In the political system, the reforms of Peter the Great became the logical conclusion of the trends in the development of statehood, which were outlined in the so-called Moscow period. We are talking about a phenomenon that various researchers call “oriental despotism” (L. S. Vasiliev, M. P. Pavlova-Silvanskaya), “despotic autocracy” (V. B. Kobrin, A. L. Yurganov, V. M. Paneyakh), the third “universal state as a goal” (English historian A. Toynbee) or “state-society” (French historian F. Braudel). Some historians, however, identify the political system of Russia more difficult: in the XVIII century. as a noble paternalistic monarchy based on the leading positions of the nobility in social organization and public service, as well as on the patronage functions of the monarch in relation to all subjects; in the 19th century as a "legitimate monarchy" - the lowest level of the rule of law, in which management is based on the law, but power is in the hands of the bureaucracy with the absence or the merest participation of public representatives (B.N. Mironov). Nevertheless, whatever features of the state-political system these and other definitions take into account, their common basis is the recognition of several fundamental positions. Firstly, within the framework of such a model, the state acts in relation to society as a self-sufficient force, and representatives of power combine several functions at once - rulers, mentors. The expression of the complete subordination of society to the state was the statization (statization) of all elements of the public sector. Any social activity of an individual or a collective could develop only in line with public service and only with the support of certain links of the state apparatus. The only exceptions were grassroots autonomous collectives such as peasant rural communities, estate-corporate organizations - bodies of noble self-government, established in 1785. The state monopoly of power was first undermined only by zemstvo and city institutions created during the "great reforms" of the 60-70s. 19th century Secondly, such a political system is characterized by deep structural violations in the field of law, in particular, in the regulation of power and property relations. Thirdly, the political police and punitive bodies, directly accountable to the head of state, acquire significant influence in the state. Fourth, it is the militarization of the state apparatus and the extension of military principles to the sphere of civilian life. The army becomes not only a standard for organizing society, but also a kind of "forge" of personnel for the entire bureaucratic corps. Fifth, the main social pillar of power and the conductor of reforms was the bureaucracy, whose growth dynamics in the XVIII-XIX centuries. significantly outpaced population growth rates nationwide. The transformations of Peter I greatly changed the nature and structure of the Russian political system. First of all, the idea of ​​the scope and rights of the supreme power has become different. The power of the Russian autocrats before Peter I still had a number of limitations. For example, “law” or “rank” served as such a restriction, which meant a way of life fixed by tradition. V. O. Klyuchevsky noted that "the Moscow Tsar had extensive power over persons, but not over order." In addition, the state institutions that framed the supreme power - the Zemsky Sobor, the Boyar Duma, the Consecrated Cathedral - participated in management and legislative work. Finally, individual monarchs in the 17th century. gave crucifixion records containing certain guarantees to subjects. These customs were decisively crossed out by Peter I, contrasting them with his own formula of power: “His Majesty is an autocratic monarch who should not give an account of his affairs to anyone in the world, but has his own states and lands, like a Christian sovereign, according to his will piety to govern." Citizens were charged with the obligation to “do everything ordered by the autocrat without murmuring and contradiction” (Feofan Prokopovich. “The Truth of the Monarch’s Will”, 1722). This scheme remained practically unchanged throughout the 19th century, when the supreme power in Russia, despite the desire for a legal justification for the actions taken, managed even without a formal legal restriction of its powers. One of the expressions of this arbitrariness of the supreme power legalized by Peter I was the decree of February 5, 1722, which abolished the previous tradition of succession to the throne and asserted the right of the monarch to appoint his own successor. With this decree, which, according to V. O. Klyuchevsky, turned the state law of Russia back, to a patrimonial track, many politicians and historians associated the subsequent upheavals of the throne. The justification for the unlimited power of the autocrat was carried out through the sacralization (giving a sacred status) to the royal power and the assignment of special charisma to it, mediated by the liquidation of the patriarchate in 1721 and the announcement by Peter I of himself as the “extreme judge” of the spiritual board - the Synod. Of considerable importance were the theory of metamorphosis - the transformation of Russia under the beneficial influence of Peter I, and the personal cult of the monarch. The main ideologist of the time of Peter the Great, Feofan Prokopovich, theoretically substantiated the omnipotence of autocratic power. A graduate of the Roman Jesuit college, Prokopovich combined in his reasoning all the European teachings known to him about the rights of the monarch. Using the ideas of the theorists of the school of natural law of the absolutist direction - G. Grotius, S. Puffendorf, Prokopovich proclaimed such prerogatives of power as independence and accountability (not subject to human trial and punishment), supra-legalism (itself is a source of laws), sacredness and inviolability, unity and inseparability. These exceptional properties were traced back to two sources - God-establishment (“By God, the king reigns”) and a social contract (“nationwide intention”), by which “the monarchy was introduced and maintained, of course.” But unlike his European teachers, who talked about individual individuals donating their own ancestral rights to the ruler, Prokopovich had in mind not an individual, but a collective alienation of his own rights in favor of the monarch. In numerous legislative acts of Peter I and the writings of his associates, other theoretical provisions were developed that formed the core of the new doctrine. This is, first of all, the idea of ​​"common benefit", or "common good", implying a wide range of measures for the comprehensive strengthening of the state. This idea was almost completely consistent with another concept - "state interest". Thus, the ideology of the time of Peter the Great put an equal sign between state and public interests. These ideas were specified in relation to each of the estates. From the peasants, the "common good" required regular arable farming (like the "artery", the peasants fed the entire state) and the execution of the state tax, including the payment of the poll tax and the performance of recruitment duties. For the townspeople, this meant active participation in the development of trade and industry, the payment of taxes, the supply of recruits, the maintenance of hospitals, orphanages, and regular service. For the nobility - compulsory public service in the military or civilian field, mastering the knowledge and skills necessary for this. The clergy were not ignored either: they were charged not only with taking care of the moral health of the people, but also with the maintenance of crippled and decrepit soldiers at their own expense, and for monasteries - schools. The ideological calculations of Peter I, therefore, were aimed at the most complete mobilization of the entire society for the service of the state. Reconstruction of the state building in the first quarter of the 18th century. was not carried out according to plan, but as the need arose. At the same time, Peter I could not rely on the example of large-scale reforms in countries with a catch-up type of development (in Turkey, Japan and other non-Western countries of the world they were carried out much later). Hence the need to focus on the experience of developed countries - Sweden, France, adapting it to local conditions. At the same time, the reforms in Russia quite fully reflected the basic principles of the so-called inorganic modernizations. In a generalized form, these principles included: rationalization - the need to introduce reasonable, expedient rules and norms that determine the procedure for the operation of any state institution, unification, i.e., the introduction of uniformity in the structure, staffing, methods of work of the same type of institutions, centralization and differentiation of the functions of the administrative apparatus. (See: Medushevsky A. N. The establishment of absolutism in Russia. A comparative historical study. M., 1994. P. 48.) Reforms of power and administration covered all levels: the highest, central, local. In 1711, on his way to the Prut campaign, Peter I established the Governing Senate of nine people. It was the highest body, it replaced the Boyar Duma, which ceased to meet at the beginning of the 18th century. Initially, the Senate was conceived by the tsar as a temporary body, acting during the period of "our absences." The scope of his duties was not clearly defined. In 1718, the heads of collegiums, the newly established bodies of central government, were included in the Senate ex officio. Since 1722, the Senate could include those of the highest rank dignitaries who were not the heads of the central departments. The former principle of staffing was recognized as erroneous on the basis of a completely rational argument: the leaders of the collegiums assembled in the Senate could hardly effectively control their own work. Since that time, the Senate has become a permanent deliberative and administrative body. He was entrusted with the control of justice, and also granted the rights of the highest court of appeal (the death penalty was provided for an attempt to appeal his sentence). In addition, the terms of reference of the Senate included control over the activities of the central and local government, managing the state economy, conducting audits, recruiting, land surveying, finding new revenues for the treasury, organizing food stores and warehouses, combating natural disasters, etc. e. In accordance with the directions of activity in the structure of the Senate, two departments were created: the Punishment Chamber for Judicial Cases and the Senate Office for Management. In addition, at the end of Peter's reign, the Senate included two auxiliary services: the King of Arms, or Heraldry, which replaced the abolished Discharge Order (its competence included accounting for all nobles, registering their official appointments and movements, as well as developing noble armorials), and Requetmeister office (she was engaged in receiving and analyzing complaints about the colleges and offices, checking the validity of appeals). A special place in the system of the Senate was assigned to fiscals and the prosecutor's office. These bodies carried out general supervision over the work of the entire bureaucratic apparatus, over the behavior of citizens, revealing everything that “may be to the detriment of the state interest.” The position of fiscals was introduced both at the local and central levels. In the form of remuneration, the fiscal received half of the property confiscated from the criminal he had exposed. The unsubstantiated accusation was written off as a "manufacturing defect" and actually got away with the fiscal. At the end of the 1720s. the institute of fiscals was abolished, and its personnel partially joined the prosecutor's office. The position of the prosecutor was introduced by Peter I in 1722 in collegiums and offices, and the prosecutor general was placed at the head of the Senate. The Prosecutor's Office was established in order to prevent and promptly respond to offenses. The prosecutor general was considered "like an eye" of the emperor and "solicitor on state affairs." His position in the official hierarchy occupied the first place. He was responsible for organizing supervision in the state; being the first among equals, directed the work of fellow senators, led the Senate office. Over time, the power of the Prosecutor General grew to a volume that was not laid down in the constituent acts of Peter I. From the middle of the 18th century. until the beginning of the 19th century. he actually concentrated in his hands the leadership of three branches of government - finance, internal affairs and justice. Throughout the 18th century prosecutor generals changed infrequently - persons who enjoyed the personal trust of the monarch and were able to bear the heavy burden of official responsibility were appointed to this high post. The first prosecutor general was Pavel Ivanovich Yaguzhinsky. The reason for the consistent strengthening of the role of the Prosecutor General was the desire of the supreme power to influence senators with his help, moderating their ambitions and inclinations towards arbitrariness. The potential inclination of senators to display independence or even opposition was also foreseen by Peter I, so he did not include the position of senator in the nomenclature of officials of the Table of Ranks. Despite the fact that the Senate was not a legislative body, in certain periods, for example, under Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-1761), he aggressively invaded the law-making sphere: the vast majority of the empress's legislative acts arose on his initiative. Often, the legislative role of the Senate acted in hidden forms: in the procedure for interpreting laws, as well as in a successfully found (in the conditions of interdepartmental red tape) option - making a decision that had normative significance until the appearance of the corresponding royal decree. Such precedents contributed to the formation of the concept of the transfer of political sovereignty during periods of interregnum to the Senate, with the subsequent delegation of power to the monarch. This idea was popular among the highest dignitaries of the empire in the last year of the life of Elizabeth Petrovna. A similar plan, which tended to recognize the legal priority of the senatorial college over the supreme power at the time of its legitimation, was rejected by the successor of Elizabeth Petrovna. However, the very idea of ​​expanding the powers of the Senate, including turning it into a political representation of the entire nobility, turned out to be extremely tenacious among the liberal nobility. Under Peter I, the personal office of the monarch was also created, which in 1704 inherited some of the functions of the Preobrazhensky order and the near office of the Boyar Duma. The cabinet was transformed into the tsar's personal office, which was in charge of his correspondence, including foreign policy, accounting for financial receipts as personal income, and nominations for positions and awards. Here acts were drawn up to be published on behalf of the monarch. Along with the Senate, although to an incomparably smaller scale, the Cabinet worked out the government's course and monitored its implementation. Like the Attorney General of the Senate, the cabinet secretary had great influence in the bureaucratic environment and became the object of "search" on the part of small and large officials, private individuals. In 1717-1718. restructuring of the central administration. It was based on the principle of cameralism, borrowed from the experience of European countries. Cameralism is the organization of central institutions by clearly delineating their functions by branches of government. (Kamensky A. B. From Peter I to Paul I. Reforms in Russia in the 18th century. An experience of a holistic analysis. M., 1999. S. 128.) New institutions were created - colleges that had the same staffing and general principles of work. They were in charge of national affairs. The boards were headed by the president, who, unlike the judge of the old order, did not exercise sole control in his department. Collegial discussion of all issues under consideration and the adoption of a final decision by a majority of votes served as a guarantee against bossy arbitrariness. The members of the presence, or officials with the right to vote, were the vice-president, four councilors of the board, four collegiate assessors (assessors). The current technical work was carried out by the secretary and the so-called clerks, or clerical servants. In some colleges, an adviser and a secretary from foreigners were also appointed as experts. Originally colle! there were few, but in the early 1720s. their list has grown. The three main ones were considered to be the Board of Foreign Affairs, the Military, the Admiralty (in charge of the affairs of the fleet). Three other collegiums were engaged in finance - the Chamber Collegium (in charge of state fees), the State Office Collegium (supervised government spending), the Revision Collegium (kept records of government expenditures), two collegiums - Berg and Manufaktura - led the industry, the first - metallurgical plants , the second - light industry enterprises. The Collegium of Commerce directed foreign trade. The College of Justice was in charge of court and lower courts, registered various private acts (purchases, debt obligations, powers of attorney, wills, documents on the sale of estates, etc.). The patrimonial collegium, which largely took over the functions of the abolished Local Order, sorted out land litigation, executed transactions for the purchase and sale of land and serfs, dealt with escheat estates, fugitive peasants, etc. In 172i, the Spiritual Collegium, or Synod, was created . This body took the place of the patriarchal throne, which was actually abolished by Peter I even earlier. From now on, church affairs were decided by state officials, appointed from clergy (and sometimes from secular), included in the same disciplinary framework as the rest of the bureaucracy. The Chief Magistrate, who controlled the townspeople and led the local magistrates, was arranged according to the type of collegium. The only difference between the Chief Magistrate and other colleges was its elected composition. It included representatives of the highest commercial and industrial corporations of the city, and only the chief president and the president were crown (government) officials. All new central institutions relied in their work on the General Regulations (1720) - a set of rules developed by Peter I. Later, the general principles of activity were clarified in relation to each collegium in a special regulation related to it. The collegiate reform of Peter I was also an attempt to separate administration from the court, which was an important step towards establishing the principle of separation of powers. In 1708-1709. reform of local governments was launched. The territory of the country was divided into 8 provinces of unequal size. Later, their number was increased to 11. As a result of the regional reforms of 1708 and 1719, a three-member administrative-territorial division was formed: province - province - county. Governors were at the head of the provinces. Under the governor, there were landrat councils of 8-12 people, elected by the nobility of the province. The Council of Landrats was seen as a necessary counterbalance to the excessive development of the personal principle in the administration of the provinces. Under the governor, a provincial government was also established, consisting of a landrichter - a provincial judge (since 1719 he was replaced by a court court), a chief commissar in charge of finances, a chief commissar in charge of grain supplies for the army, and a manager of palace estates. At the head of the provinces, the number of which in 1719 reached 50, were governors, under whom zemstvo offices were created. Since 1719, the center of gravity in the regional administration was transferred to the provinces, so the most important of them received administration similar to that of the provincial governor-general. The county administration was represented by zemstvo commissars, elected from among the local nobility. Communication with the highest bodies, in particular with the Senate, was carried out through provincial commissars. Despite the efforts of Peter I to ensure a coherent system of government from top to bottom, many regional institutions, unlike the central ones, barely survived their creator. This was caused, firstly, by difficulties with personnel - the constant shortage of trained officials manifested itself even more sharply at the local level. Secondly, the burden of taxes on the tax-paying population, especially after 1725, made it very problematic to continue maintaining the expensive local bureaucracy. Thirdly, in the public consciousness of even the upper classes, there was a deeply rooted dislike for the electoral service: this phenomenon explains the rapid curtailment of the experiment of Peter I with the council of landrats. Finally, the state innovations of Peter I, in particular his regional reform, became the object of fierce criticism from certain political groups at court after his death.

The results of the foreign policy activities of Peter I

The main directions of Russia's foreign policy of this period - northwestern and southern - were determined by the struggle for access to non-freezing seas, without which it was impossible to break out of economic and cultural isolation, and, consequently, overcome the general backwardness of the country, as well as the desire to acquire new lands, strengthen border security and improve the strategic position of Russia.

Russia's victory in the Northern War (1700-1721) was largely natural, since the war had a historically justified character. It was determined by the desire of Russia to return the lands that belonged to it earlier, without which its progressive development became impossible. The just nature of the war was especially clearly manifested during the Swedish invasion, when the struggle for independence came to the fore before the Russian and Ukrainian peoples.

The country, under the leadership of Peter, who "raised it on its hind legs", managed to mobilize all its resources, create a defense industry, a new regular army and navy, which for a long time did not know their equal in Europe. During the course of the war, the Russian army acquired a high level of organization and leadership, and the courage, steadfastness and patriotism of its soldiers became one of the main sources of victory.

Russian diplomacy, using the contradictions between European countries, managed to create the necessary foreign policy conditions for concluding peace.

Russia, as a result of a long and painful war, took the most important place in Europe, having won the status of a great power. Access to the Baltic Sea, the accession of new lands contributed to its economic and cultural development. During the war, Russia created a powerful regular army, began to turn into an empire.

Results and evaluation of Peter's transformations

Assessing the Petrine reforms and their significance for the further development of the Russian Empire, the following main trends must be taken into account.

1. The reforms of Peter I marked the formation of an absolute monarchy, unlike the classical Western one, not under the influence of the genesis of capitalism, balancing the monarch between the feudal lords and the third estate, but on a serf-noble basis.

2. The new state created by Peter I not only significantly increased the efficiency of public administration, but also served as the main lever for modernizing the country.

3. In terms of its scale and swiftness of the reform of Peter I, there are no analogues not only in Russian, but also, at least, in European history.

4. A powerful and contradictory imprint was left on them by the features of the previous development of the country, extreme foreign policy conditions and the personality of the king himself.

5. Based on some trends emerging in the 17th century. in Russia, Peter I not only developed them, but also brought it to a qualitatively higher level in a minimal historical period of time, turning Russia into a powerful state.

6. The price for these radical changes was the further strengthening of serfdom, the temporary inhibition of the formation of capitalist relations, and the strongest tax and tax pressure on the population.

7. A multiple increase in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population. Various social actions - the rebellion of the archers in Astrakhan (1705 - 1706), the uprising of the Cossacks on the Don under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin (1707 - 1708), in Ukraine and the Volga region - were directed not so much against the transformations as against the methods and means of their implementation.

8. Despite the inconsistency of the personality of Peter I and his transformations, in Russian history his figure has become a symbol of decisive reform and selfless, sparing neither himself nor others, service to the Russian state.

9. Transformations of the first quarter of the XVIII century. are so grandiose in their consequences that they give grounds to speak of pre-Petrine and post-Petrine Russia. Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in Russian history. Reforms are inseparable from the personality of Peter I - an outstanding commander and statesman.

However, it should be noted that the price of the transformations was prohibitively high: in carrying out them, the tsar did not consider either the sacrifices made on the altar of the fatherland, or national traditions, or the memory of ancestors. Hence the inconsistency in the assessment of transformations in historical science.

Since 1892 By 1898 Historians call "University of Peter". During this period of time, his sister Sophia was regent for two heirs, Ivan and Peter. During this period, he lives with his mother in the village of Preobrazhensky, and on the other side of the German settlement Kukuy, where immigrants from Western Europe lived, who were invited under Ivan III. Peter, coming on boats to them, there he absorbed the foundations of Western Europe, their culture. And comparing our Russian identity, he comes to the conclusion that Rus' needs to be deployed to Western Europe. After the "great embassy" (a trip to Western Europe). 1697 He begins to carry out reforms to change the life of the Russian nobility (drink coffee, shave beards, introduced dresses according to the Hungarian model).

Purpose: To turn the development of Russia along the Western path. But not in order to stand next to them, but in order to make Russia a big prosperous power.

Results: Russia got access to the Baltic Sea, and became a maritime power with a strong fleet, a strong army, a developed economy of the country, turned from a exporter into an exporter. Rise of the international prestige of Russia.

The policy of enlightened absolutism in Russia. Catherine II.

1762-1796 The reign of Catherine II is called the "Golden Age of the Nobility" and the era of enlightenment of absolutism. Spread of culture, education in Russia.

Enlightened absolutism is the union of philosophers and monarchs. At this time, the theory according to which the feudal foundations of society can be overcome not by revolutionary, but by evolutionary ones, by the monarchs themselves and their nobles with the help of wise advisers of philosophers and other enlightened people, became widespread. The kings, who should be enlightened people, students of the ideologists of enlightenment, were: Frederick II (King of Prussia) and Catherine II. During this period there was a "Golden Age of the nobility", according to the charter of the nobility of 1762. The nobles were allowed not to serve, and this made it possible for them to engage in education, send their children to study abroad. At this stage, the nobility was a highly enlightened elite society.

Measures to liberalize the peasant question and attempts at political modernization in the first half of the 19th century. Alexander I, Nicholas I.

Liberalization of the peasant question - the reform of serfdom. Alexander I, grandson of Catherine II, his reign can be divided into two parts:

1. The days of Alexander are a great start;

2.Reigning;

In 1802, a decree was issued "On free cultivators", which permitted the release of their peasants with land. In 1808-1809 it was forbidden to sell peasants, print newspapers about sales, and send them into exile at the will of the landowner. But the results were insignificant.

Nicholas I carried out many reforms. Reform "On State Peasants" (1837-1842). Partial self-government was given to this category, schools, hospitals were opened, peasants were enlightened on agricultural technology, saturated with agricultural culture. Under Nicholas I, every community grew potatoes. 1842 Decree on "obliged peasants". The landlords could give the peasants personal freedom, and for the use of land, the peasants must perform certain duties.

Political modernization of Alexander I:

1. In the first half of his reign, his secretary Speransky developed a draft constitution. On the basis of which, it is created: the State Duma, the local Duma, as an elected representative body of power. 1810 A state body was approved, which consisted of: state dignitaries, who were supposed to take a legislative initiative before the king. This is the only organ that existed until the revolution of 1917.

Nicholas I (1825-1855). He considered his task to strengthen the power of the nobles, relying on the army and the bureaucracy (officials), to protect and spy on unreliable people, the II Department of His Own Imperial Majesty Chancellery was created. For the work of this office, the Jardamv corps was created, which was engaged in political investigation.

2.1833 The Code of Laws of the Russian Empire was issued.

3. Financial reform.

4.Industrial revolution (growth of urban population), railway construction.

5. Real education is being introduced (institutions).

Lesson objectives: 1. Repeat, summarize the studied material on the topic "The era of Peter I." Give an assessment of the activities of Peter I. 2. Show the skills and abilities of using ICT in preparation for the lesson, as well as the skills and abilities of conducting active search and research activities, working with sources and literature. 3. Show your creativity, interest in history; development of speech culture of public speaking, development of skills to defend one's convictions, respect the opinions of others, answer questions, and lead a discussion.

Problem questions: What is the role of Peter I in the history of Russia? Can we say that his role in the history of Russia was controversial? What is the role of Peter I in the history of Russia? Can we say that his role in the history of Russia was controversial? Why didn't the name of Peter I win the "Name of Russia" competition? Why didn't the name of Peter I win the "Name of Russia" competition?

Lesson content Repetition, generalization, control of the studied material Repetition, generalization, control of the studied material Protection of creative work (Sagngalieva A.) Protection of creative work (Sagngalieva A.) Solving problematic issues Solving problematic issues

For almost three hundred years now, the figure of Peter I, his transformations have caused controversy among scientists. From the very beginning, two opposite approaches were outlined in the dispute: apologetic (admiration) and critical, which at times converged, but then diverged again. Apparently, a compromise assessment of the activities of Peter I is more realistic.

Childhood. Youth. The beginning of the reign On April 27, 1682, the ten-year-old prince Peter was proclaimed king, but soon he was approved by the 3rd Yemsky Cathedral as the "second king", and John as the "first". Their elder sister, Princess Sophia, became their ruler. Until 1689, Peter and his mother, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina, lived in the village of Preobrazhenskoye near Moscow, coming to Moscow only for official ceremonies. In 1689, Sophia was removed from power and imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent. Until 1694, his mother, Natalya Kirillovna, ruled on behalf of Peter I. In 1696, after the death of John V, Peter became the sovereign king.

Personality of Peter I Characteristic features of Peter were mind, will, energy, breadth of views, purposefulness, curiosity, and incredible capacity for work. Peter, having not received a systematic education in his youth, studied all his life. At the same time, Peter was quick-tempered and cruel, personally involved in torture and executions. The king did not take into account the interests and life of an individual.

The Great Embassy In 1697, the tsar sent a "Great Embassy" to Europe and joined it himself under the name of Peter Mikhailov. In Prussia, the tsar studied artillery and received a certificate of a firearms master. Peter went to England and Holland to study shipbuilding. During his stay in Europe, Peter visited factories, libraries, listened to lectures at universities. In 1698 the tsar hastily returned to Russia.

The First Transformations In 1699 the calendar was reformed. A printing house was set up in Amsterdam to publish secular books in Russian. The first Russian order of St. Apostle Andrew the First-Called was founded. The king ordered to send young men from noble families to study abroad. In 1701, the Navigation School was opened in Moscow.

Transformations in the economy Peter I clearly understood the need to overcome the technical backwardness of Russia and in every possible way contributed to the development of Russian industry and trade, including foreign trade. Many merchants and industrialists enjoyed his patronage, among whom the Demidovs are most famous. Many new plants and factories were built, new branches of industry arose.

Lessons of the Northern War The war began with the defeat of the Russian army near Narva in 1700. However, this lesson went well for Peter: he realized that the reason for the defeat was primarily the backwardness of the Russian army. The construction of metallurgical and weapons factories began, supplying the army with high-quality cannons and small arms. Soon, Peter I managed to win the first victories over the enemy, capture and devastate a significant part of the Baltic. In 1703, at the mouth of the Neva, Peter founded St. Petersburg, the new capital of Russia.

Management Reform In 1711, setting off for the Prut campaign, Peter founded the Senate. Senate. In 1714, the Decree on Single Succession was issued. In 1714, the Decree on Single Succession was issued. From 1717, the creation of central collegiums began. From 1717, the creation of collegiums of central bodies of branch administration, branch administration bodies began. In 1718, the poll tax was introduced in Russia. In 1718, a poll tax was introduced in Russia. In 1720, the General Regulations were issued. In 1720, the General Regulations were issued. Detailed instructions for organizing the work of new institutions. Detailed instructions for organizing the work of new institutions. institutions. In 1721, Russia was proclaimed an empire, and the Senate. In 1721, Russia was proclaimed an empire, and the Senate awarded Peter the titles "Great" and "The Father honored Peter with the titles" Great "and" Father of the Fatherland. fatherland". In 1722, Peter signed the Table of Ranks, which determined In 1722, Peter signed the Table of Ranks, which determined the organization of military and civil service. organization of military and civil service.

Transformations in the field of culture The time of Peter I was a time of active penetration into Russian life of secular European culture. Secular educational institutions began to appear, the first Russian newspaper was founded. Success in the service of Peter made the nobles dependent on education. By a special decree of the tsar, assemblies were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people for Russia. The interior decoration of houses, the way of life, the composition of food, etc., have changed. Gradually, a different system of values, worldview, and aesthetic ideas took shape in the educated environment.

Personal life of the tsar In January 1689, at the insistence of his mother, Peter I married Evdokia Fedorovna Lopukhina. After 10 years, he imprisoned her in a monastery. Subsequently, he became friends with the captive Latvian Marta Skavronskaya (Catherine I). She bore him several children, of whom only daughters Anna and Elizabeth survived. Peter, apparently, was very attached to his second wife and in 1724 crowned her with the imperial crown, intending to bequeath the throne to her. The relationship between the tsar and his son from his first marriage, Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, did not develop, who died under unclear circumstances in the Peter and Paul Fortress during the years of hard work and bad habits undermined the health of the emperor. On January 28, 1725, as a result of illness, Peter I died without leaving a will. He was buried in the Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg.

Results of Peter's reforms 1) The most important result of Peter's reforms was overcoming the crisis of traditionalism by modernizing the country. 2) Russia became a full-fledged participant in international relations, pursuing an active foreign policy. 3) Significantly increased the authority of Russia in the world, and Peter himself became for many a model of the ruler-reformer. 4) At the same time, violence was the main tool for carrying out reforms. 5) Peter's reforms did not rid the country of the previously established system of social relations embodied in serfdom, but, on the contrary, conserved and strengthened its institutions.

2. The result of the reforming activities of Peter I is considered to be 1) overcoming the economic backwardness of Russia from Western countries 2) turning Russia into a strong European power 3) the rapid growth of the Russian economy 4) the beginning of the democratization of political life Correct answer: 2

5. Among the phenomena that prompted Peter I to carry out reforms in Russia, there was no such thing as 1) Russia's economic lagging behind the advanced countries of the West 2) backwardness in the organization and armament of the Russian army 3) the isolation of Russian cultural life from European 4) the promise of European powers to support reforms in Russia with their capital investments Correct answer: 4

6. The reasons for the uprising under the leadership of K. Bulavin cannot be attributed to 1) attempts by the authorities to limit Cossack self-government 2) mass mobilization of peasants to build a fleet 3) increased repression against fugitive peasants 4) dissatisfaction with the dominance of foreigners in the Russian service Correct answer: 4

7. The increase in agricultural productivity under Peter I was associated primarily with 1) the annexation of more fertile lands 2) the strengthening of state coercion of peasants 3) the replacement of the sickle with a Lithuanian scythe during harvesting 4) the provision of assistance to peasants by the state Correct answer: 2

8. As a result of the state and administrative reforms of Peter I in Russia, 1) the absolute power of the monarch increased 2) the foundations of a constitutional monarchy were laid 3) the emperor began to rule together with the Supreme Privy Council 4) the functions of Zemsky Sobors expanded Correct answer: 1

3

Active transformative activity of Peter I began immediately after returning from abroad.

What were the goals of Peter's reforms? I?

Radical Petrine transformations, according to A.B. Kamensky, were "a response to a comprehensive internal crisis, the crisis of traditionalism that befell the Russian state in the second half of XVII in.". The reforms were supposed to ensure the progress of the country, eliminate the gap between it and Western Europe, preserve and strengthen its independence, and put an end to the "old Moscow traditional way of life."

The reforms covered many spheres of life. Their sequence was determined, first of all, needs Northern wars, which lasted more than twenty years (1700-1721). In particular, the war forced to urgently create a new efficient army and navy. Therefore, the main reform was the military.

Before Peter I the basis of the Russian army was the noble militia. At the call of the tsar, the servants appeared "on horseback, in crowds and in arms." Such an army was poorly trained, poorly organized. Attempts to create a regular army (Streltsy regiments of Ivan IV , regiments of the “foreign system” of Alexei Mikhailovich) did not have much success due to the lack of money in the treasury for their maintenance. In 1705 Peter I introduced recruiting sets from taxable estates (peasants, townspeople). Recruits were recruited one at a time from twenty households. Soldier service was lifelong (in 1793 Catherine II limited it to 25 years). Before 1725 83 recruiting was carried out. They gave the army and navy 284 thousand people.

Recruitment kits solved the problem of the rank and file. To solve the problem of the officer corps, a reform of the estates was carried out. Boyars and nobles united into a single service estate(initially it was called the nobility, but later the name nobility). Each representative of the service class was obliged to serve from the age of 15 (the only privilege was that the nobles served in the guards regiments - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky). Only after passing the exam could a nobleman be promoted to officer. Nobles stopped receiving estates for service. Now they were paid a salary. Refusal to serve led to the confiscation of the estate. In 1714 was published" Decree about uniform inheritance”, according to which the estate was inherited only by one of the sons, and the rest had to earn a livelihood. For the training of officers, schools were opened - navigation, artillery, engineering.

In 1722 by decree of the king, the so-called. " report card about ranks". 14 military and equivalent civilian ranks were introduced. Each officer or official, having started his service from the lower ranks, depending on his diligence and intelligence, could move up the career ladder up to the very top. The way was not closed to representatives of the taxable estates. A soldier could receive an officer's rank for bravery and automatically acquired personal nobility. Having risen to the eighth rank, he became a hereditary nobleman - the nobility began to be given to his children. Now the position in society was determined not only by his origin, but also place in official hierarchy. The main principle was - "He is not a nobleman who does not serve."

Thus, a rather complex military-bureaucratic hierarchy was formed with the king at the head. All estates were in the public service, bearing duties in favor of the state.

As a result of the reforms of Peter I were created regular army, numbering 212 thousand people and powerful fleet(48 battleships and 800 galleys with 24 thousand sailors).

Maintenance of the army and navy absorbed 2/3 of the state income. I had to find more and more new sources of income for the treasury. Taxes were the most important means of replenishing the treasury. Under Peter I indirect taxes were introduced (on oak coffins, for wearing Russian dresses, on beards, etc.). In order to increase the collection of taxes, a tax reform was carried out. Before Petra I the unit of taxation was the peasant yard(farm). Peasants, in order to pay less taxes, huddled several families into one yard - grandfathers, fathers, brothers, grandchildren, great-grandchildren lived together. Peter replaced the household tax poll. The unit of taxation is soul male gender, from infants to the elderly.

In 1710 was held census all hard-working people, both state and landowners. All of them were taxed. Was introduced passport system No one could leave their place of residence without a passport. Thus, the final enslavement Total population and not just landlord peasants. In European countries, there was nothing like a passport system*. With the introduction of the poll tax, per capita taxes increased three times on average.

Constant wars (out of 36 years of his reign, Peter I fought for 28 years), radical reforms dramatically increased the burden on central and local authorities. The old state machine was unable to cope with the new tasks and began to falter.

Peter I spent reorganization of the entire system of power and administration. In pre-Petrine Rus', laws were adopted by the tsar together with the Boyar Duma. After the approval of the tsar, the decisions of the Duma took the force of law. Peter stopped convening the Boyar Duma, and decided all the most important matters in the Middle Office, which was called from 1708. "Consilium of Ministers", i.e. with a narrow circle of confidants. Thereby, legislative branch power was liquidated. Laws were formalized by decrees of the king.

In 1711 was created ruling Senate. Unlike the Boyar Duma, the Senate did not pass laws. His functions were purely control. The Senate was given the task of supervising the bodies of local government, checking the compliance of the actions of the administration with the laws issued by the tsar. The members of the Senate were appointed by the king. Since 1722 position was introduced general-prosecutor, who was appointed by the king to control the work of the Senate ("the sovereign's eye"). In addition, the institute fiscals”, obliged to secretly check and report on the abuses of officials.

In 1718-1720. Was held collegiate reform, which replaced the system of orders with new central bodies of sectoral management - colleges. The collegiums were not subordinate to each other and extended their action to the territory of the whole country. The internal structure of the collegium was based on a collegial, clear regulation of the duties of officials, the stability of full-time employees. In total, 11 colleges were created (instead of 50 orders): Military, Admiralty, Chamber College, Revision College, Justice College, Kammerz College, State Offices College, Berg, Manufactory College, College of Foreign Affairs. The most important “state” colleges were those in charge of foreign and military affairs. Another group of colleges dealt with finance; revenues of the Chambers - board; expenses - State - offices - collegium; control over the collection and spending of funds - the Audit Board. Trade and industry were led, respectively, by the Commerce Collegium and Berg, the Manufactory Collegium, which was divided into two departments in 1722. In 1721 The patrimonial board was created, which was engaged in land ownership of the nobility and was located in Moscow. Another class college was created in 1720, the Chief Magistrate, who controlled the urban class - artisans and merchants.

The system of local government was reorganized. In 1707 issued a decree of the king, according to which the whole country was divided into provinces. Initially there were six of them - Moscow, Kyiv, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk. Then there were ten of them - the Ingrian (Petersburg)*and Siberian, and Kazan - is divided into Nizhny Novgorod and Astrakhan. At the head of the provinces were appointed by the king governors. The governors had broad powers, exercised administrative, judicial power, and controlled the collection of taxes. The provinces were divided into provinces with governors at the head, and the provinces were divided into counties, counties into districts, abolished later.

The reforms of central and local government were supplemented by church reform. Before Petra I Russian Orthodox Church headed patriarch elected by the higher clergy. Although the Orthodox Church recognized the primacy of the state over the church, nevertheless, the power of the patriarch was still quite great. The patriarch, like the tsar, bore the title of "great sovereign", enjoyed great independence. Reforms of Peter I , his desire to borrow Western customs, clothes, appearance, the dominance of foreigners in the royal court - all this caused discontent of the church. To limit its influence, Peter in 1721. abolished patriarchate. Instead, a collegium for church affairs was created - Holy Synod. The members of the Synod were appointed by the tsar from among the higher clergy, at the head of the Synod was appointed by the sovereign ober-prosecutor. Secret control over the activities of the Synod was exercised by the Chief Fiscal for Spiritual Affairs. Thus, the church was finally subordinate state, became part of the state apparatus, to the point that priests were required to immediately report all anti-government plans that became known during confession. This role of the church continued until 1917.

Thus, Peter I created a harmonious, centralized system of power and administration: autocrat - Senate - boards - provinces - provinces - counties. It was supplemented by the same harmonious system of control (Preobrazhensky order, fiscality), punitive bodies (Secret Chancellery, police) 22 September 1721 (on the day of the solemn celebration of the Peace of Nishtad, which marked the end of the long and difficult Northern War for Russia), the Senate awarded Peter I titles " Emperor», « Father Fatherland" and " Great". This act completed the process of transforming the estate-representative monarchy into an absolute one. Unlimited power of Peter I received legal consolidation, and Russia turned into empire.

Economic policy of Peter I was also aimed at strengthening the military power of the country. Along with taxes, the most important source of funds for the maintenance of the army and navy was domestic and foreign trade. In foreign trade, Peter I consistently pursued a policy of mercantilism. Its essence: the export of goods must always exceed their import. Such a policy ensured a positive trade balance, which led to the accumulation of money in the treasury.

To implement the policy of mercantilism, state control over trade was necessary. It was carried out by the Kammerz Collegium. The means of implementing the policy of mercantilism were high duties on imported goods, reaching 60%. For trade in a number of goods that brought the greatest profit (salt, tobacco, flax, leather, caviar, bread, etc.), state monopoly Only the state could sell and buy them.

Merchants were forced to unite in trading companies, indicated which ports to transport goods, at what prices to sell them, forcibly relocated from one city to another. Such a policy solved the problems of protectionism - the protection of domestic producers from the competition of foreign goods. At the initial stages of modernization, the policy of protectionism was fully justified. However, its long-term preservation could lead to the fact that, in the absence of competition, manufacturers would no longer care about the quality of goods and reduce their cost.

An important component of Peter's reforms was the rapid development of industry. This was due to the fact that it was impossible to supply the army and navy with everything necessary without a powerful industrial base. Under Peter I industry, especially those industries that worked for defense, made a breakthrough in its development. New factories were built, the metallurgical and mining industries developed. The Urals became a major industrial center. By 1712 the army and navy were fully provided with weapons of their own production. By the end of Peter's reign I in Russia there were over 200 manufactories, ten times more than before him.

Iron smelting increased from 150,000 poods in 1700. up to 800 thousand pounds in 1725 Russian pig iron from the Ural factories was exported even to England.

A typical feature of the economy of the time of Peter the Great was gain roles states in industrial leadership. Manufactory production could not develop in a natural way, since economic conditions were not ripe for this - the process of primitive accumulation was at the very beginning. Therefore, most manufactories were built with public money and belonged to the state. Almost all manufactories worked on state orders. Often the state itself built new factories, and then transferred them to private hands. But if the plant owner did not cope with the business - he gave expensive and low-quality products - the plant could be taken away and transferred to another owner. Such enterprises were called "possession" (ownership). It is no coincidence that Russian breeders were called "factory owners". The Russian factory owners of the time of Peter the Great were not capitalist entrepreneurs in the Western sense. They were rather landowners, only the plant played the role of the estate.

This similarity was especially vividly demonstrated by the way in which the question of working strength. As a result of the tax reform, serfdom became universal, the entire taxable population was attached to the land, and there were no free laborers. Therefore, Russian industry was based on use serf labor. Entire villages of state peasants were assigned to factories. They had to work for 2-3 months a year at the factory for corvée (mining ore, burning coal, etc.). These peasants were called ascribed. In 1721 Peter I issued a decree allowing factory owners to buy peasant property for work at the factory. These workers were called sessional. Consequently, manufactories under Peter I , well technically equipped, were not capitalist enterprises, but feudal-serf enterprises.

Particularly impressive were the transformations of Peter I in the area of education, science and technology, culture and life.

The restructuring of the entire education system was due to the need to train a large number of qualified specialists, who were in dire need of the country. The introduction of secular education in Russia took place almost 600 years after Western Europe. In 1699 Pushkar school was founded in Moscow, and in 1701. in the building of the Sukharev Tower, a “school of mathematical and navigational sciences” was opened, which became the predecessor of the school founded in 1715. Petersburg Maritime Academy. During the time of Peter the Great, the Medical School was opened (1707), as well as engineering, shipbuilding, navigational, mining and craft schools. In the province, elementary education was carried out in 42 digital schools, where local officials were trained, and garrison schools, where soldiers' children were taught. In 1703-1715. in Moscow there was a special general education school - the "gymnasium" of pastor E. Gluck, in which they taught mainly foreign languages. In 1724 A mining school was opened in Yekaterinburg. She trained specialists for the mining industry of the Urals.

Secular education demanded new textbooks. In 1703 “Arithmetic, that is, the science of numerals ...” was published by L.F. Magnitsky, who introduced Arabic numerals instead of alphabetic ones. Magnitsky and English mathematician A. Farvarson released "Tables of logarithms and sines". The Primer, Slavic Grammar and other books appeared. F.P. Polikarpov, G.G. Skornyakov-Pisarev, F. Prokopovich.

The development of science and technology in the time of Peter the Great was based primarily on the practical needs of the state. Great successes were achieved in geodesy, hydrography and cartography, in the study of the bowels and the search for minerals, in inventive business. M. Serdyukov was known for his achievements in the construction of hydraulic structures; Ya. Batishchev invented a machine for turning gun barrels with water; E. Nikonov presented a project for the creation of "hidden ships" (submarines); A. Nartov, the inventor of lathes and screw-cutting machines, the creator of an optical sight, was a famous mechanic of the time of Peter the Great.

Initiated by Peter I began collecting scientific collections. In 1718 a decree was issued ordering the population to present “both human and bestial, animal and bird freaks”, as well as “old inscriptions on stones, iron or copper, or some old unusual gun, dishes and everything else that is very old and unusual”. In 1719 The Kunstkamera, a collection of “rarities”, was opened for public viewing, which served as the basis for the collection of future museums: the Hermitage, the Artillery Museum, the Naval Museum, and others. In Petersburg academies Sciences. It was opened after the death of Peter I in 1725

During the reign of Peter I the Western European chronology was introduced (from the Nativity of Christ, and not from the creation of the world, as before)*. Printing houses, a newspaper appeared (from December 1702, the first periodical in Russia began to appear - the newspaper Vedomosti, with a circulation of 100 to 2500 copies). Libraries, a theater in Moscow, and much more were established.

A characteristic feature of Russian culture under Peter I its state character. Culture, art, education, science, Peter assessed from the standpoint of the benefits brought to the state. Therefore, the state financed and encouraged the development of those areas of culture that were considered most necessary. The work of a writer, actor, artist, teacher, scientist was turned into a kind of public service, provided with a salary. Culture provided certain social functions.

The second characteristic feature of Russian culture, which developed in the time of Peter I became civilizational split Russian society. Western customs, clothing, lifestyle, even language were actively borrowed. But all this was the lot of the service class - the nobility. The lower classes (peasantry, merchants) preserved the traditional culture. The upper and lower classes differed even externally. In essence, two cultures existed independently of each other in Russian culture: Western - noble, and traditional, soil - peasant, opposing each other.

* Passports were abolished in Russia in 1917. and reintroduced in 1932.

* In 1713, Peter I moved the capital of Russia from Moscow to St. Petersburg.

* Peter I, in order not to enter into unnecessary contention with the Orthodox Church, introduced the Julian calendar, although Europe lived according to the Gregorian. Hence the difference of 13 days, which lasted until 1918. The Russian Orthodox Church still lives according to the Julian calendar.