What do the linguistic features of a work mean? Language styles

20.09.2019

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The language of fiction is often considered a special functional variety of language - along with business, scientific, journalistic, etc. But this opinion is incorrect. The language of business documents, scientific works (etc.) and the language of artistic prose and poetry cannot be considered as phenomena of the same order. Literary prose (and in our time, poetry) does not have that lexical “set” that distinguishes one functional variety from another, and does not have specific signs in the field of grammar. Comparing the works of different writers, one cannot help but come to the conclusion that the differences between them can be extremely great, that there are no restrictions in the use of language.
There is a “limitation”, but it is purely creative, not related to the use of certain language resources: everything in the work must be artistically appropriate. Under this condition, the writer freely uses the features of everyday speech, scientific, business, and journalistic - any means of language.
The peculiarity of the language of fiction is not that it uses some specific means - words and grammatical structures, peculiar only to him. On the contrary: the specificity of the language of fiction is that it is “ open system", is not limited in any way in the use of any language capabilities. Not only those lexical and grammatical features that are characteristic of business, journalistic, scientific speech, but also the features of non-literary speech - dialect, colloquial, slang - can be adopted by a literary text and organically assimilated by it.
On the other hand, the language of fiction is especially strict in relation to the norm, more demanding, more sensitively guarding it. And this is also the specificity of artistic language - speech. How they can be combined

such opposite properties: on the one hand, complete tolerance not only to all literary varieties of language - speech, but even to non-literary speech, on the other hand, especially strict, demanding adherence to norms? This needs to be considered.

Features of poetic language

The language of fiction, in other words, poetic language, is the form in which the art of words, verbal art, is materialized and objectified, in contrast to other types of art, such as music or painting, where the means of materialization are sound, paint, and color.

Each nation has its own language, which is the most important feature of the national specificity of the people. Having its own vocabulary and grammatical norms, the national language primarily performs a communicative function and serves as a means of communication. Russian national language in its modern form basically completed its formation during the time of A.S. Pushkin and in his work. On the basis of the national language, a literary language is formed - the language of the educated part of the nation.

The language of fiction is a national language processed by masters artistic word, subject to the same grammatical norms as the national language. The specificity of poetic language is only its function: it expresses the content of fiction, verbal art. Poetic language performs this special function at the level of living linguistic usage, at the level of speech, which in turn forms the artistic style.

Of course, the speech forms of the national language presuppose their own specifics: dialogical, monological, story-telling features of written and oral speech. However, in fiction these means should be considered in the general structure of the ideological, thematic, genre, compositional and linguistic originality of the work.

An important role in the implementation of these functions is played by figurative and expressive means of language. The role of these means is that they give speech a special flavor.

Flowers nod to me, bow your heads,

And the bush beckons with a fragrant branch;

Why are you the only one chasing me?

With your silk mesh?

In addition to the fact that this line is from the poem “A Moth for a Boy” with its own rhythm, its own size, rhyme pattern, and a certain syntactic organization, it contains a number of additional figurative and expressive means. Firstly, this is the speech of the moth addressed to the boy, a meek plea for the preservation of life. In addition to the image of a moth created by means of personification, flowers are personified here, which “nod” their heads to the moth, and a bush, which “beckons” with its branches. Here we will find the metonymically depicted image of a net ("silk net"), an epithet ("fragrant branch"), etc. In general, the stanza recreates the picture of nature, the images of a moth and a boy in certain respects.

By means of language, typification and individualization of characters' characters, unique applications, and use of speech forms are carried out, which outside of this use may not be special means. Thus, the word “brother”, characteristic of Davydov (“Virgin Soil Upturned” by M. A. Sholokhov), includes him among the people who served in the navy. And the words “fact”, “actual” that he constantly uses distinguish him from everyone around him and are a means of individualization.

There are no areas in language where the possibility of an artist’s activity, the possibility of creating poetic visual and expressive means, would be excluded. In this sense, we can conditionally speak of “poetic syntax”, “poetic morphology”, “poetic phonetics”. It's about here we are not talking about special laws of language, but, according to the correct remark of Professor G. O. Vinokur, about “a special tradition of language use.”

Thus, expressiveness itself, special figurative and expressive means are not a monopoly of the language of fiction and do not serve as the only formative material of a literary work. In the vast majority of cases, the words used in a work of art are taken from the general arsenal of the national language.

“He treated peasants and servants strictly and capriciously,” says A.S. Pushkin about Troekurov (“Dubrovsky”).

There is no expression or special means of expression here. And yet, this phrase is a phenomenon of art, since it serves as one of the means of depicting the character of the landowner Troekurov.

Possibility of creating artistic image by means of language is based on the general laws inherent in language. The fact is that the word carries within itself not just elements of a sign, a symbol of a phenomenon, but is its image. When we say “table” or “house,” we imagine the phenomena denoted by these words. However, there are still no artistic elements in this image. We can talk about the artistic function of a word only when, in a system of other image techniques, it serves as a means of creating an artistic image. This, in fact, is the special function of poetic language and its sections: “poetic phonetics”, “poetic syntax”, etc. We are not talking about a language with special grammatical principles, but about a special function, a special use of forms of the national language. Even so-called word-images receive aesthetic meaning only in a certain structure. Thus, in the famous line from M. Gorky: “Over the gray plain of the sea, the wind gathers clouds” - the word “gray-haired” in itself does not have an aesthetic function. It acquires it only in combination with the words “plain of the sea.” “The gray plain of the sea” is a complex verbal image, in the system of which the word “gray-haired” begins to have the aesthetic function of a trope. But this trope itself becomes aesthetically significant in the overall structure of the work. So, the main thing that characterizes poetic language is not its saturation with special means, but its aesthetic function. Unlike any other use of them in a work of art, all linguistic means, so to speak, are aesthetically charged. “Any linguistic phenomenon under special functional and creative conditions can become poetic,” academician V. Vinogradov rightly asserts.

But the internal process of "poeticization" of language, however, is depicted by scientists in different ways.

Some scientists believe that the core of an image is a representation, a picture fixed in the forms of language; other researchers, developing the position about the linguistic core of an image, consider the process of “poeticization of speech as an act of increment” of additional quality or meaning to a word. In accordance with this point of view, a word becomes a phenomenon of art (figurative) not because it expresses an image, but because, due to its inherent immanent properties, it changes quality.

In one case, the primacy of the image is affirmed, in the other - the primacy and primacy of the word.

There is no doubt, however, that the artistic image in its verbal expression represents an integral unity.

And if there is no doubt that the language of a work of art should be studied, like any phenomenon, on the basis of mastering the general laws of language development, that without special linguistic knowledge one cannot deal with the problems of poetic language, then at the same time it is quite obvious that, as a phenomenon of verbal art, language cannot be removed from the sphere of literary sciences that study verbal art at the figurative-psychological, social and other levels.

Poetic language is studied in connection with the ideological, thematic and genre-compositional specifics of a work of art.

Language is organized in accordance with certain tasks that a person sets for himself in the process of his activities. Thus, the organization of language in a scientific treatise and in a lyric poem are different, although in both cases forms of literary language are used.

The language of a work of art has two main types of organization - poetic And prosaic(the language of drama is close in its organization to the language of prose). Forms and means of organizing types of speech are at the same time speech means(rhythm, meter, methods of personification, etc.).

The source for poetic language is the national language. However, the norms and level of development of language at a particular historical stage do not in themselves determine the quality of verbal art, the quality of the image, just as they do not determine the specifics of the artistic method. During the same periods of history, works were created that differed in artistic method and in their poetic significance. The process of selecting linguistic means is subordinated to the artistic concept of a work or image. Only in the hands of an artist does language acquire high aesthetic qualities.

Poetic language will recreate life in its movement and in its possibilities with great completeness. With the help of a verbal image you can “draw” a picture of nature, show the history of the formation human character, depict the movement of masses. Finally, a verbal image can be close to a musical one, as is observed in poetry. The word is firmly connected with thought, with the concept, and therefore, compared to other means of creating an image, it is more capacious and more active. A verbal image, which has a number of advantages, can be characterized as a “synthetic” artistic image. But all these qualities of a verbal image can only be identified and realized by an artist.

The process of artistic creativity or the process of poetic processing of speech is deeply individual. If in everyday communication you can distinguish a person by the manner of his speech, then in artistic creativity you can identify the author by his own unique method artistic treatment language. In other words, the writer’s artistic style is refracted in the speech forms of his works, etc. The entire infinite variety of forms of verbal art is based on this feature of poetic language. In the process of creativity, the artist does not passively apply the treasures of the language already obtained by the people - a great master with his creativity influences the development of the national language, improving its forms. At the same time, it relies on general patterns development of the language, its folk basis.

Journalism(from lat. publicus- public) - a type of literature whose content is primarily contemporary issues, of interest to the general reader: politics, philosophy, economics, morality, law, etc. The closest to journalism in terms of the specifics of creativity are journalism and criticism.

The genres of journalism, journalism, and criticism are often identical. This is an article, a series of articles, a note, an essay.

A journalist, a critic, and a publicist often act as one person, and the boundaries between these types of literature are quite fluid: for example, a magazine article can be critical and journalistic. It is quite common for writers to act as publicists, although often a journalistic work is not artistic: it is based on real facts of reality. The goals of a writer and a publicist are often close (both can contribute to the solution of similar political and moral problems), but the means are different.

The figurative expression of content in a work of art corresponds to the direct, conceptual expression of problems in journalistic work, which in this respect is closer in form to scientific knowledge.

Artistic and journalistic literature includes works in which specific life facts are expressed in figurative form. This uses elements creative imagination. The most common genre is the artistic essay.

Vinokur G. O. Selected works on the Russian language. M., 1959. P. 388.
Vinogradov V.V. Stylistics. Theory of poetic speech. Poetics. M., 1963. P. 139.

Artistic speech is a specific form of verbal art, different from ordinary literary (normative) speech. In particular, it may include non-literary speech if this is required by a specific artistic task.

The artistic style of speech as a functional style is used in fiction, which performs a figurative-cognitive and ideological-aesthetic function. V.V. Vinogradov noted: “...The concept of “style” when applied to the language of fiction is filled with a different content than, for example, in relation to business or clerical styles and even journalistic and scientific styles... The language of fiction is not entirely correlated with other styles, he uses them, includes them, but in unique combinations and in a transformed form..."

1. Fiction, like other types of art, is characterized by a concrete figurative representation of life, in contrast, for example, to the abstract, logical-conceptual, objective reflection of reality in scientific speech. A work of art is characterized by perception through the senses and the re-creation of reality; the author strives to convey, first of all, his personal experience, your understanding and comprehension of a particular phenomenon.

2. The artistic style of speech is characterized by attention to the particular and random, behind which the typical and general can be traced. Remember the ones you know well" Dead Souls“N.V. Gogol, where each of the shown landowners personified certain specific human qualities, expressed a certain type, and all together they were the “face” of the author’s contemporary Russia.

3. The world of fiction is a “recreated” world; the reality depicted is, to a certain extent, the author’s fiction, which means that in the artistic style of speech the subjective element plays the most important role. The entire surrounding reality is presented through the author’s vision. But in literary text we see not only the world of the writer, but also the writer in this world: his preferences, condemnations, admiration, rejection, etc. This is associated with emotionality and expressiveness, metaphor, and the substantive diversity of the artistic style of speech. Let's analyze a short excerpt from N. Tolstoy's "A Foreigner Without Food": Lera went to the exhibition only for the sake of her student, out of a sense of duty. "Alina Kruger. Personal exhibition. Life as loss. Free admission." A bearded man and a lady were wandering in an empty hall. He looked at some of the work through a hole in his fist; he felt like a professional. Lera also looked through her fist, but did not notice the difference: all the same naked men on chicken legs, and in the background there were pagodas on fire. The booklet about Alina said: “The artist projects a parable world onto the space of the infinite.” I wonder where and how they teach how to write art criticism texts? They're probably born with it. When visiting, Lera loved to leaf through art albums and, after looking at a reproduction, read what a specialist wrote about it. You see: a boy covered an insect with a net, on the sides there are angels blowing pioneer horns, in the sky there is a plane with the signs of the Zodiac on board. You read: “The artist views the canvas as a cult of the moment, where the stubbornness of details interacts with an attempt to comprehend everyday life.” You think: the author of the text spends little time outdoors, relies on coffee and cigarettes, intimate life complicated in some way.

(Star. 1998. No. 1).

What we have before us is not an objective presentation of the exhibition, but a subjective description of the heroine of the story, behind whom the author is clearly visible. The text is built on the combination of three artistic plans. The first plan is what Lera sees in the paintings, the second is an art history text interpreting the content of the paintings. These plans are expressed stylistically in different ways; the bookishness and abstruseness of the description are deliberately emphasized. And the third plan is the author's irony, which manifests itself through showing the discrepancy between the content of the picture and the verbal expression of this content, in the assessment of the bearded man, the author of the book text, and the ability to write such art criticism texts.

4. As a means of communication, artistic speech has its own language - a system of figurative forms expressed by linguistic and extralinguistic means. Artistic speech, along with non-fiction, constitute two levels of the national language. The basis of the artistic style of speech is the literary Russian language. The word in this functional style performs a nominative-figurative function. Let's give the beginning of V. Larin's novel "Neuronal Shock": Marat's father Stepan Porfiryevich Fateev, an orphan from infancy, was from a family of Astrakhan binders. The revolutionary whirlwind blew him out of the locomotive vestibule, dragged him through the Mikhelson plant in Moscow, machine-gun courses in Petrograd and threw him into Novgorod-Seversky, a town of deceptive silence and bliss.

(Star. 1998. No. 1).

In these two sentences, the author showed not only a segment of individual human life, but also the atmosphere of the era of enormous changes associated with the revolution of 1917. The first sentence gives knowledge of the social environment, material conditions, human relations in the childhood years of the life of the father of the hero of the novel and his own roots. The simple, rude people who surrounded the boy (bindyuzhnik is a colloquial name for a port loader), hard labour which he had seen since childhood, the restlessness of orphanhood—that’s what stands behind this sentence. And the next sentence includes private life in the cycle of history. Metaphorical phrases (The revolutionary whirlwind blew out..., dragged..., threw...) liken human life to a certain grain of sand that cannot withstand historical cataclysms, and at the same time convey the element of the general movement of those "who was nobody." In a scientific or official business text, such imagery, such a layer of in-depth information is impossible.

5. The lexical composition and functioning of words in the artistic style of speech have their own characteristics. The number of words that form the basis and create the imagery of this style, first of all, includes figurative means of the Russian literary language, as well as words that realize their meaning in the context. These are the words wide scope consumption. Highly specialized words are used to a small extent, only to create artistic authenticity when describing certain aspects of life. For example, L.N. Tolstoy in War and Peace used special military vocabulary when describing battle scenes; We will find a significant number of words from the hunting vocabulary in “Notes of a Hunter” by I.S. Turgenev and in the stories of M.M. Prishvina, V.A. Astafieva; and in “The Queen of Spades” A.S. Pushkin has many words from his vocabulary card game and so on.

6. In the artistic style of speech, the verbal polysemy of a word is very widely used, which opens up additional meanings and shades of meaning, as well as synonymy at all linguistic levels, thanks to which it becomes possible to emphasize the subtlest shades of meaning. This is explained by the fact that the author strives to use all the riches of the language, to create his own unique language and style, to create a bright, expressive, figurative text. The author uses not only the vocabulary of the codified literary language, but also a variety of figurative means from colloquial speech and vernacular. Let's give a small example: In Evdokimov's tavern they were about to turn off the lamps when the scandal began. The scandal began like this. At first everything in the hall looked fine, and even the tavern floor waiter Potap told the owner that God had passed by now - not a single broken bottle, when suddenly in the depths, in the semi-darkness, in the very core, there was a buzzing like a swarm of bees.

Fathers of the world,” the owner lazily marveled, “here, Potapka, is your evil eye, devil!” Well, you should have croaked, damn it!

7. The emotionality and expressiveness of the image come to the fore in a literary text. Many words that in scientific speech appear as clearly defined abstract concepts, in newspaper and journalistic speech as socially generalized concepts, in artistic speech appear as concrete sensory representations. Thus, the styles functionally complement each other. For example, the adjective lead in scientific speech realizes its direct meaning(lead ore, lead bullet), and in fiction forms an expressive metaphor (lead clouds, lead night, lead waves). Therefore, in artistic speech an important role is played by phrases that create a certain figurative representation.

8. Artistic speech, especially poetic, is characterized by inversion, i.e. change usual order words in a sentence in order to enhance the semantic significance of a word or give the entire phrase a special stylistic coloring. An example of inversion is the famous line from A. Akhmatova’s poem “I still see Pavlovsk as hilly...” The author’s word order options are varied and subordinated to the general concept.

9. The syntactic structure of literary speech reflects the flow of figurative and emotional impressions of the author, so here you can find a whole variety of syntactic structures. Each author subordinates linguistic means to the fulfillment of his ideological and aesthetic tasks. So, L. Petrushevskaya, to show disorder, “troubles” family life heroine of the story “Poetry in Life”, includes several simple and complex sentences in one sentence: In Mila’s story, then everything went from bad to worse, Mila’s husband in the new two-room apartment no longer protected Mila from her mother, her mother lived separately , and there was no telephone either here or here - Mila’s husband became his own Iago and Othello and watched with mockery from around the corner as Mila was accosted on the street by men of his type, builders, prospectors, poets who did not know , how heavy this burden is, how unbearable life is if you fight alone, since beauty is no helper in life, this is how one could roughly translate those obscene, desperate monologues that the former agronomist, and now Researcher, Mila’s husband, shouted on the streets at night, and in his apartment, and got drunk, so Mila hid with her young daughter somewhere, found shelter for herself, and the unfortunate husband beat furniture and threw iron pans.

This sentence is perceived as an endless complaint from an uncountable number of unhappy women, as a continuation of the theme of the sad female lot.

10. In artistic speech, deviations from structural norms are also possible, due to artistic actualization, i.e. the author highlighting some thought, idea, feature that is important for the meaning of the work. They can be expressed in violation of phonetic, lexical, morphological and other norms. This technique is especially often used to create a comic effect or a bright, expressive artistic image: “Ay, dear,” Shipov shook his head, “why do this?” No need. I see right through you, mon cher... Hey, Potapka, why did you forget the man on the street? Bring him here, waking him up. Well, Mr. Student, how do you rent this tavern? It's dirty. Do you think I’ll like him?.. I’ve been to real restaurants, I know.. Pure Empire style, sir... But you can’t talk to people there, but here I can learn something

(Okudzhava B. Shipov’s Adventures).

The speech of the main character characterizes him very clearly: not very educated, but ambitious, wanting to give the impression of a gentleman, gentleman, Shipov uses elementary French words(mon cher) along with the colloquial ones waking up, ndrav, here, which do not correspond not only to the literary, but also to the colloquial norm. But all these deviations in the text serve the law of artistic necessity.

In terms of diversity, richness and expressive capabilities of linguistic means, the artistic style stands above other styles and is the most complete expression of the literary language.

Question 34. Language of a literary work. Fine and expressive means of poetic language. Lexical means (homonyms, archaisms and historicisms; vernaculars (vulgarisms), argot; barbarisms, dialectisms and provincialisms; Slavicisms. Neologisms and occasional lexical means.

Language is that stock of words and those grammatical principles of their combination in sentences that live in the minds of people of a particular nationality, with the help of which they can communicate.

Speech is language in action, the process of verbal communication between people, consisting in the expression of certain thoughts, colored by certain feelings and aspirations.

Literary language - develops relatively high level cultural development of the people, gradually historically formed in written and oratorical types of speech, etc.

The language of fiction is the language of works of art that contain everything linguistic units, included in the system of a given language, contemporary to the authors of works of a particular era. The language of works of art is the sphere where the dual dialectical nature of language is manifested, where the linguistic units of literary language and living colloquial speech function. In this regard, the texts of works of art are the object of study of linguistics, as well as literary criticism.

The main category in the field of linguistic study of fiction is usually recognized as the concept of individual style (original, historically conditioned, complex, but representing the structural unity of the system of means and forms of verbal expression in its development). Academician V.V. Vinogradov formulates the concept of a writer’s individual style this way. This is a system of individual aesthetic use of the means of artistic and verbal expression characteristic of a given period of development of fiction, as well as a system of aesthetic and creative selection, comprehension and arrangement of various speech elements.

Lexical means:

Lexical homonyms are words of the same part of speech that have the same sound, spelling and grammatical format, but different meaning(mink)

Homophones – words that are spelled differently but pronounced the same (prut)

homoforms – different words that coincide in separate grammatical forms (I’m treating)

Homographs - words that are spelled the same but pronounced differently

Homonyms are used for puns and other effects in text

archaisms are outdated names of phenomena and concepts existing in modern times, to designate which others arose, modern names

Historicisms - denote objects that have disappeared from modern life, phenomena that have become irrelevant concepts

colloquialisms (vulgarisms) - words, expressions, forms of word formation and inflection, features of pronunciation that have a connotation of simplification, reduction, rudeness ("head", "guts"; "bech" instead of "run"; "yesterday" instead of "yesterday" "; "youth" instead of "youth", etc.). P. is characterized by vivid expression, stylistic decline, and borders on colloquial elements of literary speech, as well as dialectisms, argotisms, and vulgarisms. The composition and boundaries of P. are historically variable. In Western European linguistics, the term "P." (English popular language, German Volkssprache) denote a conglomerate of deviations from the “standard” language: slangisms, fashionable phrases, nicknames, etc. The stylistic coloring of poetry makes it a means of expression in works of art (“literary poetry”) and in common literary language.

argo - originally, words of a specially classified language

barbarisms - in traditional stylistic terminology, a word (an element of a word, a turn of speech) borrowed from another language. and perceived as a violation of generally accepted linguistic norms. So. arr. the following can be perceived as V.: a) features of pronunciation (Vralman: “Tay folyu to these plaited slates. Is such a kalafy tolgol palfan?” - Fonvi-zin, “Undergrowth”); b) individual words (Ivan: “Awuye, did you have an agreement with some Frenchman?” - Fonvizin, “Brigadier”); c) forms of word formation and syntactic turns (“In Moscow there is one lady, une dame... And she had une femme de chambre, still tall” - the story of Hippolyte in “War and Peace” by L. Tolstoy). In the history of the Lithuanian language, eras of its increased saturation of languages and eras of struggle against them usually follow. The first testify to the assimilation of forms of foreign language culture by those classes whose property and instrument is the lithic language; the second is about the beginning of independent cultural creativity of the class (cf. the increased saturation of the V. speech of the Russian nobility in the first half of the 18th century and the intensified struggle against them in the second).

As an artistic device, V. is used: a) to achieve a comic effect: “But trousers, a tailcoat, a vest, / All these words are not in Russian” (Pushkin, “Eugene Onegin”); b) to create a couleur locale: “How cute you are in a laurel wreath, my fat-bellied praetor... Nice when you are carried by ten lictors to the forum” (A. Maikov, “Praetor”); or, parodically, in Kuzma Prutkov: “And I see the young man’s fluffy chin between the leaves of acanthus and white columns” (“Ancient plastic Greek”); c) in eras when knowledge of a foreign language. is the exclusive property of the ruling class, - to indicate a high social position characters["Die Gräfin spricht wehmütig / Die Liebe ist eine Passion" (Heine). “That which autocratic fashion / in high London circle / is called vulgar... I can’t... / I love this word very much / But I can’t translate...” (Pushkin, “Eugene Onegin”). Also from L. Tolstoy: “Anna Pavlovna coughed for several days, she had the flu, as she said (flu was a new word then, rarely used) ...” (“War and Peace”).

dialectisms and provincialisms are features characteristic of dialects and provincial dialects that do not correspond to the norms of the literary language, dialect inclusions in the Russian literary language

Slavicisms - 1) words and expressions of the Russian language that are of Old Church Slavonic or Church Slavonic origin or created from Old Church Slavonic (Church Slavonic) elements. With a few exceptions, words and phrases of the named origin are distinguished by a special stylistic coloring - solemnity, archaism, poetry, or in general bookishness (“voice”, “right hand”, “this”, “there are no numbers”). Most S. entered the Old Russian literary language in the first centuries of its existence from monuments of the Old Slavonic language (the so-called Old Slavonicisms) or later from Church Slavonic language(so-called Church Slavonicisms), but many S. were formed in Russian itself. literary language through the so-called. Church Slavonic (Old Church Slavonic) elements. Such elements include various signs, mainly of a phonetic or morphological nature, for example, incomplete vowel combinations ("breg", "grad"; cf. the original Russian "bereg", "city"), the sounds "zhd", "zh", " sch" ("hope", "clothes", "night", "light" cf. the original Russian "hope", "clothes", "night", "candle"), prefix iz- ("pour out", "outcome" ; cf. original Russian “pour out”, “exit”). S. may not have external signs, for example, “lanits”, “percy”, “brow” (cf. the original Russian “cheeks”, “chest”, “forehead”). They were widely used in ancient Russian literature and played a large role in the creation of the high syllable Russian. classicism, in various genres of poetic language until the mid-19th century. (partly later). 2) Words and morphemes of Slavic origin in non-Slavic languages (Slavisms).

neologisms are new words, the novelty of which is felt by native speakers

Related information.

The means of creating artistic images is language. The author's work on the language of the work includes the use of all possibilities of expressiveness, all layers of vocabulary and styles that exist in the language. Lyrics, prose, and drama have their own system of using linguistic means.

So, language of the characters is a means typification and individualization of heroes, since through language the author conveys the features of their life experience, culture, mindset, psychology. Individualization of the speech of the characters is manifested in the syntactic structure of the phrase, vocabulary, intonation, and content of speech.

The individualization of the hero’s speech is associated with its typification, since these features of speech can also be considered as features of the speech of many people of a given social type.

Synonyms, antonyms, and homonyms can be considered as language resources that diversify the speech of characters and create a certain social type; their use diversifies the speech of characters, helps to avoid repetition and makes it more expressive.

Synonym- a word with the same meaning, but different in sound (arm and hand). In the Russian language, there is the concept of a synonymous series, in the center of which there is always a neutral, commonly used word, and it is surrounded by words with additional, connotative meanings, which can be both positive and negative. All these words form a row or chain (peepers - eyes - eyes).

Antonym- a word with the opposite meaning (white - black). Antonyms in the Russian language can be grammatically formed in two ways: some are antonyms expressing diametrical opposition, therefore they are expressed in different words, for example, hot - cold, Others seem to contrast one half of the concept with the other, and therefore are expressed by adding a negative particle “NOT”: hot - not hot .

Homonym- a word that has the same sound or spelling, but different meaning. Among them there may be absolute homonyms (onion - onion); homophones, that is, words that sound the same but have different spellings, for example, (mushroom - flu); Homographs, that is, words that have the same spelling, but are different in pronunciation (zapil - zapil).

Quite often, special lexical resources of the language are used in works of art - outdated words(archaisms, historicisms), neologisms, dialectal and borrowed words, phraseological units.

Outdated words are divided into archaisms and historicisms. Archaisms are obsolete names of concepts and objects that exist in the Russian language and have a more modern synonym (cheeks - cheeks, forehead - forehead). They are most often used by authors who want to add solemnity to their speech and sublimity to the style of their work. Historicisms are the name of an object, phenomenon or concept that no longer exists, belongs to a past era and is used to recreate its color (streltsy, caftan, yaryzhka).

Neologisms- new words and expressions that come into the language. These can be words meaning a new concept (cosmonaut, nanotechnology), or they can be the author's neologisms ("mustachioed nanny", "merged" - V.V. Mayakovsky). Sometimes the author's neologisms “take root” in the language and become commonly used (for example, the word “industry”, invented by N.M. Karamzin).

Dialect words- are used in a certain area and their use also characterizes the character or the author’s style in a work of art (for example, parubki, devchina, scroll - these are Little Russian or Ukrainian dialectisms that N.V. Gogol used in his works).

Loan words- words of foreign origin that came into the Russian language. Every century of Russian history is marked by borrowings from different languages- Turkic (boots, chest), German (sandwich, station, umbrella), French (cafe, pince-nez, muffler) English (revolution, constitution, parliament). Among the borrowed words, the so-called internationalisms, which sound the same in all languages - offer, franchise.

Phraseologisms- stable combinations of words that are complex in composition, each of which has a special meaning (“the cat cried” - little, “carelessly” - lazily).

In addition to these linguistic means, fiction also uses special figurative means of language, words in a figurative meaning, or tropes (singular, m. - trope!). Their existence is based on the phenomenon of polysemy or polysemy of a word. Thus, it can be said that trails- these are words used in a figurative sense; their use is based on the principle of internal convergence of various phenomena.

There are two simple tropes - epithet and comparison - and quite a few complex ones based on these two simple ones.

Epithet- is an artistic definition that highlights individual aspects of the subject that seem important to the author; they are usually significant for a certain context in the depicted phenomenon. Epithets are expressed not only by adjectives (“My May is blue, June is blue...” - S.A. Yesenin), but also by other parts of speech, for example, nouns (“the mother of cheese is the earth”).

Epithets are divided into fine art And lyrical. Fine epithets highlight the essential aspects of what is depicted without an evaluative authorial element, and lyrical epithets also convey the author’s attitude towards what is depicted (“Wonderful is the Dnieper in calm weather...”, “I remember a wonderful moment...”).

There are also so-called permanent epithets that are a folklore tradition (damask sword, red maiden).

Comparison- comparison of essential features in what is depicted using something familiar or similar (fast like a leopard, keen-sighted like an eagle). It creates a certain emotional coloring, expresses the author’s direct attitude to what is depicted.

Comparisons are divided into straight, that is, a comparison in direct affirmative form (“You are among others like a white dove between ordinary simple pigeons”) and negative. In a negative comparison, one object is separated from another using negation, thus the author explains one phenomenon through another. The technique of negative comparison is most often found in folklore (“It’s not the ice that’s cracking, It’s not the mosquito that’s squeaking, It’s the godfather who’s dragging the pike perch”).

Expanded comparison as a variation of this trope, it is a disclosure of a whole series of features, a characteristic of a whole group of phenomena. Sometimes it can form the basis of the entire work (the poem “Echo” by A.S. Pushkin or “The Poet” by M.Yu. Lermontov).

Complex paths are formed on the basis of simple ones and are based on the principle of internal convergence of various phenomena.

Metaphor- a trope based on the similarity of two phenomena, a hidden comparison (“the dawn flared up”). A metaphor speaks only of what it is being compared with, but does not say what is being compared (“A bee from a wax cell flies for a field tribute” - A.S. Pushkin).

Expanded metaphor- a trope that formed the basis of the entire lyrical work ("Arion" by A.S. Pushkin). Quite often in works of fiction they use metaphorical epithets(“golden dreams”, “silk eyelashes”, “gray morning”, “foggy youth”).

Personification represents special kind metaphors, since it transfers the signs of a living being to natural phenomena, objects, concepts (“A golden cloud spent the night on the chest of a giant cliff...” - M.Yu. Lermontov, “The grass in the field will droop from pity, the trees in grief bowed to the ground ..." - "The Tale of Igor's Campaign").

Metonymy- the bringing together of objects that are different from each other, located in one or another external or internal connection with each other (that is, in fact, this is also a type of metaphor), which helps to highlight the most important, significant in the depicted.

The transfer of the properties of one object to another in metonymy can be carried out according to various criteria:

- from content to content (eat a bowl of soup);
- from the title of the work to the name of the author (“Belinsky and Gogol will be carried away from the market”);
- from performer to instrument (“Lonely accordion wanders”);
- from the action on the gun (“Their villages and fields for the violent raid he doomed to swords and fires” - A.S. Pushkin);
- from thing to material (“It’s not like it’s on silver, it’s on gold” - A.S. Griboyedov);
- from the hero to the place (“But our open bivouac was quiet” - M.Yu. Lermontov).

Synecdoche is a special type of metonymy - the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another according to the attribute quantitative ratio between these phenomena.

Transfer can be carried out according to the following criteria:

- With plural to the only thing (“And you could hear how the Frenchman rejoiced until dawn” - M.Yu. Lermontov);
- from singular to plural (“We all look at Napoleons” - A.S. Pushkin”);
- from an indefinite number to a specific one (“Donkeys! Should I repeat it a hundred times!?” - A.S. Griboyedov);
- from a specific concept to a generalized one (“Here the nobility is wild...” - A.S. Pushkin).

Hyperbola how the trope represents an artistic exaggeration (“A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper” - N.V. Gogol).

Litotes- this is an artistic understatement ("Your Spitz, lovely Spitz, No more than a thimble..." - A.S. Griboyedov).

Periphrase- a type of artistic trope in which a proper name or title is replaced by a descriptive expression (“Only you, hero of Poltava, erected an Immortal monument to yourself...” - A.S. Pushkin).

Oxymoron is a trope based on a combination of mutually exclusive concepts (“Living Corpse”, “sworn friend”).

Allegory (allegory)- a special trope that most often covers the entire work as a whole, and the allegorically depicted creatures mean others. This trope is the basis of fables, riddles, and satirical works, since it highlights the main thing. essential in the character portrayed (“Crucian carp is a fatty fish and prone to idealism, and as for the ruffs, this fish is already touched by skepticism, and at the same time prickly” - M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin).

Irony- this is a hidden mockery in which the external form is contrasted with the internal content (“Where, smart one, are you wandering from?” - I.A. Krylov).

Grotesque is an ironic exaggeration with elements of fantasy (“The generals served in some kind of registry. They were born, raised and raised there. Consequently, they did not understand anything. They didn’t even know any words except “Let me express my greatest respect to you!” - M.E. . Saltykov-Shchedrin).

Details Category: “The great, powerful and truthful Russian language” Published 04/13/2016 17:01 Views: 2312

The language of fiction, i.e. The language of writers is guided by the norms of literary language, but contains a lot of individual, not generally accepted.

What does the concept of “literary language” mean?

Literary language

The literary language is the processed part of the common language. Literary language has written norms; all verbal types of culture are created in it; it has stylistic differentiation and functions in written and spoken forms.
Literary language is the common written language of a certain people or several peoples. This is the language of official business documents, schooling, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture expressed in verbal form. The historically established literary language is not static, but mobile and has the ability to develop.

Correlation between literary and national languages

There is a difference between them: the national language is a form of a literary language, but not every literary language becomes national language.
The Russian literary language began to take shape with early XVII century, and it became the national language in the first half of the 19th century, in the era of A. S. Pushkin.

Russian literary language

The creation of the Russian literary language is usually associated with Cyril and Methodius. Church Slavonic writing, introduced by Cyril and Methodius in 863, was based on the Old Church Slavonic language, which was derived from South Slavic dialects, in particular the Macedonian dialect of Old Bulgarian. The Church Slavonic language was a book language, not a spoken language, the language of church culture, which spread among many Slavic peoples.

Lavrenty Zizaniy. Miniature from the 18th century. (from the 17th century original)
To systematize Church Slavonic texts and introduce uniform language norms in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the first grammars were written: the grammar of Laurentius Zizania (1596) and the grammar of Meletius Smotrytsky (1619).

Meletius Smotrytsky
The process of formation of the Church Slavonic language was basically completed at the end of the 17th century. The first Russian literary works used the writing of Cyril and Methodius: “The Tale of Bygone Years” (1113), “The Tale of Boris and Gleb”, “The Life of Theodosius of Pechora”, “The Sermon on Law and Grace” (1051), “The Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh” ( 1096) and “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (1185-1188).

Most important reforms Russian literary language and versification system of the 18th century. were made by Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov. Lomonosov was the author of scientific Russian grammar. In this book, he described the riches and possibilities of the Russian language. Lomonosov's grammar was published 14 times and formed the basis for the course of Russian grammar of Barsov (1771), a student of Lomonosov.
N. M. Karamzin played a major role in the formation of the Russian literary language. But Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin is considered the creator of the modern literary language.
Now let's move on to talking directly about the language of fiction.

Composition of the language of fiction

The language of fiction includes literary language, dialects, urban vernacular, youth and professional jargon, argo (the language of a socially closed group of people, characterized by the specificity of the vocabulary used, the originality of its use, but not having its own phonetic and grammatical system) - everything , which is an integral part of the common (national) language.
In addition, the language of fiction is distinguished by a variety of author's styles, as well as the presence of tropes. Let's talk about this in more detail.

Writer's style

Each writer has his own individual author's style (idiostyle). The first to explore idiostyle in the 20th century. started by Yu. N. Tynyanov, Yu. N. Karaulov and V. V. Vinogradov. Currently, many scientists are engaged in research in this area.
What is meant by author's style in literature? These are all those features that distinguish the works of one author from the works of other authors and reflect his individuality (most often this refers to the language of the work, because it is language features appear most clearly). It is impossible to judge the author's style from one work, although in all the author's works some common features and the author's moral attitude to the subject are preserved. “Whatever the artist depicts: saints, robbers, kings, lackeys, we look for and see only the soul of the artist himself,” wrote L.N. Tolstoy in the Preface to the works of G. de Maupassant.
For example, the stylistic originality of the prose of F.M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881) is manifested in the special “speech intensity” of his heroes. Dostoevsky's novels always contain extensive dialogues and monologues, which are characterized by verbal repetition, slips of the tongue, and interruptions of speech.

“On the way to Porfiry, Razumikhin was in a particularly excited state.
“This, brother, is wonderful,” he repeated several times, “and I’m glad!” I'm glad!
“What are you happy about?” - Raskolnikov thought to himself.
“I didn’t even know that you also pawned it from the old woman.” And... and... how long has it been? So how long have you been with her?
“What a naive fool!”
“When?” Raskolnikov paused, remembering, “yes, three days before her death, I was with her, it seems.” However, I’m not going to buy things back now,” he picked up with some kind of hasty and special concern for things, “after all, again I only have a silver ruble... because of this damned delirium yesterday!..
He spoke particularly impressively about delirium.
“Well, yes, yes, yes,” Razumikhin hurriedly assented and unknown to what, “so that’s why you were then... partly amazed... and you know, in your delirium you kept remembering some rings and chains!.. Well yes, yes... It’s clear, everything is clear now.”

Style L.N. Tolstoy (1828-1910) is distinguished by a detailed psychological analysis of the characters, for which the writer needs a very complex syntax. Complex sentences Tolstoy's works sometimes take up half a page of printed text. Here is an example of complex syntax in L. Tolstoy (chapter 2 of part III of volume “War and Peace”: “When he went over in his imagination this whole strange Russian company, in which not a single battle was won, in which not a single one was taken in two months banners, no guns, no corps of troops, when he looked at the secretly sad faces of those around him and listened to reports that the Russians were still standing - a terrible feeling, similar to the feeling experienced in dreams, covered him, and all the unfortunate accidents came to his mind , which could destroy him." Tolstoy often uses different types syntactic connections.

A.P. style Chekhov (1860-1904) is distinguished by the meager precision of details,

characteristics, variety of intonations. The writer often uses indirect speech, when the statement can belong to both the hero and the author. Modal words (certainly, really, probably, etc.) are also a special feature of Chekhov’s style. Often the use of modal words gives Chekhov's works an intonation of hope, but uncertainty.

“My husband may be an honest, good man, but he’s a lackey!” (A.P. Chekhov “Lady with a Dog”). “The light crackled in the lamp, and everything seemed to be quiet and safe” (A.P. Chekhov “The Bride”).

Style I.A. Bunin (1870-1953) – refined, sophisticated. The writer carefully selects synonyms, the words in his works seem to be gradually strung along the thread of the plot, and the expressed feelings are distinguished by almost physiological accuracy thanks to precisely chosen words.

“On the fifth day there was an impenetrable blizzard. In the snow-white and cold farmhouse there was a pale twilight and there was great grief: a child was seriously ill. And in the heat, in delirium, he often cried and kept asking for some red bast shoes. And his mother, who did not leave the bed where he lay, also cried bitter tears - from fear and from her helplessness. What to do, how to help? The husband is away, the horses are bad, and the hospital, the doctor, is thirty miles away, and no doctor would go in such passion...” (I. Bunin “Lapti”).

The writer's idiomatic style is manifested even in the use of punctuation marks. It is known, for example, that the author’s use of dashes by M. Tsvetaeva. The dash is her favorite symbol. Tsvetaeva’s stylistic functions of the dash are very diverse. It forms the complex syntactic structure of Tsvetaeva’s verse. The intonations of her poems and special rhythms are similar to the rhythms of the heart. This reflects her unique talent and complexity of fate.

Get used to it -
And the lid!
Nourishing –
Too much.
- Three days like this and I’m ready:
- I'm starting to love cats
And merchants...
- If they choke you, I’ll forgive you.
- Tomorrow I will baptize my daughter:
It’s all the same to me, but to her -
To her - goals.

For Tsvetaeva, punctuation marks are filled with no less, and sometimes even more, meaning than words. Tsvetaeva’s dash occurs during repetition, when it separates two identical words after a period within a line. Sometimes Tsvetaeva’s dashes help create an effect reminiscent of a quick change close-ups in cinema. For example, the poem “Train of Life”:

Area. - And sleepers. - And the last bush
In hand. - I'm letting go. - Late
Hold on. - Sleepers. - From so many lips
Tired. - I look at the stars.

Trails

Trope is a word or expression used figuratively to enhance the imagery of language, artistic expressiveness speech. Trails are widely used in literary works, oratory, and sometimes in everyday speech. The term comes from the ancient Greek τρόπος - turnover.

Main types of trails

Metaphor

Metaphor (from the ancient Greek μεταφορά - “transfer”, “figurative meaning”) is a word or expression used in a figurative meaning, i.e. transfer of a name from one object (phenomenon, action, sign) to another based on their similarity.

Book hunger does not go away: products from the book market increasingly turn out to be stale - they have to be thrown away without even trying.

A metaphor can introduce an element of evaluation into a word. So if we say straight line or crooked line, then the line assessment will be neutral. What if we say crooked smile, then we get a negative estimate.
There are also author’s metaphors:

Nature's clear smile through a dream meets morning of the year (A.S. Pushkin)

Metonymy

Metonymy (from the Greek metõnymia - “renaming”) is the transfer of a name from one object (phenomenon, action) to another based on their contiguity. Metonymy should not be confused with metaphor, because metonymy is based on replacing words “by contiguity” (part instead of the whole or vice versa, representative of a class instead of the whole class or vice versa, container instead of content or vice versa, etc.), and metaphor is based on “by similarity.” The meaning of metonymy is that it identifies a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace the others.

Moscow sings, filled with lights! (E. Dolmatovsky).
Bucket splashed.

Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a type of metonymy. Synecdoche (from the ancient Greek συνεκδοχή) - ratio. Stylistic device, the name of the particular instead of the general and vice versa.

"We all look at Napoleons"(A.S. Pushkin).
“Most of all, take care a penny"(N.V. Gogol) - instead of money.

Epithet

Epithet (from the ancient Greek ἐπίθετον - “attached”) is a bright, colorful definition. Expressed mainly by an adjective (also an adverb, noun, numeral): Mother Volga, wind-tramp, bright eyes, damp earth, etc.
An epithet is a very common trope in literature; without epithets it is difficult to imagine a work of art, especially poetry.

Under blue skies
Magnificent carpets,
Glistening in the sun, the snow lies;
Transparent the forest alone turns black,
And the spruce turns green through the frost,
And the river glitters under the ice.
A.S. Pushkin

Hyperbola

Hyperbole (from the Greek Hyperbole) is an obvious and deliberate exaggeration in order to enhance expressiveness and emphasize the idea being said.

For example:
I've said this a thousand times.
We have enough food for six months.

“...a rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper”
N.V. Gogol

My love,
like the apostle at the time,
I will destroy roads across a thousand thousand...
V. V. Mayakovsky

And I swear - I will be the last bastard! –
Don't lie, don't drink - and I will forgive the betrayal!
And I will give you the Bolshoi Theater
And the Small Sports Arena!
V. Vysotsky

Hyperbole is used especially often in satire. Satire in Russia began to develop back in the 18th century. Most vivid images satire in Russian XIX literature V. are represented by the works of A. S. Griboyedov, N. V. Gogol, A. V. Sukhovo-Kobylin, N. A. Nekrasov and especially the work of M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. The satire of A.P. Chekhov is calm and laconic.

Litotes

Litota, litotes (from the ancient Greek λιτότης - simplicity, smallness, moderation) - understatement or deliberate softening.

A person's life is one moment.
Many litotes are phraseological units: “snail’s pace”, “at a stone’s throw”, “the cat cried for money”, “the sky seemed like a sheepskin”.

Litotes is used in folk and literary fairy tales: “Tom-thumb”, “little-man-nail”, “thumbelina-girl”.

In A. S. Griboedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit” Molchalin says:
Your Pomeranian is a lovely Pomeranian, no bigger than a thimble!
I stroked him all over; like silk wool!

“Such a small mouth that it can’t miss more than two pieces” (N.V. Gogol “Nevsky Prospekt”).

Comparison

Comparison is like this artistic device(trope), in which one object or phenomenon is compared to another according to some characteristic common to them.

As if covered with a veil, all nature was hiding behind a transparent matte haze (A.P. Chekhov).
The cat walked around the house and garden, as owner and caretaker(K. Paustovsky).

Allegory

Allegory (from the ancient Greek ἀλληγορία - allegory) is an artistic representation of ideas or concepts through a specific artistic image or dialogue.
Most often, allegory is used in parables, fables, and poems.
An example of an allegory is human age, which is associated with 4 seasons: childhood - spring; youth - summer; maturity – autumn; old age - winter.
Everyone remembers I.A.’s fables well. Krylov, in which human vices are allegorically shown. Allegorical (allegorical) are the novels “Penguin Island” by Anatole France or “War with the Newts” by Karel Capek.

Personification (personification)

Personification (from Lat. persona “face”, Lat. facio “I do” - personification). Attributing properties and characteristics of animate objects to inanimate ones.

S.A. Yesenin was a Russian man close to nature, he knew and understood nature well, which is why there are especially many personifications in his poems.

The grove dissuaded golden
Birch, cheerful language,
AND cranes, sadly flying by,
Already don't regret about no one else.

Whom should I feel sorry for? After all, everyone in the world is a wanderer -
He will pass, come in and leave the house again.
About all those who have passed away hemp tree dreams
With a wide moon over the blue pond.
S. Yesenin

Try to find the personifications yourself in this poem by S. Yesenin:

The fields are compressed, the groves are bare,
Water causes fog and dampness.
Wheel behind the blue mountains
The sun went down quietly.

The dug-up road sleeps.
Today she dreamed
Which is very, very little
We have to wait for the gray winter.

Oh, and I myself am in the ringing thicket
I saw this in the fog yesterday:
Red moon as a foal
He harnessed himself to our sleigh.

Irony

Irony (from the ancient Greek εἰρωνεία “pretense”) is a satirical device in which the true meaning is hidden or contradicts the obvious meaning. The purpose of irony is to create the feeling that the subject of discussion is not what it seems.
To achieve an ironic meaning, you can use words in a negative sense, exactly the opposite of the literal one: “Well, you’re brave!”, “Smart, smart...”. Here positive statements have negative connotations.
“Where can we fools drink tea?” An ironic worldview is a very valuable thing. This is a state of mind that allows you not to take common statements and stereotypes on faith and not to take various “generally accepted values” too seriously.

Sarcasm

Sarcasm (Greek σαρκασμός, literally “tearing flesh”) is a caustic mockery, one of the types of satire, the highest degree of irony, based on enhanced contrast and the immediate deliberate exposure of a flaw.

If a patient really wants to live, doctors are powerless (Faina Ranevskaya).
Only the Universe and human stupidity are infinite. Although I have doubts about the first one (Albert Einstein).