of the Russian language: this apology is worse than the guilt itself.<...>

<...>Our language is expressive not only for high eloquence, for loud, picturesque poetry, but also for tender simplicity, for the sounds of the heart and sensitivity. It is richer in harmony than French; more capable of pouring out the soul in tones; represents more similar words, that is, in accordance with the expressed action: the benefit that only indigenous languages have! Our trouble is that we all want to speak French and don’t think about working on mastering our own language: is it any wonder that we don’t know how to explain to them some of the subtleties of conversation? One foreign minister said in front of me that “our language must be very dark, because the Russians, speaking to them, according to his remark, do not understand each other and must immediately resort to French.” Are we not the ones who give rise to such absurd conclusions? — Language is important for a patriot; and I love the English because they want better whistle And hiss in English with his most tender mistresses, rather than speaking in a foreign language, known to almost all of them.

There is a limit and measure to everything: both man and people always begin by imitation; but it should be over time by itself to say: I exist morally! Now we already have so much knowledge and taste in life that we could live without asking: how do they live in Paris and London? What do they wear there, what do they travel in and how do they clean their houses? The patriot hastens to appropriate to the fatherland what is beneficial and necessary, but rejects slavish imitation of trinkets that are offensive to the people's pride. It is good and should be studied; but woe to both the man and the people who will be an everlasting student!

Until now, Russia has been constantly rising both politically and morally. We can say that Europe respects us more year by year - and we are still in the middle of our glorious course! The observer sees new industries and openings everywhere; sees a lot of fruit, but even more color. Our symbol is an ardent youth: his heart, full of life, loves activity; His motto is: work and hope!

Victories have cleared the way for us to prosperity; glory is the right to happiness.

Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766—1826)

Love for the fatherland can be physical, moral And political.

Envious Russians say that we have only the highest degree recurrence; but isn’t it a sign of the excellent education of the soul?<...>

Victories have cleared the way for us to prosperity; glory is the right to happiness.

Educational and methodological manual for teachers and students

A. A. Sabanaeva, teacher of Russian language and literature, State Educational Institution Secondary School No. 655, Primorsky District, St. Petersburg

LESSON 4. THESIS. ANTITHESIS. TYPES OF ARGUMENTS

Thesis is a briefly formulated idea, judgment, the main idea of the text. To formulate a thesis means you need to ask a question, give a direct answer to it and, based on this answer, make a judgment. There may be several questions. The more questions, the more approaches to the topic.

Example: Chatsky in A. S. Griboedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit.” 1. Who is the main character of the comedy “Woe from Wit”? – Chatsky is the main character of the comedy. 2. Why does Chatsky come into conflict with Famus society? – Society is conservative, and Chatsky is an exponent of progressive views, so conflict is inevitable. 3. What advanced ideas does the image of Chatsky express? – Chatsky is an exponent of the ideas of the Decembrists.

The answer to the last question is the thesis.

A thesis is an affirmative sentence that contains one answer to the questions in the text. (Can be converted into an interrogative sentence with the word why. Why is Chatsky an exponent of the ideas of the Decembrists?) The thesis should be formulated clearly and clearly in the form of a simple two-part sentence. The subject in it names the topic of the text, and the predicate is the “new” that will be said on this topic. Without a predicate it is impossible to formulate a thesis! It is advisable not to use words in a figurative sense in the formulation of the thesis.

Task 1. Formulate a thesis by asking at least three questions about the topic: “Molchalin in A. S. Griboedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit.”

Task 2. Formulate a thesis on the topic “Dream and reality in the life of Oblomov.”

Argumentation is the provision of evidence, explanations, examples to substantiate any thought (thesis).

Arguments are evidence given to support a thesis: facts, examples, statements, explanations. Arguments can be strong, weak or invalid. “Strong” arguments must be truthful and based on authoritative sources; accessible and simple; consistent with common sense, reflect objective reality.

An example of the argument “Monuments elevate the spirit of the people.”

Thesis: Monuments elevate the spirit of the people.

Arguments: (why the thesis is true) – Monuments remind of the glorious deeds of ancestors + example. – Monuments instill in younger generations the desire to imitate the great past + example. – Monuments encourage the spirit in difficult years of disasters + example.

Conclusion: The duty of every patriot is to participate as much as possible in perpetuating the memory of their ancestors. The responsibility of the entire society is to take care of the preservation of old monuments and the construction of new ones.

Task 3. Similarly to this diagram, expand the thesis “Music is a powerful means of spiritual enrichment.” Use the following arguments: music makes people better; music brings comfort; music awakens good feelings. Draw your own conclusion. State the problem.

Task 4. Similarly to this diagram, expand the thesis “A person has the right to make mistakes.” Arguments against must be correct!

Task 5. Partially agree with the thesis below, partially object, giving arguments for and against: Watching TV is a useless activity.

Task 6. Find Bazarov’s statements in Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons” that you would like to argue with. Refute them. For example: – “romanticism, nonsense, rot, artistry”; “A decent chemist is twenty times more useful than any poet”; “Nature is not a temple, but a workshop, and man is a worker in it,” etc.

Task 7. Expand the thesis “Reality in Oblomov’s life is the embodiment of a dream.”

Working with antithesis and problem

Antithesis is a thought opposite to the thesis. For example, if the thesis is: “Man is a spiritual being,” then the antithesis will be: “Man is not a spiritual being.”

They also say: stupid as a goose... (antithesis). And the goose knows its owners by its gait. For example, you return home in the middle of the night. You walk down the street, open the gate, walk through the yard - the geese are silent, as if they are not there. And the stranger entered the yard - immediately there was a commotion of goose: “Ha-ha-ha! Ha-ha-ha! Who is this hanging around other people's houses? So there is no smarter bird in the world! (thesis)".

In the text we take the antithesis to its logical conclusion and become convinced of its incorrectness.

Task 8. Formulate an antithesis to the thesis “Music is a powerful means of spiritual enrichment.”

Task 9. Try to refute Pechorin’s thesis about friendship by putting forward an antithesis. (Pechorin’s diary entry from May 13: “Of two friends, one is always the slave of the other”)

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Theory of rhetoric

Question No. 1.
Definition of rhetoric.

Rhetoric - the science of oratory, the relationship of thought to utterance and the means of rhetorical proof. Rhetoric as an applied discipline contains a set of theoretical provisions that are created in various fields of linguistic sciences, philosophy, logic, psychology, and semantics. In addition, rhetoric contains a set of rules, techniques, and regulations that enable the practical creation and delivery of speech that is culturally appropriate and influences people.
Rhetoric allows beginning speakers to consciously and effectively program their communication. Rhetoric, using the world cultural experience of language and its use in communication, pushes the narrow boundaries of the +-spontaneous construction of speech and allows each speaker to use examples of the most effective form of speech. Our life and professional status largely depends on mastering the skills of influential speech.
“Rhetoric,” according to Aristotle’s deep conviction, “is the same art, the same creativity, grown on the dialectical logic of possible existence.” “Rhetoric is an art corresponding to dialectics” - this is the phrase with which Aristotle’s treatise opens.
The most important thing in oratory, according to Aristotle, is proof. He defines rhetoric as “the faculty of finding possible modes of persuasion on any given subject.” Since “the method of persuasion is a kind of proof,” then Aristotle’s rhetoric is a science evidentiary speech.
Thus, Aristotelian rhetoric is the science of ways to prove the probable, possible, and plausible.
Now we will give a definition modern rhetoric.
Rhetoric- this is the theory and skill of effective (expedient, influencing, harmonizing) speech.

Question number 2.
The rhetorical canon and its structure.

The core of modern rhetoric is the path from thought to word and is a combination of three stages: invention of content, arrangement of invention and verbal expression. What to say? In what order? What words? These three stages - the path from thought to word - are determined by the rhetorical canon. Having learned these laws and mastered the principles of the rhetorical canon, a person will be able to more confidently navigate any situation that requires him to make coherent, meaningful speech. These laws will help everyone organize the logical, conceptual structure of their speech. This will be useful not only in public speaking or various established written genres, but also in everyday life.
The classical rhetorical canon marks five stages on the path from thought to speech:
1.Invention –"finding", "inventing" or "inventing something to say".
2.Disposition –“arrangement” or “arrange what is invented.”
3.Elocution –“verbal presentation of thoughts”, “actual eloquence” or “decorate with words”.
4.Memorization – The speeches of antiquity were learned by heart and rehearsed; often the author of the speech wrote it for the customer, who only memorized it and then delivered the speech.
5.Pronunciation – This is an acting, theatrical performance of speech - a stage at which the speech is not only pronounced, but also acted out with the appropriate performance of gestures, facial expressions, and vocal characteristics of the speaker.

Question #3
What is "top"? Describe 10 types of tops.

Top - general reasoning, observation, description that a person could remember to use in a suitable case (topos, or top topic of speech). In other words, a semantic model of a generalizing nature. For example, time flies, time heals, etc.
Top (semantic model) - “genus-species” (“varieties”).
When talking about a machine, we see that the generic, general concept in relation to a machine will be an apparatus (also a mechanical device). Specific (private) concepts (ideas) will be varieties: sewing machine, washing machine, passenger car.
The operating principle of the top is the decomposition of the idea of the top according to the “general-particular” scheme only according to the vertical scheme. For example:

animal

dog

hunting dog

terrier

schnauzer

miniature schnauzer

The “variety” top is a special case of the “genus-species” top. This top not only lists the species, but also evaluates each variety, selects the best, discards the bad or unsuitable ones
animal
cat dog horse

hunting dog

terrier

schnauzer

miniature schnauzer

Conclusion: the top “genus-species” (including the top “variety”) reflects the universal law of human thought and speech - from the general to the particular (deduction) and from the particular to the general (induction).

Top (semantic model) - “definition”.
The top “definition” is the definition of the subject of speech, serves to invent the content of speech, the condition of its clarity and consistency. Top structure: it is necessary to determine the subject of speech - that means naming the general genus (oak-tree, bicycle-car, etc.) and its specific, specific difference from other objects of the same genus (summer is the warmest time of year in our hemisphere).

Top (semantic model) – “whole - parts”.
The essence of the “whole - parts” model is that the subject of speech (idea) must: a) be considered as part of a whole and also talk about this whole (Shamora - sea, barbecue - barbecue), b) consider elements, parts, components of the subject of speech, and talk about them separately. The top “whole - parts” reflects the universal law of the work of thought - its movement from the whole to the parts of an object and again to the whole. The description of a specific object (whole) requires compliance with a certain algorithm:
- things-objects that have strictly defined functions are described, and precisely and only those parts of such objects are highlighted that make them functional.
- the descriptions highlight the most noticeable, eye-catching elements that distinguish them from other similar objects:“Glasses (definition) mostly consist of two round or oval glasses set into a light frame... The frame is made of steel, tortoiseshell bone, and also of silver and gold (parts).

Top (semantic model) – “properties”. Top "properties" includes tops “signs”, “qualities”, “functions”. These are signs of the subject of speech, its qualities, its functions, its characteristic actions. The ability to describe well implies the ability to highlight the most important properties and characteristic features of the subject of speech. To correctly use the top “properties” you need to: a) select only essential, characteristic signs, functions, qualities of an object, and those that make it truly interesting as a subject of speech for both the speaker and the addressee; b) do not avoid the expression own assessments, emotions:- « This bird amazes with its extraordinary external awkwardness and laxity, sometimes reminiscent of a stuffed animal poorly made by an inept taxidermist. And at the same time, it is a wonderful bird in many respects”...

Top (semantic model) – “comparison”.
The semantic model “comparison” is one of the models for organizing thinking and speech, “reproduction of ideas.” Search general between objects and phenomena, as well as the discovery of the different and the opposite, provides the opportunity to structure the environment, classify the infinite variety of things, classify the infinite variety of things and thus master the diversity, make the world accessible to knowledge.
There are two types of top "matching":

Top “comparison”: searching for similarities (analogies). One is presented through the other, demonstrated through the other, if it has something in common with it (a method of “propagation of ideas”). This top model is built from two terms (what is being compared and what is being compared with) and a comparison term that connects these terms (this is what is common that makes it possible to compare things). Terms of comparison: appearance, audacity, actions... -

Top “contrast”: search for the different (opposite). Thinking and speech, comparing the phenomena and objects around a person, operate with the following mechanism: one can cognize a thing and imagine it in speech by “confronting” it with another thing that has opposite properties. Contrast is widely used to solve rhetorical problems - both for description, and for reasoning, and for proof: - Day and night; "War and Peace"; thick and thin…

“They came together, Wave and stone,

Poetry and prose, ice and fire,

Not so different from each other..."

Top (semantic model) – “Cause and effect”

Describes another universal type of relationship between ideas (between words and individual fragments in speech). This top finds the causes of the subject of speech, foresees and discovers its consequence in speech: - The more old maids there are in England, the higher the milk yield. Chain variety. When developing the semantic structure of speech _ reasoning, the tops “cause” and “effect” can occupy primary positions, essentially exhausting all the content. The theme given is: “Monuments elevate the spirit of the people.”
1. Reasons: a) monuments remind of the glorious deeds of our ancestors; b) instill in younger generations the desire to imitate the great and glorious past; c) give rise to confidence that the people still have the strength for deeds no less glorious.
2. Consequences: a) the duty of every patriot is to make a feasible offering to perpetuate the memory of their ancestors; b) the responsibility of the entire society is to take care of the preservation of previous monuments and the construction of new ones.

Top (semantic model) “Circumstances”
Topics “How?”, “Where?”, “When?”. Top “circumstances”: place, time, conditions - Where? When? How? How? Answers to these questions make it possible to develop the content of speech in accordance with the semantic model of “circumstances”. Try telling a “story” without using these rhetorical platitudes: “When Assol decided to open her eyes, the rocking of the boat, the shine of the waves, the approaching board of the Secret - everything was a dream, where the light and water swayed, spinning, like sunbeams on a wall streaming with rays. Not remembering how, she climbed the ladder in Gray’s strong arms...”

Top (semantic model) “Example” and “Evidence”
“Examples” for individual provisions of speech or for the entire speech are necessary in connection with the general rhetorical principles of specificity and proximity. Examples illustrating the speaker’s thoughts are drawn from his own life experience, from history, from fiction...: -Peter once said: “English liberty is out of place here, like peas in a wall. The people must know how to govern them.”
“Testimony” is a rhetorical common place; these are various kinds of quotes and sayings that are used in speech in order to give it weight: - “ My tongue is my enemy"; “What is written with a pen cannot be cut out with an axe”...

Top (semantic model) “Name”
The semantic model “Name” is the source of the invention of thoughts, the development of a theme - an appeal to the origin and meaning of the word denoting a phenomenon or concept. The “Name” top suggests: take a closer look at the key words for the topic:
Russia! Dear land to the heart!
The soul shrinks from pain...

Question No. 4.
Laws of general rhetoric.

Laws of rhetoric reflect the general rhetorical ideal: the verbal behavior and speech of communication participants should ensure the harmony of the speech event.
The first law is the law of harmonizing dialogue – suggests that your interlocutor or your audience is not a passive object to whom you must convey information. The goal is to establish a harmonious and two-way relationship with the listener. Real speech, the word - what our relatives and friends hear from our lips - is the result of a conscious or unconscious choice made by the speaker. This is the result of our speech behavior . Principles of speech behavior Rhetoric has developed in order to obtain a lively and active response from the listener to the speaker’s speech. Rhetorical principle of similarity of speech content The interests and life of the addressee must always be taken into account in order to captivate and capture the addressee. The principle of concreteness An equally important principle is that concreteness helps to visually perceive spoken speech. The more specific the speech, the easier and more pleasant it is to listen to it, the more they will learn, understand, and remember.
Second law - law of promotion and orientation of the addressee. Speech becomes effective if the speaker informs the addressee about the “route” of joint progress from the beginning of the speech to its end. Requirements of the second law of rhetoric: principle of movement. It requires that the listener, with the help of the speaker, be oriented “in the space” of speech and that he feels that he is moving towards the goal together with the speaker.
Third law - emotionality of speech . It requires that the speaker not only think, but also feel, experience emotionally what he is reporting or talking about. The law of emotional speech is implemented using special principles for their use in speech. The first place among them is metaphor.
Fourth Law - the law of pleasure. It says that effective speech is possible when the speaker sets himself the goal of bringing joy to the listener and making communication enjoyable. To do this, it is necessary for a game to arise in verbal communication. What could be more fun than playing? In addition to the “game pieces” of speech and humor, a powerful means of fulfilling the fourth law is diversity speech. There is also a special type of verbal communication ( type discus), which is all about enjoying the conversation or speech.
2 3 4
Law Law Law
promoting pleasure emotionality
and speech orientation
addressee

Question No. 5.
The concept of “path” and “figures”. Kinds.
Top – figure of speech– the use of a word or expression in a figurative meaning. This metaphor and irony are expressive and figurative means.
Rhetorical tropes- these are not all cases of using words and expressions in a figurative meaning, but only those that retain imagery without losing their two-dimensionality, and, therefore, have not lost their expressiveness.
Transferring values one item (phenomena) on the other reflect the course of human cognitive activity; a) similar phenomena and things (metaphor):- I asked the money changer today
Lighter than the wind, quieter than the Vienna jets... b) grouping of things and phenomena according to their proximity to each other and is also called one word (metonymy): Not on silver, but on gold. Figurative, figurative meanings : Cats scratch at the heart; And the dawn, lazily walking around...
Metaphor- this type of trope consists in transferring the name from one object to another based on the similarity of these objects. Metaphor is the main means of depicting the mental, spiritual, and emotional life of a person. (Sweet, passionate melody... everything shone... grew, melted...)
On fluffy branches
Snowy border
The brushes blossomed
White fringe...
Metonymy– this trope consists in transferring the naming of an object to another object, but on a different basis - not by similarity, but by contiguity (proximity). Metonymy is often used to refer to:
- Item according to the material from which it is made : Amber smoked in his mouth– amber pipe, amber pipe;
- Item by its property: my joy, my love, my happiness;
- Item by action producer: read Aristotle, bought Cicero;
- Contents on the item containing it: the kettle is boiling(water in the kettle), the oven is cracking(wood in the stove);
- Time according to the object (phenomenon) characterizing this time: learns to the point of gray hair, to love until the grave.
Irony- this trope simultaneously evokes and holds in the minds of the speaker and the addressee two meanings of a word or expression at once: direct and figurative. “Oh, she’s crying, it’s my fault, as you can see!”"A word of praise for stupidity." “All I know is that I don’t know anything.” Irony can turn into caustic mockery or sarcasm, but it should never turn into rudeness. The simplest type of irony is “antiphrase,” when one word is used in the opposite sense. “The goner” Hercules, the “ugly” Apollo.
Paradox- a statement, a saying that at first glance contradicts common sense, but conceals a deeper meaning, a somewhat generally accepted, banal statement that serves as a subject of irony in a paradox. Nothing to do - very hard work.
Hint– a means of indirect (indirect) information. The category of hint implies that the addressee “thinks out” the speaker’s statement. “You, judges, have long guessed what I want to say, or rather, keep silent about.”

"Rhetorical figures of speech"- these are forms with the help of which the expressiveness of speech is enhanced and the strength of its impact on the addressee increases. Such “patterns” that can be used to “embroider” a separate phrase.
First group includes figures in which the structure of a phrase is determined by the relationship between the meanings of words and concepts in it. This – antithesis and gradation The juxtaposition of concepts and the corresponding construction of a phrase forms a figure antitheses . “When I say yes, she says no”; “Neither night nor day is visible.” Arrangement of concepts in ascending order "I do not regret, do not call, do not cry…" or decreasing “Life was getting worse, more boring, more dismal” meanings - figure gradations .
Second group has the ability to facilitate speech listening, understanding and memorization. These are the figures: repeat "Study, study and study", unity of command, parallelism and period. “There is never, never peace with her.” Rhetorical figure unity of command consists of repeating a word (several words) at the beginning of several phrases following one after another: Such are the times! Such are the morals! Parallelism - a special arrangement of phrases that follow one another with the same type of word order and the same type of predicates. Most often, figures of parallelism are found in the periods:
I don't feel sorry for you, my spring year,
Flowed in dreams of love in vain, -
I don't feel sorry for you, oh mysteries of the nights,
Glorified by the voluptuous horsetail...
Periodic speech - this is a speech organized in such a way that at the beginning of the phrase both the speaker and the listener already have a presentiment of what its development and completion will be like.
A) A period of time: When..., when..., when...: When we are told about...; when it seems to us...; when his victim...
b) Conditional period:If...,if...,if...(then).
V) Definitive: Who..., who..., who...: Everyone who has long been languishing under the burden of debt, who, partly out of laziness....
To the third group includes those rhetorical forms that are used as techniques for dialogizing monologue speech. These are the figures rhetorical appeal; rhetorical exclamation; rhetorical question; approval; belittlement; introducing someone else's speech.
A) Rhetorical exclamation– when you need to note the highest point of intensity of feelings: - What are your rules?
b) A rhetorical question– a figure highlighting the semantic centers of speech, a certain stage of discussion of a topic: - What have I done wrong to you?
V) Rhetorical appeal– serves to highlight important semantic positions, essential ideas of speech: - What can I tell you, my brother...
G) Introduction of someone else's speech- this is “direct speech”, but not any kind, but a fictitious, thought-out form, restored by the speaker himself: - Here it is, the motherland, turning to you...
d) Approval – a figure of indirect or direct praise and instilling hope in listeners: - « Wise, influential and powerful people like you should begin healing,” “Concluding my speech, I want to express confidence in the fairness of the sentence that you will pass on my client.”
e) Derogation – the speaker's recognition of the fallacy of his previous views, expression of regret over his own mistakes: - I realize that I have no right to condemn them... I allowed myself to say... words that I now regret.
and) Concession figure - the speaker at first seems to agree with the opponent’s opinion, and then comes to the conclusion that this opinion is not true: - You are right about this and that, but...; Quite fair, however...

Question No. 6.
Features of informative speech.

Informative speech - speech, the main purpose of which is to communicate information and inform the audience. The main thing is to follow two principles, two rules:
1) make the speech interesting for the listener;
2) make the transmission of information as effective as possible: speech must be clear.
1. From the first words you need to capture the attention of the listeners. To do this you need to: a) choose an interesting, unexpected title for the message; b) find some “zest” in your topic. In the introduction, it is advisable to explain to the audience why they need this information, what they can do with it, and how to use it. The audience's interest in the topic needs to be “warmed up” constantly, until the very end of the speech.
2. When preparing to communicate, you need to plan carefully. Break down the information into points, no more than seven (ideally 3-5). If the information is complex, you can separate the points into subparagraphs, but also no more than 5.
For each point, select facts, figures and examples. Also, proverbs, aphorisms, and paradoxes will help us choose what to “warm up” the listener’s interest. The audience definitely needs to be given a break. In an informative speech, the speaker must ensure that the listeners are constantly “in the know” of where they are in the speech.
If the report is complex, you can use the board and write down the plan on it and move from point to point with the audience. The plan on the board should grow before the eyes of the listeners.
3. In conclusion, be sure to briefly “go over” the main points of the speech, as if to flip through the report again. This should revive the audience's interest in the report and encourage listeners to learn more about this topic. Final conclusions are also needed.

Question No. 7.
Features of argumentative speech.

Persuasive and agitating speech have much in common, so they can be combined under the general name “argumentative speech.”
Argument - This is an argument that serves as proof, and, therefore, necessary for persuasion. The speaker's goal is argumentative speech- convince the audience to agree with the speaker on a controversial issue, proving to them that you are right. And also to encourage listeners to perform certain activities. Propaganda speech relies on an information form of communication. The information in the speech is then evaluated to demonstrate that the listener cannot help but identify with the content.
In determining his goal, the speaker must consider whether he is going to offer a persuasive or agitating speech. Also, the speaker must clearly formulate his thesis. The thesis - “the answer to a controversial question” must be formulated clearly and, most importantly, specifically.
When preparing an argumentative speech, you need to pay attention to a number of techniques and means.

The introduction of speech needs emphasis, since from the very beginning the propaganda speech must be clear, clear and definite. The structure of the introduction includes introductory remarks, a statement of the speaker's purpose, the title of the topic, explanations, and a brief overview of the content.

From the very beginning of the speech, the speaker must show that he does not intend to put pressure on the audience. On the contrary, he must show his interest in the general consensus. It is advisable to avoid words like : you must, you will have to. The use of negative information is undesirable; if it is necessary to use it, it is necessary to strengthen control over the perception and state of listeners.

The main part of the argumentative speech contains the thesis and the necessary arguments: a) the initial stage consists of preparing a list of arguments; b) bringing these chaotic arguments to our thesis into a more or less coherent order, so that each argument has its place; c) working with arguments - checking them; are there any mistakes, the success of examples and comparisons, the logic of the arguments, can your arguments be turned against you.

etc.................

LESSON 4. THESIS. ANTITHESIS. TYPES OF ARGUMENTS

Example: Chatsky in the comedy by A.S. Griboyedov "Woe from Wit".
1. Who is the main character of the comedy “Woe from Wit”? – Chatsky is the main character of the comedy.
2. Why does Chatsky come into conflict with Famus society? – Society is conservative, and Chatsky is an exponent of progressive views, so conflict is inevitable.
3. What advanced ideas does the image of Chatsky express? – Chatsky - spokesman for the ideas of the Decembrists .

The answer to the last question is the thesis.

A thesis is an affirmative sentence that contains one answer to the questions in the text. (Can be converted into an interrogative sentence with the word Why. Why is Chatsky a spokesman for the ideas of the Decembrists?) The thesis should be formulated clearly and clearly in the form of a simple two-part sentence. The subject in it names the topic of the text, and the predicate is the “new” that will be said on this topic. Without a predicate it is impossible to formulate a thesis! It is advisable not to use words in a figurative sense in the formulation of the thesis.

Exercise 1 . Formulate a thesis by asking at least three questions about the topic: “Molchalin in the comedy of A.S. Griboyedov "Woe from Wit".