The emergence of Genghis Khan's power

During the period of the Great Migration of Peoples, Mongol-speaking tribes lived in a forest zone stretching from Lake Baikal to the Amur. Their main occupation was hunting and fishing. Gradually, with the transition to cattle breeding, they began to develop the adjacent steppe expanses, absorbing other nomadic peoples.

In the 12th century, the Mongols retained many features of the tribal system. The main issues of tribal life were resolved kurultai - council of elders of the tribal nobility. He elected a military leader (noyon), who was subordinate to squads of nukers (friends), who defended the tribe in frequent clashes over pastures, and also carried out raids on neighbors.

Pastures and hunting grounds were considered the common property of the tribe. At the same time, most of the livestock belonged to the tribal nobility, the leaders. Ordinary community members (arats), who did not have the means to feed themselves, gradually fell into debt dependence on the nobility, working off their debts by fulfilling various kinds duties. The labor of slaves was also used - prisoners captured in clashes with other tribes during raids. The Mongols lived and roamed as a whole tribe. At the sites they set up fortified camps (kureni), the center of which was the yurt of the head of the clan. As the number of tribes grew, they began to split into large families, settling in ails (“ail” - “big family”).

Tribal alliances, led by a leader (khan), often fought with each other. The vanquished were obliged to obey the victors, taking a kind of vassal oath. Gradually, large tribal associations (uluses) emerged, whose noions began to raid China.

Headed one of the uluses (departments) Temujin (1155-1227) after a series of successful wars, he united all Mongol tribal unions under his rule. In 1206, the kurultai of the khans proclaimed it Genghis Khan(lord of the strong).

The laws (Yas) of Genghis Khan consolidated the order of the late stage of the collapse of the tribal system and gave society the character of a military organization.

The administrative units were “tens”, “hundreds”, “thousands” and “tumens”, i.e. associations of ails, fielding 10, 100, 1000, 10,000 warriors, respectively. Each ten tents (families) fielded up to three warriors and had to provide them with food during the campaign. Weapons were considered common property and were issued only in wartime. The warrior did not receive payment, but could be rewarded from military spoils. Military leaders, mainly from the tribal nobility, simultaneously managed the affairs of the villages. Transitions from one tumen to another were prohibited, in other words, each formation consisted of fellow tribesmen.

In 1206, on the banks of the Onon, Genghis Khan was proclaimed ruler of the Mongol Empire (Yoke Mongol Uls). He tried to destroy the traditional tribal system and create a fundamentally new structure based on the foundation of personal loyalty.

As a result, the decimal system was introduced (dividing military units into tens, hundreds and thousands). A total of 95 “thousand” were initially created. They were both military and administrative divisions of the imperial confederation. The old clan structure was preserved by the tribes of Genghis Khan's longtime associates, as well as by those chiefdoms that voluntarily became part of the imperial confederation. The rest were shuffled and included in the new "thousands". The right wing of 38 thousand soldiers was commanded by Boorchu. The left wing was under the leadership of Mukhali, together with the center it amounted to 62 thousand people.

Genghis Khan also created a squad (keshik) of 10 thousand soldiers, which was entrusted with guarding the khan’s chambers, property and headquarters, leading the courtyard servants, providing the khan’s table with food, participating in the khan’s raid hunts, etc. The squad was a kind of personnel forge for the future imperial administration.

Relatives were deprived. Genghis Khan allocated 10 thousand yurts to his mother and his younger brother, 4 thousand to his brother Xacapy, 9 thousand to his sons: Jochi, 8 thousand to Chagatai, 5 thousand to Ogedey and Toluy. At the same time, they were assigned special governors who were supposed to report to Genghis Khan about their every step. The reason for this is rooted in the already mentioned events of distant childhood, when he was faced with the betrayal of relatives who abandoned his family after the death of his father. With this in mind, Genghis Khan invariably tried to rely not on relatives, but on his faithful nukers.

Judicial affairs were entrusted to Shigi-Khutukhu. Genghis Khan also proclaimed new rules of behavior, which are usually called Yasa. Among modern researchers there is no unity regarding what Yasa was. The original is not known, there are only various retellings and mentions of eastern authors Juvaini, Rashid ad-Din, Makrizi, Ibn Battuta. Apparently, Yasa was not a written code of laws. It was a compilation of various regulations, rules and taboos established by Genghis Khan with some additions during the reign of Ogedei. This text was not available for public use. According to Juvaini, “these scrolls are called the Great Book of Yasa and lie in the treasury of the senior princes. When a khan sits on the throne, or gathers a great army, or princes gather and [consult] about matters of state and administration, then those scrolls are brought and in accordance with them all decisions are carried out; and to the formation of armies or the destruction of countries and cities, as prescribed there.” Over time, the importance of Yasa fell due to the division of the Mongol Empire into several independent parts, in which local legal traditions played a decisive role.

Gradually, the term “Mongols” spread to all the tribes and chiefdoms that became part of the steppe state. There is a case of the creation of ethnic communities, when one of the ethnonyms becomes the name of one people and gradually disparate tribes begin to recognize themselves as a single ethnic community. This historical fact was noticed back in the 14th century. by the compilers of the famous “Collection of Chronicles” of Rashid ad-Din: “[Various] Turkic tribes, like the Jalairs, Tatars, Oirats, Onguts, Keraits, Naimans, Tanguts and others, each of which had a specific name and a special nickname - all of them out of self-praise they call themselves [also] Mongols, despite the fact that in ancient times they did not recognize this name. Their present descendants, therefore, imagine that since ancient times they have been related to the name of the Mongols and are called [by this name], but this is not so, for in ancient times the Mongols were [only] one tribe from the entire totality of the Turkic steppe tribes."

In 1210, Jurchen envoys demanded tribute from Genghis Khan. In theory, the Mongols remained vassals of the Jin Empire. However real ratio The forces between North and South changed greatly, and this episode was used as a pretext for war. The following year, the Mongols invaded the Jin borders with two armies at once. From this time on, the era of the great Mongol conquests began. The Jurchens had 1 million 200 thousand. fighters. Genghis Khan had 139 “thousands”. Therefore, the ratio of forces was approximately 1:10. However, the Jurchen army was dispersed among separate garrisons, and the Mongols could use the effect of concentrating forces on the main direction of attack. They moved beyond

The wall and took the Western capital. The very first victories led to an increase in the number of Mongol troops due to defectors.

The usual tactics of the Mongols boiled down to the following. The Mongol army lined up in several lines. The first lines were made up of heavily armed horsemen, followed by horse archers. At the beginning of the battle, light cavalry rode forward from the flanks or at intervals between the advanced units and began to shower the enemy with arrows. The continuous stream of arrows falling from the sky was good psychological technique(especially if some of the arrows were equipped with special whistles) and could cause harm to poorly armed infantry.

However, the effectiveness of such shooting was quite low for an enemy armed with protective armor.

The Mongols' signature tactical ploy was the famous feint retreat, in which they sent forward several units that were supposed to simulate a collision with the enemy and then pretend to retreat. After the enemy rushed into pursuit in the hope of easy prey, the Mongols stretched his communications. After this, the archers came into action, bombarding the enemy with a cloud of arrows. The Mongols preferred distance combat tactics until they gained a decisive advantage over the enemy. Perhaps this was due to the fact that the bulk of the army were lightly armed archers. The battle was completed again by the heavy cavalry, which first advanced at a light trot and then crushed the tired and disrupted enemy ranks.

Every Mongol warrior had to have with him full set equipment, including defensive and offensive weapons, ropes, transport animals, etc. If, during inspection of the army, a shortage was discovered, the culprit was severely punished, up to death penalty. Genghis Khan introduced strict discipline and mutual responsibility. If one person ran away from the battlefield, the whole ten were punished. This system was cruel, but it turned out to be very effective.

The Mongols professed the tactics of total war, large-scale intimidation of the enemy in order to suppress his morale and demoralize him. If the cities did not surrender to them without firing a shot, they did not take anyone prisoner except skilled artisans. For siege work, the local population (xauiap, lit., “crowd”) was used, who were forced to operate giant mechanisms, collect stones, harvest trees, and build siege structures.

At the beginning of hostilities against the Jurchens, the Mongols lacked experience and special means during the siege of cities. During the first campaign against the Tanguts, they tried so unsuccessfully to flood the capital of the Tangut state with water that as a result the water broke through the built dam and flooded the Mongol camp. However, the Mongols were good students in military affairs. They began to use Jurchen, Chinese, and later Muslim engineers and artisans in military service, which quickly led to tangible results. Very soon they mastered the most advanced military technologies - the construction of siege towers, including with catapults, as well as various throwing weapons that fired arrows, stones and powder charges, began to be carried out

Mausoleum of Arystan Baba. Otrar. XIV-XV centuries Kazakhstan (photo)

large-scale preparation before the assault, erecting dams to flood the enemy city and digging tunnels under enemy walls, etc.

Regarding the reasons for the superiority of the Mongol army over the armies of others medieval states exist different opinions. It is a widely held view that nomads are “natural warriors.” The nomads were distinguished by their endurance and unpretentiousness, vigilance, excellent orientation, and from childhood they mastered the art of horse riding and archery. The Mongolian bow was the most powerful bow of the Middle Ages. Long training during the raid hunts resulted in high maneuverability and coordination of Mongolian military units, the ability to quickly rebuild and easily move around the theater of military operations. In this they were completely superior to their opponents.

At the same time, two important circumstances must be taken into account. As for the possession of melee weapons, ordinary nomads, as a rule, were inferior in this to professional warriors of sedentary agricultural states (military class, combatants, specially trained military units - Mamluks, Janissaries, etc.) In addition, the ability to navigate the terrain and move with big amount horses provided an advantage for nomads only in steppe zones or in close proximity to them (as in Rus'). It’s a different matter if

These actions were carried out in unusual conditions. Here the nomads lost the “home field” factor, and they had to play by the rules of their opponent. This happened at sea during two campaigns of the Yuan Armada against Japan. This happened in the Middle East, where the Mongols were defeated by the Mamluks.

The first campaigns brought enormous booty. The Jurchen emperor paid a large indemnity of 10 thousand liang of silver and 10 thousand gold bars. After this, Genghis Khan turned his gaze west to the possessions of the Khorezmshah. In September 1219, 150 thousand Mongol horsemen approached Otrar. The fortress was taken five months later. Over time, other cities of Central Asia also fell: Bukhara (1219), Samarkand (1220) and Urgench (1221). B 1226-1227 The Tangut state of Xi Xia was defeated.

The foundation of the Mongol Empire, or as it is also called the Power of Genghis Khan, occurred in 1203, when the first great khan laid the foundations of a new state.
Temujin or Genghis Khan ("Great Khan"), the founder of the Mongol Empire, was born in 1155 and ruled the largest empire in history during his lifetime until his death in 1227.
The youth of the future great khan passes in the struggle for hegemony in the Mongolian steppes, in which he fought with other khans and won, thereby uniting all the Mongolian tribes under his flag.

The rise of Genghis Khan's power

After the conquest of the Tatars and Kereits, Genghis Khan began to organize his state - the power of Genghis Khan.
In 1203-1205, the Great Khan carried out a series of important reforms, which became the basis of the Mongol Empire.
The first and most important innovation is the division of your army into thousands, hundreds and dozens. Thus, Genghis Khan improved the discipline of his troops and also increased his controllability. The tribal principle of organization is a thing of the past; now one can achieve success in a military career only through personal merit, and not through high origin.
In addition, Genghis Khan creates several elite units of their troops. The first are the Keshikten, the personal guard of the Mongol khans. The second are bagaturas, best wars of the entire Mongol army, such a title could only be received for one’s merits on the battlefield.
By 1205, Temujin had completely cleared all of Mongolia of tribes that disobeyed him, and the Mongols were now united under one flag. The following year, Temujin was named the Great Khan, that is, Genghis Khan.
The division into thousands, hundreds and tens applied not only to the army, but also to the entire people. In the same year, Genghis Khan named the main goal of the Mongolian people as war.

Conquest of Jin
Preparing for war

Genghis Khan's first gaze fell on the Jin Empire. The reason was execution Mongol Khan Ambagaya, which happened half a century ago. Thus, this war should be considered a blood feud, but it was just an excuse.
To protect his country from a blow to the rear, in 1207 the Great Khan sent two tumens to the northern border of the empire (one tumen - 10 thousand Mongol soldiers), they were commanded by his two sons. Many tribes that met the Mongols on their way became under their command (Buryats, Oirats and others). Thus, the Mongols strengthened their forces and made the northern border secure.
Soon mongol army under the command of the son of the great khan Subedei, they were sent to the western border, where in 1208 they defeated the Merkits and Naimans in the battle of the Irtysh valley.
The Great Khan himself at this time was engaged in eliminating another potential enemy - the Tanguts. The first big campaign was organized in 1207, but he failed to conquer the country, although cattle were captured, not a single fortress was taken by the Mongols. In 1209, Genghis Khan prepared siege weapons and captured several fortresses, and also besieged the capital. Then the Tanguts asked for peace, and the Great Khan married the daughter of the Tangut ruler, in addition, a lot of booty was captured again and the Mongols gained experience in waging a siege.
In 1209-1210, the Karluks and Uyghurs joined the army of Genghis Khan. Thus, all opponents were eliminated, new allies were gained and a rich material base was obtained.

Conquest of Jin

In 1211, the Mongols captured several major Jin cities north of the Great Wall. After this, the Mongol army crossed Great Wall and inflicted a heavy defeat on the Jurchen army. The path to the Middle Capital, Zhongdu, was open. However, the khan did not besiege the capital, since he understood that he was not yet able to take such a city - the Mongol army returned to the steppe.
In 1212, Genghis Khan made another attempt to take the capital. At the same time, he applies several major defeats Jin army, but due to an accidental injury, he lifts the siege again.
By 1213, the Jin military leaders join Genghis Khan's troops, and the emperor dies at the hands of another military leader. The empire finds itself without control, and in addition, only the Middle Capital and several small fortresses remain in the hands of the Jin.
In the spring of 1214, the Jin Empire, after a long siege of the last capital, concluded a peace beneficial for the Mongols. Genghis Khan received a huge tribute (horses, gold, people, silk) and returned to his native steppes, the Jin Empire ceased to exist and was annexed to the Mongol Empire.

Conquest of Central Asia

The Jin Empire was captured, and now the Great Khan set off to conquer Central Asia, and first of all decided to conquer the Kara-Khitan Khanate. Having quickly defeated the Khanate, Genghis Khan conquered Khorezm.
Then the Mongols go to Transcaucasia and, having successfully ravaged it, they conquer the Alans. The Mongols then start a war with Kievan Rus, tormented by internecine wars. In 1223, the Mongols defeated the Russian princes in the Battle of the Kalka River.

Death of Genghis Khan

After submitting to the Mongols central Asia, the Great Khan returns to Mongolia to once again go to war against Jin. During the siege of the capital in 1227, Genghis Khan suddenly dies of illness.
Thus, Genghis Khan left his descendants a huge empire. Genghis Khan's power continued to grow after his death, but already from the beginning of the fourteenth century it was divided into several states, and then its decline began.

In the section on the question how was the power of Genghis Khan created? What laws consolidated the military nature of the state? =) given by the author Spice the best answer is In the spring of 1206, at the source of the Onon River at the kurultai, Temujin was proclaimed great khan over all tribes and received the title “Genghis Khan”. Mongolia has been transformed: the scattered and warring Mongolian nomadic tribes have united into a single state.
Entered into force new law- Yasa of Genghis Khan. In Yas, the main place was occupied by articles about mutual assistance in the campaign and the prohibition of deception of those who trusted. Those who violated these regulations were executed, and the enemy of the Mongols, who remained faithful to their ruler, was spared and accepted into their army. Loyalty and courage were considered good, and cowardice and betrayal were considered evil.
Genghis Khan divided the entire population into tens, hundreds, thousands and tumens (ten thousand), thereby mixing tribes and clans and appointing specially selected people from his confidants and nukers as commanders over them. All adult and healthy men were considered warriors who ran their households in peacetime and took up arms in wartime. Armed forces Genghis Khan, formed in this way, amounted to approximately 95 thousand soldiers.
Individual hundreds, thousands and tumens, together with the territory for nomadism, were given into the possession of one or another noyon. The Great Khan, the owner of all the land in the state, distributed land and arats to the noyons, on the condition that they would regularly perform certain duties in return. The most important duty was military service. Each noyon was obliged, at the first request of the overlord, to field the required number of warriors in the field. Noyon, in his inheritance, could exploit the labor of the arats, distributing his cattle to them for grazing or involving them directly in work on his farm. Small noyons served large ones.
Under Genghis Khan, the enslavement of arats was legalized, and unauthorized movement from one dozen, hundreds, thousands or tumens to others was prohibited. This ban meant the formal attachment of the arats to the land of the noyons - for disobedience the arats faced the death penalty.
An armed detachment of personal bodyguards, called keshik, enjoyed exceptional privileges and was intended to fight against the internal enemies of the khan. The Keshikten were selected from the Noyon youth and were under the personal command of the khan himself, being essentially the khan’s guard. At first, there were 150 Keshikten in the detachment. In addition, it was created special squad, who was always supposed to be in the vanguard and be the first to engage the enemy. It was called a detachment of heroes. Russian word“hero” comes precisely from the Mongolian word “bagadur”. The word bagadur in different forms strengthened in the language of the Kazakh and other peoples who were part of the power of Genghis Khan.
Genghis Khan created a network of message lines, courier communications on a large scale for military and administrative purposes, and organized intelligence, including economic intelligence.
Genghis Khan divided the country into two “wings”. He placed Boorcha at the head of the right wing, and Mukhali, his two most faithful and experienced associates, at the head of the left. He made the positions and ranks of senior and highest military leaders - centurions, thousanders and temniks - hereditary in the family of those who, with their faithful service, helped him seize the khan's throne.

Formation of the Genghis Khan Empire

The creation of the first state organization of the Mongols is associated with the activities of Temujin, the son of the batyr Yesugei, the owner of a large ulus that roamed the Onon Valley.

With the death of Yesugei (1164), the ulus he created disintegrated. Various clan groups and nukers that were part of this ulus left the family of the deceased ruler. Temuchin was 9 years old at this time. The name Temujin begins to be mentioned again in sources only in the late 90s. 12th century, when he managed to find support from the Kereit ruler Van Khan, with the help of whom Temujin’s military forces began to gradually grow. Nukers began to flock to Temujin; he raided his neighbors, increasing his wealth and herds. In search of supporters, Temujin recruited people from different clans and tribes, generously rewarding everyone with rich booty for their faithful service.

Thus, the Temuchin ulus gradually took shape, the power of which increased; it became clear that he was laying claim to power over all of Mongolia. This met with decisive resistance from other contenders for the role of all-Mongol overlords. Temujin's first serious opponents were the Merkits, who acted in alliance with the Taizhiuts. Temujin, with the help of Van Khan and the Kereyites, as well as Batur Jamukhi from the Jajirat clan, defeated the Merkits. This victory, however, set Temujin at odds with Jamukha.

Temujin's first major military enterprise was the war against the Tatars, launched jointly with Wang Khan around 1200. The Tatars at that time had difficulty fighting off the attacks of the Jin troops that entered their possessions. Taking advantage of the favorable situation, Temujin and Van Khan inflicted a number of attacks on the Tatars strong blows and captured rich booty. In 1202 Temujin independently opposed the Tatars. Before this campaign, he made an attempt to reorganize and discipline the army. According to the issued order, it was strictly forbidden to seize booty during the battle and pursuit of the enemy: the commanders had to divide the captured property between the soldiers only after the end of the battle.

Temujin's victories caused the consolidation of the forces of his opponents. A whole coalition took shape, including Tatars, Taichjiuts, Merkits, Oirats and other tribes, which elected Jamukha as their khan. In the spring of 1203 A battle took place that ended in the complete defeat of Jaimukha's forces. This victory further strengthened the Temujin ulus. A rivalry began between him and the Kereit Van Khan, which soon grew into open hostility. War between the former allies became inevitable. In the autumn of 1203 Wang Khan's troops were defeated. His ulus ceased to exist.

After this victory, Temujin's possessions came close to the border of the Naiman, whose ruler was the last rival capable of challenging Temujin's power throughout Mongolia. Both sides began to intensively prepare for war. Significant forces gathered in the Naiman camp, but Temujin carried out a number of measures aimed at strengthening internal order in his ulus and to increase the number and combat effectiveness of troops.

All Temujin’s activities reflected the interests of the noyons. In an effort to ensure their full support, he established a kind of court with a large staff of court officials appointed from noyons of different clans and tribes. This is how the heads of the khan's herds, khan's herds, khan's wagons, kravchi, bearers of the khan's chair, etc. appeared. Temujin legalized the institution of darkhans - persons who, for special merits, were exempted from all taxes and duties, as well as from punishment for the nine most serious offenses.

Temuchin fought by force of arms for the internal strengthening of his ulus, seeking to stop the unauthorized migrations of individuals and groups who did not want to obey him. These measures were not random. His power was still far from being consolidated. sources report that, in preparation for the campaign, he had to allocate special units and military commanders especially devoted to him in the rearguards, in order to “be safe behind from the tribes of the Mongol, Kereit, Naiman and others, who for the most part were conquered, ... so that it does not happen that a second time some of the scattered tribes will come together again and plan resistance.”

But Temujin paid especially much attention to his army. He decisively abandoned the organization of troops along clan and tribal lines, dividing his formations into tens, hundreds, thousands and tumens. Specially selected people from close associates and nukers were appointed commanders. These military units could be recruited from a wide variety of clans and tribes. Thus, the army was cut off from the old tribal base. This gave a new impetus to the mixing of clans and tribes, to their merging into a single nation.

A specially formed armed detachment of personal bodyguards, the so-called keshik, enjoyed exceptional privileges and was intended mainly to fight against the internal enemies of the khan. The Keshikten were selected from the Noyon youth and were under the personal command of the khan himself, being essentially the khan’s guard. To begin with, there were 150 Cashikten in the detachment. In addition, a special detachment was created, which was always supposed to be in the vanguard and be the first to engage in battle with the enemy. It was called a detachment of heroes.

In the fall of 1204, Temujin's troops inflicted a severe defeat on the Naimans and their allies west of Orkhon. The Naiman ulus ceased to exist, and the clan and tribal groups that had previously been subordinate to them expressed submission to Temuchin. Some Naiman fled to the west. Temujin's warriors pursued them, overtook them and inflicted several defeats. Only a few managed to cross the Irtysh and escape to Semirechye. After these victories, Temujin's power extended to all Mongol clan and tribal groups. There were no uluses in Mongolia that could compete with his forces.

In 1206, in the area of ​​Delyun-buldak on the right bank of the Onon, at a kurultai (congress), where all Temujin’s relatives, as well as his associates and associates, arrived, he was proclaimed the all-Mongolian ruler under the name of Genghis Khan. Thus ended the process of formation of the Mongolian state headed by a single sovereign.

After Temujin became the all-Mongol ruler, his policies began to reflect the interests of the Noyon movement even more clearly. The predatory and greedy noyons needed internal and external measures that would help consolidate their dominance and increase their income. New wars of conquest and the robbery of rich countries were supposed to ensure the expansion of the sphere of feudal exploitation and the strengthening of the class positions of the noyons.

The administrative system created under Genghis Khan was adapted to achieve these goals. A group of ails, capable of fielding ten warriors, was recognized as the lowest administrative unit. Next came groups of ails, fielding 100 warriors, 1000 warriors, and, finally, 10 thousand warriors. All adult and healthy men were considered warriors who ran their households in peacetime and took up arms in wartime. This organization provided Genghis Khan with the opportunity to increase his armed forces to approximately 95 thousand soldiers.

Individual hundreds, thousands and tumens, together with the territory for nomadism, were given into the possession of one or another noyon. By its nature, this was the same feudal grant that, even before the formation of the state, became common in the relations between noyons and nukers. But now it's turned into state system. The Great Khan, considering himself the owner of all the land in the state, distributed land and arats to the noyons, on the condition that they would regularly perform certain duties in return. The most important duty was military service. Each noyon was obliged, at the first request of the overlord, to field the required number of warriors in the field. Noyon, in his inheritance, could exploit the labor of the arats, distributing his cattle to them for grazing or involving them directly in work on his farm. Small noyons served large ones. Thus, under Genghis Khan, the foundations of the military-feudal system in Mongolia were laid.

Genghis Khan divided the country between members of his clan. He allocated as an inheritance to his mother and younger brother in joint possession of 10 thousand ails, to another brother - 4 thousand, to a third - 1.5 thousand ails; He gave to his sons, Jochi - 9 thousand ails, Jagatai - 8 thousand, Ogedei and Tolui - 5 thousand ails each. The khan allocated similar inheritances to all his closest associates.

Under Genghis Khan, the enslavement of arats was legalized, and unauthorized movement from one dozen, hundreds, thousands or tumens to others was prohibited. This ban meant the formal attachment of the arats to the land of the noyons - for migrating from their possessions, the arats faced the death penalty.

Having become the Great Khan, Temujin turned a small guards detachment (keshik) into a ten-thousand-strong guards corps, while maintaining intact all its privileges and the aristocratic principle of recruitment. This corps was always with the person of the Great Khan, recognized and carried out only those orders that came from him personally: the khan was the direct commander of the keshik.

Genghis Khan divided the country into two “wings”. He placed Boorcha at the head of the right wing, and Mukhali, his two most faithful and experienced associates, at the head of the left. He made the positions and ranks of senior and highest military leaders - centurions, thousanders and temniks - hereditary in the family of those who, with their faithful service, helped him seize the khan's throne.

In preparing this work, materials from the site http://www.studentu.ru were used